Relevant bibliographies by topics / African American soldiers United States

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  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
  4. Book chapters
  5. Conference papers
  6. Reports

Academic literature on the topic 'African American soldiers United States'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 11 February 2022

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Journal articles on the topic "African American soldiers United States"

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Adeshkin, Ilya Nikolaevich. "The participation of African Americans in the American Expeditionary Forces during the World War I." Genesis: исторические исследования, no. 5 (May 2021): 57–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.25136/2409-868x.2021.5.35717.

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This article examines the participation of African Americans in the World War I in the ranks of the American Expeditionary Forces in Europe during the 1917 – 1918. The author studies the attitude of the African-American community towards participation in the World War I, describes the peculiarities of military service of African American soldiers in the American Expeditionary Forces, and reveals the manifestations of racial discrimination. The article also reviews the attitude of French soldiers and officers towards African American soldiers of the U. S. Army, analyzes the impact of the acquired combat experience and sociocultural interaction with foreign soldiers upon the activity of African American population in fighting for their rights and freedoms in the United States. In Russian historiography, the participation of African Americans in the American Expeditionary Forces during the World War I, peculiarities of their service, and the impact of war on self-consciousness of this category of military servicemen have not previously become the subject of special research. Based on the article. The conclusion is made that the attitude of African American community towards participation in the World War I was quite ambiguous. Their soldiers faced different forms of discrimination during their military service: they could not serve in the Marine Corps and other elite units, and most of the time were engaged in the rear. A different experience received African American soldiers from the units transferred under the leadership of the French Army, whose officers treated them with respect; the blood shed for their country, combat experience and respectful of the allies enhanced desire of the African Americans to gain equal civil rights and freedoms in their homeland.
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Bolzenius, Sandra. "Asserting Citizenship: Black Women in the Women’s Army Corps (wac)." International Journal of Military History and Historiography 39, no. 2 (October 10, 2019): 208–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/24683302-03902004.

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Military service has long been seen as one of the few routes available to African American men to demonstrate their rights to full citizenship. In 1942, the Women’s Army Corps (wac) opened this path for black women. More than 6,500 black Wacs served during the Second World War, yet, marginalized while in uniform and later overshadowed in narratives of black servicemen and white servicewomen, they and their unique experiences remain largely unknown outside of academia. This article examines the multiple subordinate positions to which the United States Army confined black Wacs, as black female soldiers, during the first years of the corps; investigates the army’s gender and racial policies and their civilian and military roots; and forefronts the actions of black Wacs who, by challenging their subordination, laid claim to their full rights as soldiers and as citizens.
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Diamond, Jeff. "African-American Attitudes towards United States Immigration Policy." International Migration Review 32, no. 2 (1998): 451. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2547191.

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Diamond, Jeff. "African-American Attitudes towards United States Immigration Policy." International Migration Review 32, no. 2 (June 1998): 451–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/019791839803200207.

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Williams, Karen Jaynes, Martha A. Hargraves, and Keith C. Norris. "Book Reviews: African American Health in the United States." Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health 11, no. 2 (August 2, 2008): 143–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10903-008-9168-9.

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Schiel, Rebecca, Jonathan Powell, and Ursula Daxecker. "Peacekeeping Deployments and Mutinies in African Sending States." Foreign Policy Analysis 16, no. 3 (April 23, 2020): 251–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/fpa/oraa011.

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Abstract Research on host-country effects of peacekeeping deployments has highlighted destabilizing consequences for contributing states, suggesting that deployments can increase the willingness and ability of soldiers to mutiny or attempt coups. Yet others expect that peacekeeping contributions may bring a variety of benefits, including improved civilian control of the armed forces. We reconcile these conflicting assessments in two ways. First, we identify important differences across peacekeeping organizations. Missions undertaken by the United Nations (UN) are generally better funded and equipped, invoke selection criteria that should produce fewer grievances than missions operated by regional organizations, and may be more risk averse. The benefits or hazards of peacekeeping can thus vary substantially, leading to different consequences for organizations. Second, the pros and cons of peacekeeping can incentivize mutinies and coups differently. When grievances are present, financial incentives of peacekeeping may prompt soldiers to prefer mutiny over coups to avoid being disqualified from future participation. We assess these expectations for African states’ participation in UN and non-UN peacekeeping operations from 1990 to 2011. We find no evidence that UN peacekeeping deployments increase mutiny risk, while non-UN deployments have a positive effect on the occurrence of mutiny. These findings remain robust across a large number of model specifications.
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Kieh, George Klay. "The American style of development aid to Liberia." Africanus: Journal of Development Studies 44, no. 2 (January 30, 2015): 33–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.25159/0304-615x/71.

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There is a growing corpus of literature on the critical issue of the various styles used by donors in giving development aid to recipient states in various parts of the world, including Africa, Asia, Europe and Latin America. This article seeks to contribute to the body of literature by examining the nature and dynamics of the American style of development aid to Liberia and the resulting implications for the latter’s social and economic development. Using the realpolitik model as its analytical framework, the article situates the American style of development aid giving within the broader context of Liberia-United States (US) relations. Based on this foundation, the article then interrogated the flows of US development aid to Liberia from 1946–2013. The findings indicate that the American style of aid giving is ostensibly designed to serve the economic, political, military and strategic interests of the US. In this vein, Liberia is required to serve as a foot soldier in the promotion of American national interests in the former and elsewhere. Accordingly, in terms of the implications for social and economic development, for the past six decades American development aid has not helped to advance the material conditions of Liberia’s subaltern classes. However, in order to change this situation, the US would need to rethink the realpolitik foundation of its development aid programme and the Liberian government would need to press for such a policy rethinking. However, both of these possibilities are highly unlikely, given the US’ determination to prosecute its imperial project and its clientelist relationship with the Liberian government.
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Watson, James R. "Resuscitation and Surgery for Soldiers of the American Civil War (1861–1865)." Journal of the World Association for Emergency and Disaster Medicine 1, no. 1 (1985): 76–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1049023x00032830.

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On June 2, 1862, William A. Hammond, Surgeon General of the United States Army, announced the intention of his office to collect material for the publication of a “Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion (1861–1865)” (1), usually called the Civil War of the United States of America, or the War Between the Union (the North; the Federal Government) and the Confederacy of the Southern States. Forms for the monthly “Returns of Sick and Wounded” were reviewed, corrected and useful data compiled from these “Returns” and from statistics of the offices of the Adjutant General (payroll) and Quartermaster General (burial of decreased soldiers).
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Furman, Andrew, Tom Lutz, and Susanna Ashton. "These "Colored" United States: African American Essays from the 1920s." MELUS 24, no. 1 (1999): 262. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/467923.

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Barber, John T., and Oscar H. Gandy. "Press portrayal of African American and white United States representatives." Howard Journal of Communications 2, no. 2 (March 1990): 213–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10646179009359713.

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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "African American soldiers United States"

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Thomas, Joyce. "The "Double V" was for victory : black soldiers the black protest and World War II /." The Ohio State University, 1993. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu148784688577963.

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Slay, David Henson. "New masters on the Mississippi the United States colored troops of the middle Mississippi Valley /." [Fort Worth, Tex.] : Texas Christian University, 2009. http://etd.tcu.edu/etdfiles/available/etd-05012009-121518/unrestricted/Slay.pdf.

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Higham, Bryan. "Soldiers and Civil Rights: The Impact of World War II on Jacksonville's African American Community, 1954-1960." UNF Digital Commons, 2015. http://digitalcommons.unf.edu/etd/560.

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This research explores the role of returning African American veterans in the Civil Rights Movement in Jacksonville from 1945-1960. Black World War II veterans not only faced the typical challenges of returning to civilian life, but took up the fight for equality as well. While this work acknowledges existing arguments about black veterans in the Civil Rights Movement, it emphasizes and analyzes the importance of their military benefits and experience. The mechanizing revolution that occurred in the United States military in this era had a lasting impact on the soldiers fighting as well as communities back home, Jacksonville included. This changing military dynamic necessitated an increase in support positions, meaning African American soldiers received training in various fields like combat, supply, and intelligence. This training translated into useful skills in the postwar period. The experiences of black soldiers while overseas also played a pivotal role, especially their interaction with foreign cultures. Often foreigners referred to black soldiers as "American" leaving off any racial distinction. Additionally, black veterans were able to attend college in unprecedented numbers because of their GI Bill benefits. Ernest Jackson earned undergraduate and legal degrees, and led the attack on segregation in Jacksonville. Elcee Lucas also went to school after exiting the service but used his military skills to orchestrate voter registration drives, and organize political campaigns. With their new skills and education, these men were not only able to organize and lead others but were equipped with the tools necessary to challenge the institutions that subverted their equality, greatly influencing the path of the Civil Rights Movement. Through their efforts, black veterans helped expose inadequacies with the existing structures and laws, thus adding to the justification for the later civil rights tactics that intentionally challenged and broke Jim Crow laws.
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Cunningham, Dana Claire. "African American children in the child welfare system: An American tragedy." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2001. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/1895.

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Ragon, Stephen F. "Expendable| Eight Soldiers from Massachusetts Regiments Executed for Desertion During the United States Civil War." Thesis, University of Massachusetts Boston, 2017. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=10265341.

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The written history of the United States Civil War provides limited analysis on the topic of desertion and execution for desertion in the Army of the Potomac. The specific numbers involved are well documented. With the exception of occasional narratives on the executions themselves, there is no examination of the human decisions taken; beginning with the soldier’s choice to desert. In addition, while the military court-martial trial was rigid in its structure and process, it allowed for discretion in the sentencing phase. Human choice exerted its greatest influence in the aftermath of the trial as the sentence was reviewed up through the military chain of command. Ultimately, the case would arrive at the desk of President Abraham Lincoln; the final arbitrator of life or death. Fortunately for the convicted, they had a compassionate Commander in Chief and President Lincoln personally intervened in hundreds of their cases.

There were over 200,000 incidents of desertion from the Union Armies during the Civil War. Desertion and other crimes resulted in 75,961 court-martial trials and 1,883 soldiers were sentenced to be executed. A total of 265 men were executed and 147 of those were for desertion. This paper provides a micro history of eight soldiers from Massachusetts regiments executed for desertion. They are contrasted against seven soldiers from Massachusetts regiments pardoned for the same capital crime of desertion. Extrapolating the data elements of the accused, along with their trial testimonies, allows for the identification of three major factors that influenced whether a soldier who deserted was executed or pardoned.

A second contribution to the historical record on the Civil War is the identification of the personal data elements found in these men’s lives. By consolidating these elements, such as place of birth, a profile of the typical deserter emerges. This deserter profile can be contrasted against a historically codified profile of a typical Union soldier. Ultimately, while these deserters were denigrated for their crime of desertion, they deserve to have their stories heard. In doing so, it is possible to identify who these men really were and what their role was in the United States Civil War.

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Jameson, Sarah K. "American Soldiers' Use of Weaponry in World War I." TopSCHOLAR®, 2016. http://digitalcommons.wku.edu/theses/1599.

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This thesis examines how the modern weaponry shaped the American soldiers’ use of weaponry and the change of tactics during World War I. The American experience was unique as Britain, France, and Germany grew accustomed to the advancements in weaponry over time, while the American Expeditionary Force encountered this type of warfare for the first time. The American Army served mainly as a constabulary, fighting guerilla forces before the war, and had to be trained to fight a conventional war in Europe. The common soldiers would modify official doctrine to fit the realities of the battlefield in which they found themselves.
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Mayo-Bobee, Dinah. "African American Experiences." Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University, 2012. https://dc.etsu.edu/etsu-works/730.

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Luttrull, Pamelia D. "Impact of School-Wide Positive Behavior Intervention Supports for African American Males in American Public Schools." Thesis, University of North Texas, 2014. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc699957/.

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Research has shown that African American males are performing poorly in American public schools and are disciplined at a higher rate than other ethnic and gender groups. Positive Behavior Intervention Supports (PBIS) has a long history of success with individual students and more recently in school-wide settings. School-wide PBIS offers schools the ability to tailor their rules, rewards, and consequences to the specific needs and culture of a school. This descriptive and quantitative study sought to determine if implementation with fidelity of SWPBIS positively correlated to reduced disciplinary measures. The object of this study was to determine in what ways disciplinary rates for African American males differ in American public schools that identify as using SWPBIS with fidelity as compared to American public schools that do not implement SWPBIS with fidelity. Disciplinary rates examined included ISS, OSS single incident, and OSS multiple incidents. Descriptive findings indicated that schools that implement SWPBIS show a lower rate of ISS and OSS incidents for African American males. The quantitative findings did not yield a statistically significance between schools with fidelity of implementation of SWPBIS and schools without fidelity of implementation of SWPBIS.
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Angelo, Davette. "You are what you wear: The examination of fashion leadership and general leadership among African American and Caucasian American college students." Thesis, University of North Texas, 2010. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc28387/.

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The purpose of this study was twofold. First, the study compared fashion personality characteristics and shopping behaviors of African-American and Caucasian-American college students. Secondly, this study examined characteristics of leadership in general, and fashion leadership specifically, on fashion personality characteristics. The fashion personality characteristics studied included fashion leadership, fashion involvement, shopping enjoyment, and fashion consciousness. The participants consisted of 268 African Americans and 239 Caucasian Americans from two universities in the United States. Ethnicity was found to be an influence on fashion personality characteristics and shopping behaviors in this study. African Americans in the sample were found to have higher levels of fashion personality characteristics and shopping behaviors than Caucasian Americans. Fashion leadership was found to be positively related to general leadership, fashion involvement, shopping enjoyment and fashion consciousness. General leadership was found to be positively related to fashion involvement, shopping enjoyment, fashion consciousness, academic classification level. However, there was no significant difference found between general leadership and age.
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Ade, Julius N. "Immigration and obesity in African American adults residing in the United States." ScholarWorks, 2010. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/798.

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Obesity increases risk for heart disease, hypertension and other chronic diseases, and it affects minority ethnic groups disproportionately. However, it is unknown if African American immigrant adults, an increasing segment of the population, are at higher risk for obesity than African American non-immigrant adults residing in the United States. This study examined the association of obesity and immigrant status by comparing African American immigrant adults now residing in the United States to the general population of African American adults. The socio-ecological model provided the conceptual framework for this study. This study used a cross-sectional quantitative self-administered web-based survey to collect primary data on 303 adult African American immigrants and non-immigrants residing in the United States. Data were analyzed using EpiInfo statistical software. It was hypothesized that the risk of obesity in African American adults is associated with immigration status after adjusting for other factors. The data revealed no significant relationship between obesity and immigration status in African American adults. However, binge drinking and other variables were revealed to be risk factors for morbid obesity in African American immigrants. The results impact social change by demonstrating that obesity control programs targeted at African American immigrant communities should incorporate socio-ecological risk factors. Specific interventions that could be implemented should include screening for alcohol consumption.
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Books on the topic "African American soldiers United States"

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Buffalo soldiers. New York: Twenty-First Century Books, 1993.

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Eastern National Park and Monument Association., ed. The Civil War's Black soldiers. [Conshohocken, Pa.]: Eastern National Park and Monument Association, 1996.

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M, Bielakowski Alexander, Field Ron, Field Ron, and Bielakowski Alexander M, eds. Buffalo soldiers: African American troops in the US forces 1866-1945. Oxford: Osprey Pub., 2008.

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Steward, T. G. Buffalo soldiers: The colored regulars in the United States Army. Amherst, N.Y: Humanity Books, 2003.

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Scott, Edward Van Zile. The unwept: Black American soldiers and the Spanish-American War. Montgomery, AL: Black Belt Press, 1996.

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Flanagan, Alice K. The Buffalo Soldiers. Minneapolis, Minn: Compass Point Books, 2005.

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Stovall, TaRessa. The buffalo soldiers. Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 1997.

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Stovall, TaRessa. The buffalo soldiers. Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 1997.

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Roy, Caesar A. Forgotten warriors: Black soldiers in the American Civil War. Triangle, VA: C.A. Roy, 2002.

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The Buffalo Soldiers. Broomall, PA: Mason Crest, 2003.

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Book chapters on the topic "African American soldiers United States"

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Mario, LaMothe. "The United States of Lucia." In The Routledge Companion to African American Theatre and Performance, 348–54. New York, NY : Routledge, 2019. |: Routledge, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315191225-69.

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Carter, Jacoby Adeshei. "Lecture 5: Negro Achievement in the United States." In African American Contributions to the Americas’ Cultures, 73–88. New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-56572-3_6.

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Edwards, Patricia A., and Kristen L. White. "Partnering with African American Parents in the United States." In Superdiversity and Teacher Education, 237–51. New York, NY : Routledge Taylor & Francis, 2021.: Routledge, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003038887-16.

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Carter, Jacoby Adeshei. "Lecture 4: The Negro’s Sociological Position in the United States." In African American Contributions to the Americas’ Cultures, 57–71. New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-56572-3_5.

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Sears, Christine E. "“Once a Citizen of the United States of America, But at Present the Most Miserable Slave”." In American Slaves and African Masters, 43–64. New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137295033_4.

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Lee, A. Robert. "“Do Nothing Till You Hear from Me”: Modern African American Fiction." In A Companion to Twentieth-Century United States Fiction, 109–21. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781444310108.ch9.

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Barry, Ellen M. "From Plantations to Prisons: African American Women Prisoners in the United States." In Beyond Slavery, 75–88. New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230113893_5.

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Warrick, John. "The Blacks and Its Impact on African American Theatre in the United States." In Jean Genet: Performance and Politics, 131–42. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230595439_11.

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Kanakamedala, Pratibha. "“Considered a Citizen of the United States”: George DeGrasse, a South Asian in Early (African) America." In India in the American Imaginary, 1780s–1880s, 229–43. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-62334-4_8.

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Gillam, Reighan. "But You (Don’t) Look Like an African American: African Diaspora Looking Relations between Brazil and the United States." In Race and the Politics of Knowledge Production, 99–111. New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137553942_8.

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Conference papers on the topic "African American soldiers United States"

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Holt, Yolanda F. "Sociophonetic analysis of vowel variation in African American English in the Southern United States." In 172nd Meeting of the Acoustical Society of America. Acoustical Society of America, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/2.0000453.

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Madhivanan, Purnima, Makella Coudray, Daniel Ruiz-Perez, Brett Colbert, Karl Krupp, Hansi Kumari, Kalai Mathee, and Giri Narasimhan. "P372 Bacterial vaginosis and high-risk human papillomavirus coinfection among african american women in the united states." In Abstracts for the STI & HIV World Congress (Joint Meeting of the 23rd ISSTDR and 20th IUSTI), July 14–17, 2019, Vancouver, Canada. BMJ Publishing Group Ltd, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/sextrans-2019-sti.474.

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Vidal, Adriana C., Jennifer S. Smith, Edwin Iversen, Fidel Valea, Rex Bentley, Margaret Gradison, Kimberly Yarnall, et al. "Abstract PR01: HPV genotype distribution and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia in African American and white women living in the Southeastern United States." In Abstracts: Twelfth Annual AACR International Conference on Frontiers in Cancer Prevention Research; Oct 27-30, 2013; National Harbor, MD. American Association for Cancer Research, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/1940-6215.prev-13-pr01.

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Reports on the topic "African American soldiers United States"

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Neal, Alexis A. Decline of African American Enlistment in the United States Army. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, November 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada510002.

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Jackson, Dale O. Strengthening United States National Security Through Education in the African American Community. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, April 1993. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada278361.

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Afsaruddin, Asma. NEGOTIATING VIRTUE AND REALPOLITIK IN ISLAMIC GOOD GOVERNANCE. IIIT, October 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.47816/01.002.20.

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These words of John Lewis represent a scathing criticism of the contemporary failures of the United States, the oldest and possibly most vibrant democratic nation-state in the world. The words also express a deep disappointment that the principles of equality and justice enshrined in the US constitution have been honored more in the breach when they pertain to African-Americans, many of whose ancestors arrived on these shores long before those of their Euro-American compatriots.
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Lazonick, William, Philip Moss, and Joshua Weitz. The Unmaking of the Black Blue-Collar Middle Class. Institute for New Economic Thinking Working Paper Series, May 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.36687/inetwp159.

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In the decade after the Civil Rights Act of 1964, African Americans made historic gains in accessing employment opportunities in racially integrated workplaces in U.S. business firms and government agencies. In the previous working papers in this series, we have shown that in the 1960s and 1970s, Blacks without college degrees were gaining access to the American middle class by moving into well-paid unionized jobs in capital-intensive mass production industries. At that time, major U.S. companies paid these blue-collar workers middle-class wages, offered stable employment, and provided employees with health and retirement benefits. Of particular importance to Blacks was the opening up to them of unionized semiskilled operative and skilled craft jobs, for which in a number of industries, and particularly those in the automobile and electronic manufacturing sectors, there was strong demand. In addition, by the end of the 1970s, buoyed by affirmative action and the growth of public-service employment, Blacks were experiencing upward mobility through employment in government agencies at local, state, and federal levels as well as in civil-society organizations, largely funded by government, to operate social and community development programs aimed at urban areas where Blacks lived. By the end of the 1970s, there was an emergent blue-collar Black middle class in the United States. Most of these workers had no more than high-school educations but had sufficient earnings and benefits to provide their families with economic security, including realistic expectations that their children would have the opportunity to move up the economic ladder to join the ranks of the college-educated white-collar middle class. That is what had happened for whites in the post-World War II decades, and given the momentum provided by the dominant position of the United States in global manufacturing and the nation’s equal employment opportunity legislation, there was every reason to believe that Blacks would experience intergenerational upward mobility along a similar education-and-employment career path. That did not happen. Overall, the 1980s and 1990s were decades of economic growth in the United States. For the emerging blue-collar Black middle class, however, the experience was of job loss, economic insecurity, and downward mobility. As the twentieth century ended and the twenty-first century began, moreover, it became apparent that this downward spiral was not confined to Blacks. Whites with only high-school educations also saw their blue-collar employment opportunities disappear, accompanied by lower wages, fewer benefits, and less security for those who continued to find employment in these jobs. The distress experienced by white Americans with the decline of the blue-collar middle class follows the downward trajectory that has adversely affected the socioeconomic positions of the much more vulnerable blue-collar Black middle class from the early 1980s. In this paper, we document when, how, and why the unmaking of the blue-collar Black middle class occurred and intergenerational upward mobility of Blacks to the college-educated middle class was stifled. We focus on blue-collar layoffs and manufacturing-plant closings in an important sector for Black employment, the automobile industry from the early 1980s. We then document the adverse impact on Blacks that has occurred in government-sector employment in a financialized economy in which the dominant ideology is that concentration of income among the richest households promotes productive investment, with government spending only impeding that objective. Reduction of taxes primarily on the wealthy and the corporate sector, the ascendancy of political and economic beliefs that celebrate the efficiency and dynamism of “free market” business enterprise, and the denigration of the idea that government can solve social problems all combined to shrink government budgets, diminish regulatory enforcement, and scuttle initiatives that previously provided greater opportunity for African Americans in the government and civil-society sectors.
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