Relevant bibliographies by topics / Iron Age sequence in Botswana

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Academic literature on the topic 'Iron Age sequence in Botswana'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 17 February 2022

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Journal articles on the topic "Iron Age sequence in Botswana"

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Bodiba, Molebogeng, Maryna Steyn, Paulette Bloomer, Morongwa N. Mosothwane, Frank Rühli, and Abigail Bouwman. "Ancient DNA Analysis of the Thulamela Remains: Deciphering the Migratory Patterns of a Southern African Population." Journal of African Archaeology 17, no. 2 (December 2, 2019): 161–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/21915784-20190017.

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Abstract Ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis was employed to obtain information on the population relationships of the two Thulamela individuals (AD 1400-1700) and six other skeletons from various archaeological sites of the southern African Iron Age – Tuli (Botswana), Nwanetsi, Makgope, Happy Rest and Stayt. Although sequences were short, it seems that the Thulamela female aligns somewhat more with eastern populations as opposed to the male who aligns more with western groups. This result is not surprising given that the two individuals were buried at the same site but their burials were hundreds of years apart. It was also possible to identify genetic links between the Iron Age individuals and modern southern African populations (e.g. some of the skeletons assessed showed maternal genetic similarities to present-day Sotho/Tswana groups) and to separate the samples into at least two genetic groups. Poor quality and quantity of DNA meant that only haplogroups, not subhaplogroups, of the individuals could be traced.
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Mosothwane, Morongwa N., and Maryna Steyn. "Palaeodemography of Early Iron Age Toutswe Communities in Botswana." South African Archaeological Bulletin 59, no. 180 (December 2004): 45. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3889242.

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Miller, Duncan E., and Nikolaas J. van der Merwe. "Early Iron Age Metal Working at the Tsodilo Hills, Northwestern Botswana." Journal of Archaeological Science 21, no. 1 (January 1994): 101–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jasc.1994.1011.

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Klehm, Carla E. "Local Dynamics and the Emergence of Social Inequality in Iron Age Botswana." Current Anthropology 58, no. 5 (October 2017): 604–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/693960.

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Willoughby, Pamela R., and Thomas N. Huffman. "Iron Age Migrations: The Ceramic Sequence in Southern Zambia." African Studies Review 36, no. 1 (April 1993): 141. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/525517.

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Denbow, James, and T. N. Huffman. "Iron Age Migrations: The Ceramic Sequence in Southern Zambia." South African Archaeological Bulletin 46, no. 154 (December 1991): 151. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3889099.

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Gilboa, Ayelet, Ilan Sharon, and Jeffrey Zorn. "Dor and Iron Age Chronology: Scarabs, Ceramic Sequence and14C." Tel Aviv 31, no. 1 (March 2004): 32–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/tav.2004.2004.1.32.

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Klehm, Carla E., and Eileen G. Ernenwein. "Iron Age Transformations at Mmadipudi Hill, Botswana: Identifying Spatial Organization Through Electromagnetic Induction Survey." African Archaeological Review 33, no. 1 (February 26, 2016): 45–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10437-016-9213-3.

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Wilmsen, Edwin N. "MYTHS, GENDER, BIRDS, BEADS: A READING OF IRON AGE HILL SITES IN INTERIOR SOUTHERN AFRICA." Africa 84, no. 3 (July 23, 2014): 398–423. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0001972014000370.

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ABSTRACTHomologous origin myths concerning the Tsodilo Hills in north-western Botswana, Polombwe hill at the southern tip of Lake Tanganyika in Zambia and Kaphiri-Ntiwa hill in northern Malawi are examined. Parallels are drawn between the myths, where, in the process of creation, a primal pair in undifferentiated space and time passes through a series of liminal states, thereby bringing structure to the landscape and legitimacy to society in Iron Age Central and Southern Africa. These myths narrate the instituting of social legitimacy in their respective societies based on a resolution of the inherent contradiction between the concepts of authority and power, lineage and land. The structure of rights to possession of land is examined, and the text considers the role of sumptuary goods such as glass beads and metonymic signifiers such as birds within this structure. This study examines the prominence of hilltops as the residence of paranormal power and its association with human authority, and relates this to the archaeological interpretation of the Iron Age site Nqoma (Tsodilo Hills); this is compared with Bosutswe (eastern Botswana), Mapungubwe (Shashe-Limpopo basin), and the Shona Mwari myth recorded by Frobenius as used by Huffman in his analysis of Great Zimbabwe.
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Daggett, Adrianne M. "Early Iron Age social and economic organisation in Sowa Pan, Botswana, Michigan State University, 2015." Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa 51, no. 3 (April 26, 2016): 412–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0067270x.2016.1179481.

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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Iron Age sequence in Botswana"

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Miller, Duncan. "Iron age metal working at the Tsodilo Hills, Northwestern Botswana." Doctoral thesis, University of Cape Town, 1992. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/18277.

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This study documents the metal working technology employed at two major Iron Age archaeological sites in southern Africa. The research involved the description and analysis of two large metal working assemblages with a total of 2922 metal artefacts, fragments of ore, and slag, from the sites of Divuyu (6th 8th century AD) and Nqoma (7th - 10th century AD, with a later 17th - 19th century AD occupation) in the Tsodilo Hills, northwestern Botswana. This is the first systematic description and metallographic analysis of a large collection of Early Iron Age metal artefacts from southern Africa. The artefacts were small, mainly delicate items of copper and iron jewellery, and tools possibly used in their manufacture. They were classified, described, and sampled selectively for metallographic, petrographic, and chemical analysis. Seventy artefacts were studied in detail, from which the fabrication technology employed at these sites was reconstructed. During the Early Iron Age forging, and probably also smelting, of iron took place at both sites. The smelting products were inhomogeneous iron and steel, with typical fayalitic slag, characteristic of indigenous bloomery iron production. The forging was done in an oxidising hearth and the technique used was poor, with no deliberate control over carbon content, the mechanical properties of the steel, or heat treatment other than annealing. Fabrication involved hammering square wire and flat sheets, which were cut into strips for beads, clips, chains, and fibre-cored wound ornaments. Numerous finger rings were made from crude round iron wire. Copper was worked in the same way, generally leaving the metal in its annealed state. Significant chemical variation in the copper artefacts and iron slag inclusions indicated that diverse ore sources were involved. There were stylistic similarities between individual artefacts from the Tsodilo Hills and Early Iron Age material from the Upemba Depression in Zaire, as well as with a copper chain from Broederstroom in the Transvaal. Comparison of the fabrication technology with Later Iron Age material suggested that local indigenous iron and copper working technology has changed little since its introduction in southern Africa.
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Fraser, Lu-Marie. "A zooarchaeological study of four iron age sites in North-Eastern Botswana." Diss., University of Pretoria, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/2263/60358.

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This study analyses the faunal remains of four Iron Age sites from eastern Botswana, namely Phoenix 17, Phoenix 18, Thabadimasego and Dukwe 25. Phoenix 17, Phoenix 18 and Thabadimasego date to the 9th century AD, and Dukwe 25 to the 15th century AD. The sites are significant as they date to critical time periods during which we see shifts in the socio-political organisation, towards increasing social complexity in the 9th century AD, and the establishment of powerful states in the 15th century AD. By comparing the results of Phoenix 17, Phoenix 18, Thabadimasego and Dukwe 25, it will also be possible to examine whether these sites point to regional, chronological or socio-cultural variability. Other sites in eastern Botswana together with the sites in this study, can give broad understanding into animal exploitation patterns during these time periods, specifically the relative use, social use and exploitation of animals. Understanding animal exploitation patterns can assist researchers in exploring the impact these communities had on their environment. In particular, how they reacted and responded to diverse environments, rich in wild fauna, such as the Makgadikgadi.
Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2016.
Anthropology and Archaeology
MA
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Valério, Pedro. "Archaeometallurgical study of pre and protohistoric production remains and artefacts from Southern Portugal." Doctoral thesis, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10362/7967.

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Dissertação para obtenção do Grau de Doutor em Conservação e Restauro, especialidade Ciências da Conservação
This work provides an integrated study of the ancient metallurgy in southern Portugal comprising the characterisation of 241 production remains and artefacts, mostly belonging to the Late Bronze Age (LBA) and Early Iron Age (EIA). Analytical studies involve energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (EDXRF) and micro-EDXRF to determine elemental composition, together with optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with X-ray microanalysis and Vickers microhardness testing for microstructural characterisation and hardness determination. Main results include identification of heterogeneous and immature LBA slags containing tin oxides and metallic prills (copper and bronze) with low iron contents. Additionally, relic mineral inclusions indicate co-smelting of copper ores, probably with cassiterite. Poor reducing conditions shall be responsible by lower iron contents of LBA artefacts (<0.05%) when compared with EIA artefacts (0.15-1.3%). Further features distinguish these clusters – indigenous collection is composed mostly by binary bronzes (10.0  2.5% Sn), while Orientalising collection also presents copper and leaded bronzes. Furthermore, latter binary bronzes exhibit lower tin contents (5.1  2.1% Sn) probably due to the increased use of scrap. Operational sequences usually include cycles of forging and annealing, often completed with a final hammering that hardens the artefact. Higher tin content artefacts with typologies that do not require high mechanical strength were often left as-cast evidencing some selection of alloys. Despite being poorer in tin, some EIA artefacts exhibit higher hardness due to a more efficient use of hammering and annealing cycles, suggesting that low tin contents were not a problem for this type of artefacts. Gold metallurgy analyses allow the identification of Chalcolithic gold with minor amounts of silver, while LBA and EIA gold present increased silver and copper contents, indicating the use of alloyed gold. Forging and annealing during the Chalcolithic, besides welding with partial melting/solid state diffusion during the EIA is also established.
Portuguese Science Foundation - (PTDC/HIS/ARQ/110442/2008)
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Biemond, Wim Moritz. "The Iron Age sequence around a Limpopo River floodplain on Basinghall Farm, Tuli Block, Botswana, during the second millennium AD." Diss., 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/10500/14390.

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The study encompasses the reconstruction of the Iron Age sequence around the Limpopo River floodplain on Basinghall Farm during the second millennium AD. A survey uncovered 75 Iron Age sites, including three Moritsane and ten Toutswe facies sites for the Middle Iron Age and two Early Moloko, 16 Middle Moloko (Letsibogo facies) and 43 Late Moloko grain bin platform sites for the Late Iron Age. The local settlement sequence, which is based primarily on a ceramic analysis of surficial and excavated collections, is corroborated by radiocarbon dates, a glass bead sequence and comparative data from previous studies. The borders of the Toutswe chiefdom are shown to have extended 100 km to the south, while the Eiland sequence is refined to include an Eiland, a Moritsane and a redefined Broadhurst facies. New light is also shed on the local Moloko sequence and its correlation with historical Tswana groups in south-eastern Botswana.
Anthropology & Archaeology
M.A. (Archaeology)
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Mosothwane, Morongwa Nancy. "Foragers among farmers in the Early Iron Age of Botswana? Dietary evidence from stable isotopes." Thesis, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/10539/8356.

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The thesis attempts to identify human skeletal remains of Later Stone Age (LSA) hunter-gatherers on sites associated with Early Iron Age (EIA) farmers in east central and north western parts of Botswana and to identify individuals who may have shifted between foraging and farming. Because of the sources of dietary carbon, EIA farmers were expected to have δ13C values of approximately - 8‰, which are distinguishable from those of the LSA hunter-gatherers (δ13C values of around - 17‰). Individuals who shifted from foraging to farming would have significant differences in δ13C values of bones and teeth that form or remodel at different ages and rates. In the east central, 76 humans from Toutswe sites were analysed. From the Tsodilo Hills and Okavango River there were five individuals. Animal samples from EIA contexts at of the sites mentioned above were analysed to provide reference standards necessary for the interpretation of human isotope values. Moreover, animal isotope values were used to reconstruct past environmental and climatic conditions. Two adults from N!oma appear to have shifted from a childhood subsistence based on foraging and most probably fishing to full-time farming in adulthood. The two adults from Xaro have bone collagen δ13C values associated with both foraging and freshwater fishing. Though samples are small, there is some support for the argument that some LSA foragers had adopted the farmers’ mode of subsistence during the Iron Age. Nitrogen isotope values of domestic herbivores from the east central suggest annual rainfall of about 500mm while carbon isotope results indicate heavy reliance on C4 photosynthetic grasses. Result from the north west suggest rainfall on 450mm with some degree of browsing. Morden herbivore samples from Toutswe area show that rainfall patterns have not changed but in contrast, the feeding habits of both cattle and small have changed to include significant amount of C3 photosynthetic plants. This change is attributed to the general degradation of the environment.
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Mosothwane, Morongwa Nancy. "Skeletal characteristics and population demography as reflected by materials from Toutswe tradition sites in eastern Botswana, west of the Shashe-Limpopo basin." Diss., 2004. http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-03082007-140646.

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Klehm, Carla Elizabeth. "Regional dynamics and local dialectics in Iron Age Botswana : case studies from the hinterland in the Bosutswe Region." Thesis, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/2152/25880.

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Since the 1980's, few have included sub-Saharan African in worldwide comparative discussion of complex societies. This exclusion is at the expense of challenging embedded notions of the development of complexity. The trading polity Bosutswe (700-1700 AD) at the eastern edge of the Kalahari Desert in Botswana and its surrounding region provide a perfect example of why this is important. In the Bosutswe region, complexity was not be driven by external factors, elites, or the core, but arose from local actors and out of localized contexts. During its occupation, Bosutswe became increasingly involved with long-distance trade in the Indian Ocean exchange network, linking trade from the African coast to the interior. At Bosutswe, glass beads associated with long-distance trade and local ostrich eggshell beads attest to a strong local economy supported by cattle herding, subsistence farming, and iron and bronze manufacture. This trade with Bosutswe peaked from 1200-1450 AD, when social stratification at Bosutswe became spatially and materially evident. This dissertation focuses on Bosutswe's trajectory through the point of view of two nearby settlements, Khubu la Dintša (1220-1420 AD) and Mmadipudi Hill (~550-1200 AD), to reconstruct the local economy and landscape. Expanding the concept of the polity to one situated in a landscape of human and environmental interchange provides a key comparative insight to other studies of complex societies and variable trajectories of societal development. The Bosutswe landscape and by extension Iron Age southern Africa can be conceptualized as a patchwork of landmark hilltop polity centers on a scrub desert landscape of agropastoral activity surrounded by smaller hilltop and ground sites. The local dynamic may have involved strategies by Bosutswe to mitigate environmental characteristics of low rainfall, opportunistic hunting and herding opportunities for the surrounding communities, and alliances between these communities for security in a politically unstable era. Everyday life would have involved issues about land use, as over time herders and farmers exhausted pastures, soil fertility, and firewood. Treating these early polities as landscapes of human, animal, and environmental relationships will help revise the way early complex societies are conceptualized: not as individual sites, but as local landscapes of power.
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Books on the topic "Iron Age sequence in Botswana"

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Iron age migrations: The ceramic sequence in southern Zambia : excavations at Gundu and Ndonde. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1989.

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Material knowledges, thermodynamic spaces and the Moloko sequence of the late Iron Age (AD 1300-1840) in Southern Africa. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2012.

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Duncan, Miller. The Tsodilo jewellery: Metal work from northern Botswana. Rondebosch, South Africa: UCT Press, 1996.

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Book chapters on the topic "Iron Age sequence in Botswana"

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"The iron age peoples of east-central Botswana." In The Archaeology of Africa, 424–28. Routledge, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203754245-33.

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"The Crossbow Sequence." In Brooches in Late Iron Age and Roman Britain, 196–205. Oxbow Books, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvh1dv2x.12.

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Boaretto, Elisabetta, Ilan Sharon, and Ayelet Gilboa. "RADIOCARBON DATING OF THE IRON AGE STRATIGRAPHIC SEQUENCE." In Tel Beth-Shemesh: A Border Community in Judah, 680–87. Penn State University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.5325/j.ctv1bxh427.35.

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Harding, Dennis. "Anatomy of Hillfort Enclosure." In Iron Age Hillforts in Britain and Beyond. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199695249.003.0007.

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The most conspicuous element of a hillfort is generally its perimeter works, whether rubble wall or degraded bank and ditch. Their excavation in cross-section is a means of disclosing the structural sequence, which need not correspond to the occupational sequence of the site. The next most notable feature of the enclosure is its entrance, marked by a gap or inturn in the wall or bank, and a natural causeway across the ditch. Many hillforts are the product of a complex structural sequence, reflecting successive periods of occupation and building activity. Their perimeter works may range from relatively simple palisaded enclosures to more elaborate double or multiple earthworks that may occupy as great an area as that enclosed. Though a succession of occupational phases may result in progressive enhancement of the enclosing earthworks in both scale and complexity, it would be facile to assume a progression through time from the simplest form of construction to the most elaborate. There is no a priori reason why any given configuration, univallate rampart, bivallate, or multivallate, or method of construction, palisade, wall rampart, dump rampart, could not have been chosen at any given stage of a site's use. Though there are instances where a palisaded enclosure has been superseded by a timber-framed box rampart fronted by a ditch and subsequently by a dump rampart created by enlarging and deepening the ditch, in principle there is no reason why simple dump or glacis ramparts should not have been as early as or earlier than more elaborately constructed timber-framed ramparts, being less demanding of resources and requiring no greater manpower or effort to build. In practice, however, it would be difficult to replace a dump rampart, or a timber-framed rampart that had fallen into disrepair, with a timber-framed structure without labour-intensive clearance, because of the problems presented by the horizontal ties. This doubtless accounts for the apparent absence of horizontals from rampart B at Cadbury Castle (Alcock 1972), as a result of which the structure was fatally weakened. The only practical option would be to clear out and enlarge the ditch to create a heightened dump over the debris of the earlier wall.
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"17. The Early Iron Age at Gordion: The Evidence from the Yassihöyük Stratigraphic Sequence." In The Sea Peoples and Their World, 327–61. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.9783/9781934536438.327.

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Gomes, Francisco B. "Os exotica da necrópole da Idade do Ferro do Olival do Senhor dos Mártires (Alcácer do Sal) no seu contexto regional." In Arqueologia em Portugal 2020 - Estado da Questão - Textos, 1175–87. Associação dos Arqueólogos Portugueses e CITCEM, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.21747/978-989-8970-25-1/arqa85.

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Throughout its long existence (mid-7th to mid-2nd century BCE), the Iron Age necropolis of Olival do Senhor dos Mártires (Alcácer do Sal) shows a close cultural affinity with the southern Iberian Peninsula and the Mediterranean, which can be gauged, among many other aspects, by the presence of a small assemblage of exotica (glass, carnelian, Egyptian and Punic type amulets, ivory/bone and ostrich egg shell) which likely correspond to Mediterranean or Mediterranean-type imports. In this contribution these elements are set against the backdrop of the necropolis’s sequence and analysed in light of the repertoire of imported elements known for the regional Iron Age.
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Ramos, Rui. "Um Horreum Augustano na Foz do Douro (Monte do Castelo de Gaia, Vila Nova de Gaia)." In Arqueologia em Portugal 2020 - Estado da Questão - Textos, 1305–9. Associação dos Arqueólogos Portugueses e CITCEM, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.21747/978-989-8970-25-1/arqa95.

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The archaeological excavation carried out between February 2016 and November 2018 by Era Arqueologia S.A. in the Northeast side of Monte do Castelo de Gaia, highlighted a wide occupational sequence whose genesis dates back to the 4th century BC. and that it extended until the 20th century. Of the most relevant occupations within this wide diachrony (iron age, roman and medieval), we have now chosen to focus on the one that seems most significant to us, since it is unprecedented in this geographical scope: a large rectangular building with approximately 300 square meters, dated from 30 to 15 BC that we interpret as a Horreum, which may have been built in the context of the campaigns related to the pacification of Northern Hispania undertaken by Augustus.
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Rowley-Conwy, Peter. "The Three Age System as Predator: Copenhagen and Lund 1836–1850." In From Genesis to Prehistory. Oxford University Press, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199227747.003.0007.

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We saw in the last chapter how Thomsen’s Three Age System was establishing itself as the ancient historical chronology started to fail in the 1830s. The years immediately following its publication in 1836 saw two major developments that Thomsen could never have foreseen. The first development was that three entirely separate chronologies came to maturity, and were grafted by their makers onto Thomsen’s stone–bronze–iron sequence. These chronologies were Sven Nilsson’s economic scheme of hunter-gatherers preceding farmers; Japetus Steenstrup’s environmental scheme of successive forest types; and the craniological scheme of racial replacement devised by Daniel Eschricht and Anders Retzius, and championed by Sven Nilsson. None could easily be linked to the ancient historical chronology; but since all three were based on material remains rather than literary sources, they were easier to link with Thomsen’s artefactual scheme, so they naturally gravitated towards it. Only Steenstrup’s environmental scheme provided any hint of absolute chronology—and the hint it gave was so revolutionary that Steenstrup initially lacked the confidence to make much of it. But as it became more secure, it gradually became evident that the human time depth revealed by the broadened Three Age System dwarfed the conception of ancient history. The First part of this chapter examines how these chronologies developed and then attached themselves to Thomsen’s. The second development was that, having attracted to itself these other chronologies, the Three Age System (in the hands of J. J. A. Worsaae) went over to the attack against ancient history. The second part of this chapter examines how Worsaae used archaeological excavation and data to wrest large parts of the material record from the ancient historians, by demonstrating that their use of it had been substantially inept. As a direct result, much of the ancient historical account lost its historical force and reverted to the status of literature and legend, leaving archaeology as the dominant voice speaking for the ancient past. In the later 1840s nationalist agendas were sharpening in various parts of Europe, and Worsaae used the archaeological voice to refute an aggressive historical claim by a German whose name is well-known in the Anglophone world— none other than Jacob Grimm, one of the brothers responsible for the fairy tales that are still so associated with their name.
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Reports on the topic "Iron Age sequence in Botswana"

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Hunter, Fraser, and Martin Carruthers. Iron Age Scotland. Society for Antiquaries of Scotland, September 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.9750/scarf.09.2012.193.

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The main recommendations of the panel report can be summarised under five key headings:  Building blocks: The ultimate aim should be to build rich, detailed and testable narratives situated within a European context, and addressing phenomena from the longue durée to the short-term over international to local scales. Chronological control is essential to this and effective dating strategies are required to enable generation-level analysis. The ‘serendipity factor’ of archaeological work must be enhanced by recognising and getting the most out of information-rich sites as they appear. o There is a pressing need to revisit the archives of excavated sites to extract more information from existing resources, notably through dating programmes targeted at regional sequences – the Western Isles Atlantic roundhouse sequence is an obvious target. o Many areas still lack anything beyond the baldest of settlement sequences, with little understanding of the relations between key site types. There is a need to get at least basic sequences from many more areas, either from sustained regional programmes or targeted sampling exercises. o Much of the methodologically innovative work and new insights have come from long-running research excavations. Such large-scale research projects are an important element in developing new approaches to the Iron Age.  Daily life and practice: There remains great potential to improve the understanding of people’s lives in the Iron Age through fresh approaches to, and integration of, existing and newly-excavated data. o House use. Rigorous analysis and innovative approaches, including experimental archaeology, should be employed to get the most out of the understanding of daily life through the strengths of the Scottish record, such as deposits within buildings, organic preservation and waterlogging. o Material culture. Artefact studies have the potential to be far more integral to understandings of Iron Age societies, both from the rich assemblages of the Atlantic area and less-rich lowland finds. Key areas of concern are basic studies of material groups (including the function of everyday items such as stone and bone tools, and the nature of craft processes – iron, copper alloy, bone/antler and shale offer particularly good evidence). Other key topics are: the role of ‘art’ and other forms of decoration and comparative approaches to assemblages to obtain synthetic views of the uses of material culture. o Field to feast. Subsistence practices are a core area of research essential to understanding past society, but different strands of evidence need to be more fully integrated, with a ‘field to feast’ approach, from production to consumption. The working of agricultural systems is poorly understood, from agricultural processes to cooking practices and cuisine: integrated work between different specialisms would assist greatly. There is a need for conceptual as well as practical perspectives – e.g. how were wild resources conceived? o Ritual practice. There has been valuable work in identifying depositional practices, such as deposition of animals or querns, which are thought to relate to house-based ritual practices, but there is great potential for further pattern-spotting, synthesis and interpretation. Iron Age Scotland: ScARF Panel Report v  Landscapes and regions:  Concepts of ‘region’ or ‘province’, and how they changed over time, need to be critically explored, because they are contentious, poorly defined and highly variable. What did Iron Age people see as their geographical horizons, and how did this change?  Attempts to understand the Iron Age landscape require improved, integrated survey methodologies, as existing approaches are inevitably partial.  Aspects of the landscape’s physical form and cover should be investigated more fully, in terms of vegetation (known only in outline over most of the country) and sea level change in key areas such as the firths of Moray and Forth.  Landscapes beyond settlement merit further work, e.g. the use of the landscape for deposition of objects or people, and what this tells us of contemporary perceptions and beliefs.  Concepts of inherited landscapes (how Iron Age communities saw and used this longlived land) and socal resilience to issues such as climate change should be explored more fully.  Reconstructing Iron Age societies. The changing structure of society over space and time in this period remains poorly understood. Researchers should interrogate the data for better and more explicitly-expressed understandings of social structures and relations between people.  The wider context: Researchers need to engage with the big questions of change on a European level (and beyond). Relationships with neighbouring areas (e.g. England, Ireland) and analogies from other areas (e.g. Scandinavia and the Low Countries) can help inform Scottish studies. Key big topics are: o The nature and effect of the introduction of iron. o The social processes lying behind evidence for movement and contact. o Parallels and differences in social processes and developments. o The changing nature of houses and households over this period, including the role of ‘substantial houses’, from crannogs to brochs, the development and role of complex architecture, and the shift away from roundhouses. o The chronology, nature and meaning of hillforts and other enclosed settlements. o Relationships with the Roman world
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Roscoe, S. M., and J. A. Donaldson. Uraniferous pyritic quartz pebble conglomerate and layered ultramafic intrusions in a sequence of quartzite, carbonate, iron formation and basalt of probable Archean age at Lac Sakami, Quebec. Natural Resources Canada/ESS/Scientific and Technical Publishing Services, 1988. http://dx.doi.org/10.4095/122623.

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