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1
Li, Siyu, Benito Sanz Izquierdo, Steven Gao, and Zhijiao Chen. "Analysis of 3D Printed Dielectric Resonator Antenna Arrays for Millimeter-Wave 5G Applications." Applied Sciences 14, no. 21 (2024): 9886. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app14219886.
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This paper explores the potential use of fused deposition modeling (FDM) technology for manufacturing microwave and millimeter-wave dielectric resonator antennas (DRAs) for 5G and beyond communication systems. DRAs operating at microwave and millimeter-wave (mmWave) frequency bands were simulated, fabricated, and analyzed in terms of manufacturing quality and radio frequency (RF) performance. Samples were manufactured using a 3D printer and PREPERM® ABS1000 filament, which offers a stable dielectric constant (εr = 10 ± 0.35) and low losses (tan δ = 0.003) over wide frequency and temperature ranges. Surface profile tests and microscope measurements revealed discrepancies in the dimensions in the xy-plane and along the z-axis, consistent with the observed shift in resonant frequency. Despite these variations, reasonably good agreement between RF-simulated and measured results was achieved, and the DRA array successfully covered the intended mmWave band. However, challenges in achieving high precision may restrict applications at higher mmWave bands. Nevertheless, compared with conventional methods, FDM techniques offer a highly accessible and flexible solution with a wide range of materials for home and micro-manufacturing of mmWave DRAs for modern 5G systems.
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Majed, Mohammed Bahjat, Tharek Abd Rahman, Omar Abdul Aziz, Mohammad Nour Hindia, and Effariza Hanafi. "Channel Characterization and Path Loss Modeling in Indoor Environment at 4.5, 28, and 38 GHz for 5G Cellular Networks." International Journal of Antennas and Propagation 2018 (September 20, 2018): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/9142367.
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The current propagation models used for frequency bands less than 6 GHz are not appropriate and cannot be applied for path loss modeling and channel characteristics for frequency bands above 6 GHz millimeter wave (mmWave) bands, due to the difference of signal propagation characteristics between existing frequency bands and mmWave frequency bands. Thus, extensive studies on channel characterization and path loss modeling are required to develop a general and appropriate channel model that can be suitable for a wide range of mmWave frequency bands in its modeling parameter. This paper presents a study of well-known channel models for an indoor environment on the 4.5, 28, and 38 GHz frequency bands. A new path loss model is proposed for the 28 GHz and 38 GHz frequency bands. Measurements for the indoor line-of-sight (LOS) and non-line-of-sight (NLOS) scenarios were taken every meter over a separation distance of 23 m between the TX and RX antenna locations to compare the well-known and the new large-scale generic path loss models. This measurement was conducted in a new wireless communication center WCC block P15a at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia UTM Johor, Malaysia, and the results were analyzed based on the well-known and proposed path loss models for single-frequency and multifrequency models and for directional and omnidirectional path loss models. Results show that the large-scale path loss over distance could be modeled better with good accuracy by using the simple proposed model with one parameter path loss exponent PLE (n) that is physically based to the transmitter power, rather than using the well-known models that have no physical base to the transmitted power, more complications (require more parameters), and lack of anticipation when explaining model parameters. The PLE values for the LOS scenario were 0.92, 0.90, and 1.07 for the V-V, V-H, and V-Omni antenna polarizations, respectively, at the 28 GHz frequency and were 2.30, 2.24, and 2.40 for the V-V, V-H, and V-Omni antenna polarizations, respectively, at the 38 GHz frequency.
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Dilli, Ravilla. "Performance analysis of multi user massive MIMO hybrid beamforming systems at millimeter wave frequency bands." Wireless Networks 27, no. 3 (2021): 1925–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11276-021-02546-w.
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AbstractMillimeter-wave (mmWave) and massive multi-input–multi-output (mMIMO) communications are the most key enabling technologies for next generation wireless networks to have large available spectrum and throughput. mMIMO is a promising technique for increasing the spectral efficiency of wireless networks, by deploying large antenna arrays at the base station (BS) and perform coherent transceiver processing. Implementation of mMIMO systems at mmWave frequencies resolve the issue of high path-loss by providing higher antenna gains. The motivation for this research work is that mmWave and mMIMO operations will be much more popular in 5G NR, considering the wide deployment of mMIMO in major frequency bands as per 3rd generation partnership project. In this paper, a downlink multi-user mMIMO (MU-mMIMO) hybrid beamforming communication system is designed with multiple independent data streams per user and accurate channel state information. It emphasizes the hybrid precoding at transmitter and combining at receiver of a mmWave MU-mMIMO hybrid beamforming system. Results of this research work give the tradeoff between multiple data streams per user and required number of BS antennas. It strongly recommends for higher number of parallel data streams per user in a mmWave MU-mMIMO systems to achieve higher order throughputs.
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Mustafa, S. Aljumaily. "Routing Protocols Performance in Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks Using Millimeter Wave." International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) 10, no. 4 (2018): 23–36. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1344329.
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ABSTRACT Self-Organized networks (SONs) have been studied for many years, and have attracted many researchers due to their substantial applications. Although the performance of such networks in the lower band networks (sub-6 GHz band frequencies) has been well studied, there are only sparse studies on SON in higher frequency bands, such as the millimeter wave (mmWave) band ranges between 28GHz and 300GHz. mmWave frequencies have attracted many researchers in the past few years because of its unique features and are now considered as an important part of the next generation of wireless communications namely (5G).In this paper, we study the performance of some well-known routing protocols in the case of mmWave Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANET) using the ns-3 mmwave module that was developed recently. SONs are within the goals for the next release of the 3GPP New Radio (NR) standardization process (Release-16) for the 5G, which makes the study of the behavior of such frequency bands for these networks an important activity towards achieving such goal. Mathematical and simulation results show a great improvement in the routing protocols delivery rates and power consumption when using mmWave compared to the sub6GHz band frequencies.
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Othman, Bzhar Rahman, Thuraya Mahmood Alqaradaghi, and Araz Sabir Ameen. "Coverage Analysis and Proposed Cell Sizes to Enhance the Performance of the 5G Cellular System." Tikrit Journal of Engineering Sciences 31, no. 2 (2024): 82–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.25130/tjes.31.2.8.
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The global demand for more digital data motivates the evolution of mobile communication systems from 2G and 3G to 4G and 5G to support high data rate applications. The International Mobile Telecommuication-2020 (IMT-2020) defined the minimum technical performance requirements and guidelines for evaluating the 5G mobile cellular system. The New Radio (NR) millimeter wave (mmWave) and massive Multiple Input Multiple Output (mMIMO) antenna systems are technologies used in the 5G cellular system. Therefore, this paper studies the performance of the mmWave system combined with the mMIMO antenna system using the IMT-2020 channel model in a dense urban microenvironment, considering different frequency bands and numbers of elements at the Base Station (BS) antenna array. The performance is evaluated through system-level simulation in terms of Signal power to Noise power Ratio (SNR), Spectral Efficiency (SE), and cell edge user SE. A cell size reduction technique is proposed to meet the target requirements set by IMT-2020. Simulation results showed that the sub. 6 GHz frequency bands achieve the target SE of IMT-2020, while in the mmWave frequency range, the target SE requirement can be achieved using a high number of antenna elements at the BS antenna for some frequency bands.
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Rodríguez-Corbo, Fidel Alejandro, Leyre Azpilicueta, Mikel Celaya-Echarri, et al. "Deterministic 3D Ray-Launching Millimeter Wave Channel Characterization for Vehicular Communications in Urban Environments." Sensors 20, no. 18 (2020): 5284. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20185284.
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The increasing demand for more sensors inside vehicles pursues the intention of making vehicles more “intelligent”. In this context, the vision of fully connected and autonomous cars is becoming more tangible and will turn into a reality in the coming years. The use of these intelligent transport systems will allow the integration of efficient performance in terms of route control, fuel consumption, and traffic administration, among others. Future vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communication will require a wider bandwidth as well as lower latencies than current technologies can offer, to support high-constraint safety applications and data exhaustive information exchanges. To this end, recent investigations have proposed the adoption of the millimeter wave (mmWave) bands to achieve high throughput and low latencies. However, mmWave communications come with high constraints for implementation due to higher free-space losses, poor diffraction, poor signal penetration, among other channel impairments for these high-frequency bands. In this work, a V2X communication channel in the mmWave (28 GHz) band is analyzed by a combination of an empirical study and a deterministic simulation with an in-house 3D ray-launching algorithm. Multiple mmWave V2X links has been modeled for a complex heterogeneous urban scenario in order to capture and analyze different propagation phenomena, providing full volumetric estimation of frequency/power as well as time domain parameters. Large- and small-scale propagation parameters are obtained for a combination of different situations, taking into account the obstruction between the transceivers of vehicles of distinct sizes. These results can aid in the development of modeling techniques for the implementation of mmWave frequency bands in the vehicular context, with the capability of adapting to different scenario requirements in terms of network topology, user density, or transceiver location. The proposed methodology provides accurate wireless channel estimation within the complete volume of the scenario under analysis, considering detailed topological characteristics.
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Iradier, Gil Eneko, Aritz Abuin, Alvarez Rufino Reydel Cabrera, et al. "Advanced NOMA-based RRM schemes for broadcasting in 5G mmWave frequency bands." IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting 68, no. 1 (2021): 143–55. https://doi.org/10.1109/TBC.2021.3128049.
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A relevant solution for the high demand for new multimedia applications and services is millimeter wave (mmWave) frequency band in 5G. However, in order to face the technological challenges of the present and those that will appear in the short-term future, it is necessary to improve the spectral efficiency of 5G systems. In particular, the Radio Resource Management (RRM) module is considered an essential component. Nevertheless, resource allocation techniques that combine orthogonal multiplexing (OMA) schemes, such as Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), with Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA) techniques have not been studied in-depth. Therefore, this article designs and evaluates different RRM models that combine TDMA with NOMA for innovative applications in the 5G mmWave frequency bands. To this end, the advantages and challenges associated with mmWave frequency bands and potential future applications are introduced. An innovative use case has been designed to test the RRM models. The use case is based on the on-demand distribution of multimedia content in high-density environments, such as museum halls. The on-demand content aims at offering Augmented Reality (AR) services to unicast users in order to provide personalized services. The models have been evaluated in terms of throughput, capacity, and availability. According to the results, the combined RRM techniques offer up to 50% more capacity than the single multiplexing technology models and can provide video-on-demand service to practically the entire cell.
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Obeidat, Huthaifa. "Investigations on Millimeter-Wave Indoor Channel Simulations for 5G Networks." Applied Sciences 14, no. 19 (2024): 8972. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app14198972.
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Due to the extensively accessible bandwidth of many tens of GHz, millimeter-wave (mmWave) and sub-terahertz (THz) frequencies are anticipated to play a significant role in 5G and 6G wireless networks and beyond. This paper presents investigations on mmWave bands within the indoor environment based on extensive simulations; the study considers the behavior of the omnidirectional and directional propagation characteristics, including path loss exponents (PLE) delay spread (DS), the number of clusters, and the number of rays per cluster at different frequencies (28 GHz, 39 GHz, 60 GHz and 73 GHz) in both line-of-sight (LOS) and non-LOS (NLOS) propagation scenarios. This study finds that the PLE and DS show dependency on frequency; it was also found that, in NLOS scenarios, the number of clusters follows a Poisson distribution, while, in LOS, it follows a decaying exponential distribution. This study enhances understanding of the indoor channel behavior at different frequency bands within the same environment, as many research papers focus on single or two bands; this paper considers four frequency bands. The simulation is important as it provides insights into omnidirectional channel behavior at different frequencies, essential for indoor channel planning.
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Mothana, L. Attiah, Awang Md Isa Azmi, Zakaria Zahriladha, Fadzilah Abdullah Nor, Ismail Mahamod, and Nordin Rosdiadee. "Adaptive Multi-state Millimeter Wave Cell Selection Scheme for 5G communications." International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering (IJECE) 8, no. 5 (2018): 2967–78. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijece.v8i5.pp2967-2978.
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Millimeter wave bands have been introduced as one of the most promising solutions to alleviate the spectrum secrecy in the upcoming future cellular technology (5G) due the enormous amount of raw bandwidth available in these bands. However, the inherent propagation characteristics of mmWave frequencies could impose new challenges i.e. higher path loss, atmospheric absorption, and rain attenuation which in turn increase the outage probability and hence, degrading the overall system performance. Therefore, in this paper, a novel flexible scheme is proposed namely Adaptive Multi-State MmWave Cell Selection (AMSMC-S) through adopting three classes of mmWave base stations, able to operate at various mmWave carrier frequencies (73, 38 and 28 GHz). Two mmWave cellular Grid-Based cell deployment scenarios have been implemented with two inter-site-distances 200 m and 300 m, corresponding to target area of (2.1 km<sup>2</sup>) and (2.2 km<sup>2</sup>). The maximum SINR value at the user equipment (UE) is taken in to consideration to enrich the mobile user experience. Numerical results show an improvement of overall system performance, where the outage probability reduced significantly to zero while maintaining an acceptable performance of the 5G systems with approximately more than 50% of the mobile stations with more than 1Gbps data rate.
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Tamunotonye, Sotonye Ibanibo, and Iyaminapu Iyoloma Collins. "Enhancing User Association to mmWave with Network Slicing and QoS Prioritization from Sub-6 GHz Bands." International Journal of Current Science Research and Review 08, no. 02 (2025): 688–94. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14830704.
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Abstract : In order to increase network capacity and user experience, a move toward millimeter-wave spectrum use has become necessary due to the constraints of sub-6 GHz frequencies and the rising demand for mobile data. In this paper, we propose a mathematical framework to dynamically improve user association with mmWave bands using network slicing and Quality of Service (QoS) priority. A utility maximization algorithm that balances user demand, network load, and signal quality across accessible spectrum bands is one of the multi-tier optimization techniques used in the suggested model. Optimal changeover locations from sub-6 GHz to mmWave are predicted using a Markov Decision Process (MDP) based on environmental factors and real-time user mobility. According to simulation data, under conditions of peak demand, this technique can improve user offload to mmWave by up to 50% while reducing congestion on sub-6 GHz bands by 30%. Furthermore, QoS priority ensures that customers encounter the least amount of disturbance when switching between frequency tiers by improving latency-sensitive application performance by an average of 20%. These results demonstrate how network slicing in conjunction with QoS-driven regulations can optimize network capacity, dynamically balance frequency allocation, and guarantee uninterrupted connectivity for next-generation mobile networks.
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Samad, Md Abdus, Dong-You Choi, and Kwonhue Choi. "Path Loss Investigation in Hall Environment at Centimeter and Millimeter-Wave Bands." Sensors 22, no. 17 (2022): 6593. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s22176593.
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The millimeter-wave (mmWave) frequency is considered a viable radio wave band for fifth-generation (5G) mobile networks, owing to its ability to access a vast spectrum of resources. However, mmWave suffers from undesirable characteristics such as increased attenuation during transmission. Therefore, a well-fitted path loss model to a specific environment can help manage optimal power delivery in the receiver and optimal transmitter power in the transmitter in the mmWave band. This study investigates large-scale path loss models in a university hall environment with a real-measured path loss dataset using directional horn antennas in co-polarization (H–H) and tracking antenna systems (TAS) in line-of-sight (LOS) circumstances between the transmitter and receptor at mmWave and centimeter-level bands. Although the centimeter-level band is used in certain industrialized nations, path loss characteristics in a university hall environment have not been well-examined. Consequently, this study aims to bridge this research gap. The results of this study indicate that, in general, the large-scale floating-intercept (FI) model gives a satisfactory performance in fitting the path loss both in the center and wall side links.
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Lacruz, Jesus Omar, Rafael Ruiz, and Joerg Widmer. "MIMORPH: A General-Purpose Experimentation Platform for sub-6 GHz and mmWave Frequency Bands." GetMobile: Mobile Computing and Communications 26, no. 1 (2022): 5–8. https://doi.org/10.1145/3539668.3539670.
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With the rapid increase in performance and complexity of wireless networks, it has become challenging to build experimentation platforms that can meet such performance requirements but at the same time are comparatively easy to use and flexible. The lack of suitable platforms inspired us to build MIMORPH, a single experimentation platform that supports massive MIMO sub-6 GHz systems, ultra-high bandwidth Millimeter Wave (mmWave) MIMO, as well as mixed sub-6 GHz and mmWave configurations. It can be operated in a closed-loop manner and is intended for WLAN, 5G-NR and future 6G research. MIMORPH is built on top of standard components, such as a state-of-the-art RFSoC FPGA system and its implementation is made freely available to the research community.
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Mahdi, Asraa Kadhim. "Discovering Millimeter Wave Technology forNext-Generation (5g) Communication: A Review." Al-Furat Journal of Innovations in Electronics and Computer Engineering 3, no. 2 (2024): 405–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.46649/fjiece.v3.2.26a.5.6.2024.
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Millimeter Wave (mmWave) frequencies, a factor of the electromagnetic spectrum, provide a varied array of frequency bands that can be connected for the development of 5G mobile communication technologies. These frequency bands proposal a substantial view for advancing data transfer rates and network capacity inside the area of wireless communication. However, the employment of mmWave technology faces numerous challenges and obstacles that must be fixed. One of the key challenges relates to propagation losses, which have the possible to disturb the effectiveness of signal propagation over unlimited distances. Furthermore, accomplishing accurate beam alignment represents a vital obstacle in guaranteeing precise signal transmission between transmitters and receivers, thus optimizing the total efficiency of 5G infrastructures. An additional difficulty to be overcame is the existence of signal reflection paths, which may result in interference and signal decline if not effectively managed. In conflict, technique similar to beamforming policies is vital progression revealing the potential of mmWave which is utilize many antennas operating together and automatically instruction and intensive the signal to the selected recipient with notable precision. In addition,participating phased antenna arrays as improvements in antenna technology and reduced antennas and integrated circuits is extra advancement in 5G technology. Furthermore, scattering applications challenging high precision as a result of the high-frequency nature of mmWave and realizing multi-gigabit-per-second has the beneficial comprise the possible for maximum-capacity wireless broadcast at high data rates. The determination of these challenges is authoritative for revealing the comprehensive potential of mmWave technology and exploiting on the advantages it can offer to the realmfield of mobile communications.
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Ibwe, Kwame S. "Joint Modeling for MC-TDMA and Beamforming in mmWave Communications." Tanzania Journal of Science 51, no. 1 (2025): 115–34. https://doi.org/10.4314/tjs.v51i1.9.
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The increasing demand for ultra-high data rates and low-latency communication in next-generation wireless networks has led to the exploration of millimeter-wave (mmWave) frequency bands. These frequency bands offer significant bandwidth but are challenged by severe path loss, high susceptibility to blockage, and complex channel conditions. To address these challenges, a joint system modeling framework that integrates multicarrier time-division multiple access (MC-TDMA) with beamforming techniques is introduced. This study presents an analytical model that combines MC-TDMA’s flexible time-slot allocation with the high directionality and interference mitigation capabilities of beamforming, tailored to the unique characteristics of mmWave channels. Two optimization algorithms are proposed based on dynamic resource allocations for time slot allocations and hybrid beamforming respectively. Simulations experiments are performed under realistic propagation conditions, considering number of base station antennas, radio frequency (RF) chains, number of users and channel paths. Results demonstrate superior performance over existing schemes. The proposed schemes are verified to have smaller spectral efficiency gaps when compared to the fully-digital beamforming method. The findings offer a practical solution for high-capacity, low-latency communication in dense and dynamic mmWave environments, paving the way for more efficient next-generation networks design.
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Park, Eunyoung, and Sangkil Kim. "Design and Analysis of a TEM Mode Rectangular Coaxial Waveguide for Mobile 5G Millimeter Wave Antenna Module Applications." Journal of Electromagnetic Engineering and Science 20, no. 3 (2020): 169–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.26866/jees.2020.20.3.169.
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In this paper, design and analysis of a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) mode rectangular coaxial waveguide for a mobile 5G millimeter wave (mmWave) antenna module are presented. General structures of 5G radio frequency (RF) module for mobile sub-6 GHz and mmWave applications are also discussed in this paper. Thorough analysis of transmission line and waveguide structures at mmWave frequency band is essential and fundamental information to design highly integrated RF front-end modules. Theoretical design equations of the waveguide, such as impedance, loss, and radiation are presented, and the equations are verified by a full wave 3D FEM electromagnetic simulator. Impedance value of the rectangular waveguide structure was calculated using the conformal mapping method. Theoretical operation frequency bandwidth and design guide are also presented. The characteristics and analysis of the rectangular coaxial waveguide structure presented in this paper is easily scalable to other frequency bands. The proposed design equations are also applicable to various planar layer-by-layer integrated circuit (IC) or module manufacturing process.
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Abdulwahid, Maan M., and Noraldeen B. Mohammed Wasel. "Optimum AP Estimation Location for the communication of different mmWave bands." Informatica : Journal of Applied Machines Electrical Electronics Computer Science and Communication Systems 01, no. 01 (2020): 44–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.47812/ijamecs2010107.
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Millimeter wave (mmWave) has been known to be the most promising technology for the future of wireless communication. It uses directional antenna for both transmitters and receivers to minimize its higher attenuation characteristics. Different localization approaches take the advantages of these directionality features in mmWave frequencies for different indoor environment. As a result, understanding the best position for AP's implementation has a huge effect on enhancing certain areas of network activity, maintenance, and coverage. In addition, establish the behavioral features of the wireless network. For localization purposes, the most used method was based on calculations of obtained signal intensity (RSS), which is commonly used in the wireless network. As well as it can be easily accessed from different operating systems. In this paper, we proposed an optimal AP localization algorithm based on RSS measurement obtained from different received points and by using mmWave bands of 28 and 39 GHz. This algorithm works as a complementary to the results obtained from 3D Ray tracing model based wireless InSite software. Four AP locations per each selected mmWave band have been included for algorithm investigation. Results obtained illustrate utility in selecting the appropriate position for the implementation of AP and based on the estimation of various parameters by the algorithm presented. The effects of different building materials and frequency sensitivity materials on signal propagation have been considered with specifying the optimum location for deploying AP. In addition, in this article, a channel characterized based on path losses was obtained for each AP position in each mmWave band as a validation of the algorithm's selection of the optimum location.
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Al-Falahy, Naser, and Omar Y. Alani. "Unveiling the Impact: Human Exposure to Non-Ionizing Radiation in the Millimeter-Wave Band of Sixth-Generation Wireless Networks." Electronics 13, no. 2 (2024): 246. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics13020246.
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The investigation into potential hazards linked with millimeter-wave (mmWave) radiation is crucial, given the widespread adoption of body-centric wireless sensor nodes operating within this frequency band. This is particularly pertinent in light of its envisaged use for the upcoming 5G/6G networks and beyond. As 6G is anticipated to leverage a broad spectrum, including both sub-6 GHz and mmWave bands (30–300 GHz), concerns arise regarding increased human exposure to non-ionizing radiation (NIR). This work highlights the advantages of deploying 6G in the mmWave band, focusing on evaluating human body exposure to NIR interactions. Additionally, this research aims to address mmWave NIR exposure by introducing a Distributed Base Station (DBS) network. Utilizing low-power remote antennas to extend network coverage, the DBS architecture seeks to effectively minimize NIR’s impact without compromising overall network performance. The findings underscore the significant potential of the DBS approach in mitigating NIR-related concerns associated with mmWave utilization in 6G networks.
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Kamboh, Usman Rauf, Muhammad Rehman Shahid, Hamza Aldabbas, et al. "Radio Network Forensic with mmWave Using the Dominant Path Algorithm." Security and Communication Networks 2022 (January 12, 2022): 1–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/9692892.
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For the last two decades, cybercrimes are growing on a daily basis. To track down cybercrimes and radio network crimes, digital forensic for radio networks provides foundations. The data transfer rate for the next-generation wireless networks would be much greater than today’s network in the coming years. The fifth-generation wireless systems are considering bands beyond 6 GHz. The network design of the next-generation wireless systems depends on propagation characteristics, frequency reuse, and bandwidth variation. This article declares the channel’s propagation characteristics of both line of sight (LoS) and non-LOS (NLoS) to construct and detect the path of rays coming from anomalies. The simulations were carried out to investigate the diffraction loss (DL) and frequency drop (FD). Indoor and outdoor measurements were taken with the omnidirectional circular dipole antenna with a transmitting frequency of 28 GHz and 60 GHz to compare the two bands of the 5th generation. Millimeter-wave communication comes with a higher constraint for implementing and deploying higher losses, low diffractions, and low signal penetrations for the mentioned two bands. For outdoor, a MATLAB built-in 3D ray tracing algorithm is used while for an indoor office environment, an in-house algorithmic simulator built using MATLAB is used to analyze the channel characteristics.
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Saleh, Ahmed A., and Mohamad A. Ahmed. "Performance Enhancement of Cooperative MIMO-NOMA Systems Over Sub-6 GHz and mmWave Bands." Journal of Telecommunications and Information Technology, no. 2 (June 29, 2023): 70–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.26636/jtit.2023.170023.
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In this paper, two radio links with different frequency bands are considered for base stations (BS) serving users via decode-and-forward (DF) cooperative relays. Backhaul and access links are proposed with sub-6 GHz and millimeter wave (mmWave) bands, respectively. Non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) is employed in the backhaul link to simultaneously transmit a superposed signal in the power domain, using the same band. The superposed signals, containing two signals that differ in terms of power allocation factors (PAFs), are designed for two selected DF relays in the BS. The two relays are chosen from several relays to be serviced by the BS based on a pairing algorithm that depends on different users’ circumstances. The furthest DF relay detects the incoming NOMA signal directly, while the nearest one applies successive interference cancellation (SIC) before extracting its signal. Each DF relay forwards the detected signals toward their intended users over mmWave channels. Three performance metrics are utilized to evaluate the system’s performance: outage probability, achievable throughput, and bit error rate. Comparisons between two mmWave bands in the access link (28 and 73 GHz) are made to demonstrate the superiority of the 28 GHz band in terms of the three performance-related metrics.
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Tarafder, Pulok, and Wooyeol Choi. "MAC Protocols for mmWave Communication: A Comparative Survey." Sensors 22, no. 10 (2022): 3853. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s22103853.
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With the increase in the number of connected devices, to facilitate more users with high-speed transfer rate and enormous bandwidth, millimeter-wave (mmWave) technology has become one of the promising research sectors in both industry and academia. Owing to the advancements in 5G communication, traditional physical (PHY) layer-based solutions are becoming obsolete. Resource allocation, interference management, anti-blockage, and deafness are crucial problems needing resolution for designing modern mmWave communication network architectures. Consequently, comparatively new approaches such as medium access control (MAC) protocol-based utilization can help meet the advancement requirements. A MAC layer accesses channels and prepares the data frames for transmission to all connected devices, which is even more significant in very high frequency bands, i.e., in the mmWave spectrum. Moreover, different MAC protocols have their unique limitations and characteristics. In this survey, to deal with the above challenges and address the limitations revolving around the MAC layers of mmWave communication systems, we investigated the existing state-of-the-art MAC protocols, related surveys, and solutions available for mmWave frequency. Moreover, we performed a categorized qualitative comparison of the state-of-the-art protocols and finally examined the probable approaches to alleviate the critical challenges in future research.
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Zhang, Wancheng, Linhao Gu, Kaien Zhang, Yan Zhang, Saier Wang, and Zijie Ji. "A Wideband Non-Stationary 3D GBSM for HAP-MIMO Communication Systems at Millimeter-Wave Bands." Electronics 13, no. 4 (2024): 678. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics13040678.
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High-altitude platforms (HAPs) are considered to be the most important equipment for next-generation wireless communication technologies. In this paper, we investigate the channel characteristics under the configurations of massive multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) space and large bandwidth at millimeter-wave (mmWave) bands, along with the moving essence of the HAP and ground terminals. A non-stationary three-dimensional (3D) geometry-based stochastic model (GBSM) is proposed for a HAP communication system. We use a cylinder-based geometric modeling method to construct the channel and derive the channel impulse response (CIR). Additionally, the birth–death process of the scatterers is enclosed using the Markov process. Large-scale parameters such as free space loss and rainfall attenuation are also taken into consideration. Due to the relative motion between HAP and ground terminals, the massive MIMO space, and the wide bandwidth in the mmWave band, the channel characteristics of HAP exhibit non-stationarities in time, space, and frequency domains. By deriving the temporal auto-correlation function (ACF), we explore the non-stationarity in the time domain and the impact of various parameters on the correlations across the HAP-MIMO channels. The spatial cross-correlation function (CCF) for massive MIMO scenarios, and the frequency correlation function (FCF) in the mmWave bands are also considered. Moreover, we conduct simulation research using MATLAB. Simulation results show that the theoretical results align well with the simulation results, and this highlights the fact that the constructed 3D GBSM can characterize the non-stationary characteristics of HAP-MIMO channels across the time, space, and frequency domains.
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Qamar, Faizan, MHD Nour Hindia, Kaharudin Dimyati, et al. "Investigation of Future 5G-IoT Millimeter-Wave Network Performance at 38 GHz for Urban Microcell Outdoor Environment." Electronics 8, no. 5 (2019): 495. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics8050495.
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The advent of fifth-generation (5G) systems and their mechanics have introduced an unconventional frequency spectrum of high bandwidth with most falling under the millimeter wave (mmWave) spectrum. The benefit of adopting these bands of the frequency spectrum is two-fold. First, most of these bands appear to be unutilized and they are free, thus suggesting the absence of interference from other technologies. Second, the availability of a larger bandwidth offers higher data rates for all users, as there are higher numbers of users who are connected in a small geographical area, which is also stated as the Internet of Things (IoT). Nevertheless, high-frequency band poses several challenges in terms of coverage area limitations, signal attenuation, path and penetration losses, as well as scattering. Additionally, mmWave signal bands are susceptible to blockage from buildings and other structures, particularly in higher-density urban areas. Identifying the channel performance at a given frequency is indeed necessary to optimize communication efficiency between the transmitter and receiver. Therefore, this paper investigated the potential ability of mmWave path loss models, such as floating intercept (FI) and close-in (CI), based on real measurements gathered from urban microcell outdoor environments at 38 GHz conducted at the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Kuala Lumpur campus. The measurement data were obtained by using a narrow band mmWave channel sounder equipped with a steerable direction horn antenna. It investigated the potential of the network for outdoor scenarios of line-of-sight (LOS) and non-line-of-sight (NLOS) with both schemes of co- (vertical-vertical) and cross (vertical-horizontal) polarization. The parameters were selected to reflect the performance and the variances with other schemes, such as average users cell throughput, throughput of users that are at cell-edges, fairness index, and spectral efficiency. The outcomes were examined for various antenna configurations as well as at different channel bandwidths to prove the enhancement of overall network performance. This work showed that the CI path loss model predicted greater network performance for the LOS condition, and also estimated significant outcomes for the NLOS environment. The outputs proved that the FI path loss model, particularly for V-V antenna polarization, gave system simulation results that were unsuitable for the NLOS scenario.
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Luo, Yong, Yunlong Gu, Hao Zhang, et al. "A Wideband mmWave Microstrip Patch Antenna Based on Zero-Mode and TM-Mode Resonances." Electronics 11, no. 8 (2022): 1234. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics11081234.
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Millimeter wave (mmWave) antennas for 5G communication require wide bandwidth, directional radiation patterns, low-profile design and multi-layer compatibility for module-level integration. In this paper, we introduce a method of loading shorting pins to a patch antenna to generate extra zero-modes. By merging the 2nd zero-mode, TM01 mode, 3rd zero-mode and TM20 mode in the frequency spectrum, a wide bandwidth varying from 23 to 34 GHz (relative bandwidth of 38.6%) and with a low-profile of 0.762 mm (0.07λ0, where λ0 is the wavelength at a middle frequency of 28.5 GHz) can be obtained. Based on this wideband patch antenna, a 4 × 2 antenna array is obtained with the ±40° scanning performance. Theoretical analysis, full-wave simulations and experimental performances are presented, validating the effectiveness of this method to achieve a wideband performance in a mmWave band. It can be applied to 5G communication systems using mmWave bands.
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Lai, Kexin, Jianhui Mao, Peng Zhang, and Zhou Li. "Challenges and analysis of combining FR1 and FR2 bands using 5G carrier aggregation." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2906, no. 1 (2024): 012005. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2906/1/012005.
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Abstract As 5G networks evolve to meet increasing demands for high-speed data, the integration of Frequency Range 1 (FR1) and Frequency Range 2 (FR2) bands has emerged as a key focus. While FR1 offers broad coverage, FR2 (mmWave) provides high capacity but faces challenges such as high propagation loss and susceptibility to blockage. Carrier Aggregation (CA) in 5G allows for the simultaneous utilization of multiple frequency bands, enhancing overall network capacity and performance by combining FR1 and FR2 resources. This study evaluates the effectiveness of CA in integrating FR1 and FR2 bands, comparing it to single-band operation. Simulations reveal that while CA improves overall throughput, significant differences in link capacity can lead to performance issues in specific scenarios. We propose a solution to mitigate these issues, which is validated through further simulations.
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Ali, Kadhum Abd, and Mohammed Rasool Jamal. "Low-profile frequency-reconfigurable antenna for 5G applications." TELKOMNIKA (Telecommunication, Computing, Electronics and Control) 21, no. 3 (2023): 486–95. https://doi.org/10.12928/telkomnika.v21i3.24028.
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The demand for higher data rates has increased in recent years. The reconfigurable antenna that operates in the millimeter-wave spectrum (23.5 GHz – 29.64 GHz) was developed. This design is obtained by merging a half-circle radius of 3.97 mm, and a half-ring inner radius of 4 mm. The shape is similar to the round bottom flask. Two PIN diodes are used in this design to achieve frequency reconfigurability to meet the wideband mobile communication need of the future 5G. The suggested antenna, built on Roger RT5880 substrates and properties of <em>ε</em> = 2.2 and <em>δ</em> = 0.0009, has been used as the antenna substrate. For all the resonant bands, the suggested antenna has a voltage standing waves ratio (VSWR) < 1.11. From 84 % to 92 %, the suggested structure radiation efficiency is calculated. A small antenna element has an excellent end-fire radiation pattern in the desired frequency bands. The antenna shows three reconfigurable bands, 25.17, 26.75, and 27.64 GHz, and gain (2.77-4.4) dBi. The suggested antenna is well suitable for future fifth-generation (5G) networks because of its notable features of small overall size (9.8×13×0.787) mm<sup>3</sup>, wide bandwidth, and frequency reconfigurability.
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Cao, Zhenxin, Haiyang Geng, Zhimin Chen, and Peng Chen. "Sparse-Based Millimeter Wave Channel Estimation With Mutual Coupling Effect." Electronics 8, no. 3 (2019): 358. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics8030358.
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The imperfection of antenna array degrades the communication performance in the millimeter wave (mmWave) communication system. In this paper, the problem of channel estimation for the mmWave communication system is investigated, and the unknown mutual coupling (MC) effect between antennas is considered. By exploiting the channel sparsity in the spatial domain with mmWave frequency bands, the problem of channel estimation is converted into that of sparse reconstruction. The MC effect is described by a symmetric Toeplitz matrix, and the sparse-based mmWave system model with MC coefficients is formulated. Then, a two-stage method is proposed by estimating the sparse signals and MC coefficients iteratively. Simulation results show that the proposed method can significantly improve the channel estimation performance in the scenario with unknown MC effect and the estimation performance for both direction of arrival (DOA) and direction of departure (DoD) can be improved by about 8 dB by reducing the MC effect about 4 dB.
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Iradier, Eneko, Aritz Abuin, Rufino Cabrera, et al. "Advanced NOMA-Based RRM Schemes for Broadcasting in 5G mmWave Frequency Bands." IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting 68, no. 1 (2022): 143–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/tbc.2021.3128049.
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Isogai, Ryosuke, Keitarou Kondou, Lin Shan, et al. "Challenges in Inter-UAV 60 GHz Wireless Communication Utilizing Instantaneous Proximity Opportunities in Flight." Drones 7, no. 9 (2023): 583. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/drones7090583.
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Communication using millimeter wave (mmWave) and terahertz bands between unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) is a crucial technology for the realization of non-terrestrial networks envisioned for Beyond 5G. While these frequency bands offer remarkably high-speed transmission capabilities of tens of Gbps and above, they possess strong directivity and limited communication range due to the requirement of high-gain antennas to compensate for substantial propagation loss. When a UAV employs radio of such a high-frequency band, the available communication time can be less than one second, and the feasibility of leveraging this ultra-narrow zone, which is only accessible for a short duration in a confined space, has not been investigated. This paper presents the theory behind the ultra-narrow zone in frequencies beyond mmWave and explores the data transfer characteristics at 60 GHz between two UAVs. We demonstrate the transmission of 120 MB of data within approximately 500 milliseconds utilizing the instantaneous proximity opportunity created as the UAVs pass each other. Additionally, we evaluate data transfer while the UAVs maintain a fixed distance, to sustain the 60 GHz link, successfully transmitting over 10 GB of data in the air with a throughput of approximately 5 Gbps.
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Wersényi, György. "Health issues using 5G frequencies from an engineering perspective: Current review." Open Engineering 12, no. 1 (2022): 1060–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/eng-2022-0387.
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Abstract The possible adverse health effects of electromagnetic field (EMF) exposure have been in research focus since radio waves were introduced to telecommunication. Broadcast radio systems, satellites, and mobile communication devices use different bands of the radio spectrum, antennas, modulations, and radiated power. The proliferation of cellular networks and mobile phones as user devices have brought transmitting and receiving antennas in the close proximity of the human body and the head. Hundreds of experiments have been conducted to prove and disprove adverse health effects of exposure. Literature reviews of experimental results have also followed the current developments in technology; however, an exhaustive analysis performed on the methodologies has revealed many flaws and problems. This article focuses on the latest results on frequency bands mostly used for 5G below and above 6 GHz in the mmWave band. Current results do not indicate significant health effects and responses below the current safety limits. Nevertheless, further research directions can be identified, especially for mmWave radiation.
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Iyoloma, Collins Iyaminapu, and Tamunotonye Sotonye Ibanibo. "Adaptive User Association through Signal and Power Threshold Adjustments between Sub-6 GHz and MmWave Bands." European Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science 9, no. 2 (2025): 15–19. https://doi.org/10.24018/ejece.2025.9.2.697.
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In order to satisfy the various coverage and capacity needs of next-generation wireless networks, the sub-6 GHz and millimeter-wave (mmWave) frequency bands must be integrated. However, because of their different propagation characteristics, it is still difficult to ensure effective user association between various bands. In order to dynamically balance users across sub-6 GHz and mmWave tiers, this article suggests an adaptive user association approach based on Signal and Power Threshold Adjustments (SPTA). The suggested approach maximizes network performance and minimizes service delays by optimizing user distribution using a mathematical model that takes path loss, received signal strength (RSS), and power control into account. The path loss equation is used to model the signal quality. Higher data speeds are ensured by using a threshold-based decision strategy, in which users are assigned to the mmWave band if the received power surpasses a predetermined threshold. For broader coverage, they stay in the sub-6 GHz rung otherwise. There is an expression for the utility function that maximizes system throughput while minimizing user discontent. According to simulation data, the suggested SPTA strategy outperforms static association methods in terms of throughput by an average of 35%. Additionally, while maintaining acceptable delay levels, mmWave utilization increases by 40% in high-traffic scenarios. In order to balance network load, the adaptive thresholding system dynamically reallocates users, showing notable gains in network efficiency, user satisfaction, and resource utilization. This work highlights the potential of adaptive user association driven by signal and power thresholds to support seamless connectivity in hybrid 5G and future 6G networks.
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Al-samman, Ahmed M., Tharek Abd Rahman, and Marwan Hadri Azmi. "Indoor Corridor Wideband Radio Propagation Measurements and Channel Models for 5G Millimeter Wave Wireless Communications at 19 GHz, 28 GHz, and 38 GHz Bands." Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing 2018 (2018): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/6369517.
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This paper presents millimeter wave (mmWave) measurements in an indoor environment. The high demands for the future applications in the 5G system require more capacity. In the microwave band below 6 GHz, most of the available bands are occupied; hence, the microwave band above 6 GHz and mmWave band can be used for the 5G system to cover the bandwidth required for all 5G applications. In this paper, the propagation characteristics at three different bands above 6 GHz (19, 28, and 38 GHz) are investigated in an indoor corridor environment for line of sight (LOS) and non-LOS (NLOS) scenarios. Five different path loss models are studied for this environment, namely, close-in (CI) free space path loss, floating-intercept (FI), frequency attenuation (FA) path loss, alpha-beta-gamma (ABG), and close-in free space reference distance with frequency weighting (CIF) models. Important statistical properties, such as power delay profile (PDP), root mean square (RMS) delay spread, and azimuth angle spread, are obtained and compared for different bands. The results for the path loss model found that the path loss exponent (PLE) and line slope values for all models are less than the free space path loss exponent of 2. The RMS delay spread for all bands is low for the LOS scenario, and only the directed path is contributed in some spatial locations. For the NLOS scenario, the angle of arrival (AOA) is extensively investigated, and the results indicated that the channel propagation for 5G using high directional antenna should be used in the beamforming technique to receive the signal and collect all multipath components from different angles in a particular mobile location.
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Saha, Rony Kumer, and Chaodit Aswakul. "Incentive and Architecture of Multi-Band Enabled Small Cell and UE for Up-/Down-Link and Control-/User-Plane Splitting for 5G Mobile Networks." Frequenz 71, no. 1-2 (2017): 95–118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/freq-2016-0014.
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Abstract In this paper, a multi-band enabled femtocell base station (FCBS) and user equipment (UE) architecture is proposed in a multi-tier network that consists of small cells, including femtocells and picocells deployed over the coverage of a macrocell for splitting uplink and downlink (UL/DL) as well as control-plane and user-plane (C-/U-plane) for 5G mobile networks. Since splitting is performed at the same FCBS, we define this architecture as the same base station based split architecture (SBSA). For multiple bands, we consider co-channel (CC) microwave and different frequency (DF) 60 GHz millimeter wave (mmWave) bands for FCBSs and UEs with respect to the microwave band used by their over-laid macrocell base station. All femtocells are assumed to be deployed in a 3-dimensional multi-storage building. For CC microwave band, cross-tier CC interference of femtocells with macrocell is avoided using almost blank subframe based enhanced inter-cell interference coordination techniques. The co-existence of CC microwave and DF mmWave bands for SBSA on the same FCBS and UE is first studied to show their performance disparities in terms of system capacity and spectral efficiency in order to provide incentives for employing multiple bands at the same FCBS and UE and identify a suitable band for routing decoupled UL/DL or C-/U-plane traffic. We then present a number of disruptive architectural design alternatives of multi-band enabled SBSA for 5G mobile networks for UL/DL and C-/U-plane splitting, including a disruptive and complete splitting of UL/DL and C-/U-plane as well as a combined UL/DL and C-/U-plane splitting, by exploiting dual connectivity on CC microwave and DF mmWave bands. The outperformances of SBSA in terms of system level capacity, average spectral efficiency, energy efficiency, and control-plane overhead traffic capacity in comparison with different base stations based split architecture (DBSA) are shown. Finally, a number of technical and business perspectives as well as key research issues of SBSA are discussed.
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Assiimwe, Eva, and Yihenew Wondie Marye. "A 3D MIMO Channel Model for a High-Speed Train Millimeter Wave Communication System under Cutting and Viaduct Environments." Electronics 11, no. 13 (2022): 2025. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics11132025.
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Incorporating MIMO technology with 3D geometry-based stochastic models (GBSM) is a promising channel modeling technique for 5G and beyond. These models could be extended to high-speed train (HST) environments at mmWave bands. In this paper, the proposed 3D MIMO model is composed of the line of sight component (LOS), the non-line of sight component (NLOS) from one sphere, and multiple stochastic confocal elliptic cylinders. The model is applied in the viaduct and cutting environments with a time-varying Rician K-factor. The local channel statistical properties such as the auto correlation function, stationarity distance, and the level crossing rate (LCR) are derived and thoroughly investigated at the 41GHz frequency. These properties are compared with the corresponding measured results at the same wave frequency for an HST wireless channel. There is a strong correlation between the results from the derived model and the measured results. Therefore, this model can be extended to be used for viaduct and cutting channel modeling at the mmWave band.
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Rodríguez-Corbo, Fidel, Leyre Azpilicueta, Mikel Celaya-Echarri, et al. "Millimeter Wave Spatial Channel Characterization for Vehicular Communications." Proceedings 42, no. 1 (2019): 64. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ecsa-6-06562.
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With the growing demand of vehicle-mounted sensors over the last years, the amount of critical data communications has increased significantly. Developing applications such as autonomous vehicles, drones or real-time high-definition entertainment requires high data-rates in the order of multiple Gbps. In the next generation of vehicle-to-everything (V2X) networks, a wider bandwidth will be needed, as well as more precise localization capabilities and lower transmission latencies than current vehicular communication systems due to safety application requirements; 5G millimeter wave (mmWave) technology is envisioned to be the key factor in the development of this next generation of vehicular communications. However, the implementation of mmWave links arises with difficulties due to blocking effects between mmWave transceivers, as well as different channel impairments for these high frequency bands. In this work, the mmWave channel propagation characterization for V2X communications has been performed by means of a deterministic in-house 3D ray launching simulation technique. A complex heterogeneous urban scenario has been modeled to analyze the different propagation phenomena of multiple mmWave V2X links. Results for large and small-scale propagation effects are obtained for line-of-sight (LOS) and non-LOS (NLOS) trajectories, enabling inter-data vehicular comparison. These analyzed results and the proposed methodology can aid in an adequate design and implementation of next generation vehicular networks.
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Wei, Yiqiao, and Seung-Hoon Hwang. "Optimization of Cell Size in Ultra-Dense Networks with Multiattribute User Types and Different Frequency Bands." Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing 2018 (October 18, 2018): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/8319749.
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Ultra-dense cellular networks (UDNs) represent the trend for 5G networks in dense urban environments. With the aim of exploring the optimal extent of network densification under different performance requirements and the trade-off between the network capacity and deployment cost in UDNs, a multiple-objective optimization model is proposed. This novel optimization design consists of a multiattribute user type in which users are grouped based on their propagation conditions and an infinitesimal dividing modeling method termed the ring method for network capacity dimensioning. The optimal cell size is estimated to maximize the total network capacity and minimize the deployment cost under different levels of user capacity demand. Additionally, the corresponding total network capacity and the required number of base stations are presented. Furthermore, two conventional frequency bands, 800 MHz and 1.8 GHz, and two new bands, 3.5 GHz and mmWave 28 GHz, are considered to investigate their feasibility and the potential of higher frequency bands in the 5G network.
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Aldosary, Abdallah Mobark, Saud Alhajaj Aldossari, Kwang-Cheng Chen, Ehab Mahmoud Mohamed, and Ahmed Al-Saman. "Predictive Wireless Channel Modeling of MmWave Bands Using Machine Learning." Electronics 10, no. 24 (2021): 3114. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics10243114.
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The exploitation of higher millimeter wave (MmWave) is promising for wireless communication systems. The goals of machine learning (ML) and its subcategories of deep learning beyond 5G (B5G) is to learn from the data and make a prediction or a decision other than relying on the classical procedures to enhance the wireless design. The new wireless generation should be proactive and predictive to avoid the previous drawbacks in the existing wireless generations to meet the 5G target services pillars. One of the aspects of Ultra-Reliable Low Latency Communications (URLLC) is moving the data processing tasks to the cellular base stations. With the rapid usage of wireless communications devices, base stations are required to execute and make decisions to ensure communication reliability. In this paper, an efficient new methodology using ML is applied to assist base stations in predicting the frequency bands and the path loss based on a data-driven approach. The ML algorithms that are used and compared are Multilelayers Perceptrons (MLP) as a neural networks branch and Random Forests. Systems that consume different bands such as base stations in telecommunications with uplink and downlink transmissions and other internet of things (IoT) devices need an urgent response between devices to alter bands to maintain the requirements of the new radios (NR). Thus, ML techniques are needed to learn and assist a base station to fluctuate between different bands based on a data-driven system. Then, to testify the proposed idea, we compare the analysis with other deep learning methods. Furthermore, to validate the proposed models, we applied these techniques to different case studies to ensure the success of the proposed works. To enhance the accuracy of supervised data learning, we modified the random forests by combining an unsupervised algorithm to the learning process. Eventually, the superiority of ML towards wireless communication demonstrated great accuracy at 90.24%.
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Ubia, Uduak S., Kufre M. Udofia, and Akaninyene B. Obot. "Design and Performance Analysis of Reconfigurable Millimetre-Wave Metamaterial Antenna for 5G Wireless Applications." International Journal of Advances in Engineering and Management 6, no. 10 (2024): 214–29. https://doi.org/10.35629/5252-0610214229.
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The development of fifth generation (5G) and beyond wireless technology necessitated advancements in antenna design to meet the highfrequency requirements and bandwidth demands of millimetre-wave (mm-Wave) communications. This research focused on the design and performance analysis of a reconfigurable mmWave antenna tailored for 5G applications, specifically targeting frequencies at 26, 28, and 30 GHz. Three single-band microstrip antennas were designed, simulated, and analysed based on fundamental antenna parameters, including return loss, VSWR, radiation pattern, directivity, and gain. The proposed antenna features a reconfigurable mechanism utilizing diodes to switch between different operational states, thereby modifying the antenna's bandwidth and performance characteristics. Inductance of 0.5 nH and resistance of 1Ω as well as 1 MΩ resistance were used for both ON and OFF states, respectively. When the diode was activated (ON state), the antenna achieved a bandwidth of 2.56 GHz. Conversely, in the OFF state, the antenna provided a slightly reduced bandwidth of 2.23 GHz. This reconfigurability allowed the antenna to dynamically adapt to varying communication scenarios and frequency requirements, enhancing its versatility and effectiveness in 5G networks. The design incorporated metamaterial and precise design to ensure optimal performance across the specified frequency bands. Performance metrics, including return loss, gain, and radiation patterns, have been meticulously analysed to validate the antenna's suitability for high-speed, high-frequency 5G applications. Overall, the reconfigurable mmWave antenna demonstrated significant potential in improving the adaptability and efficiency of 5G wireless communication systems, offering robust performance across multiple key frequency bands with considerable bandwidths in both diode states.
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Md Jizat, Noorlindawaty, Zubaida Yusoff, Azah Syafiah Mohd Marzuki, Norsiha Zainudin, and Yoshihide Yamada. "Insertion Loss and Phase Compensation Using a Circular Slot Via-Hole in a Compact 5G Millimeter Wave (mmWave) Butler Matrix at 28 GHz." Sensors 22, no. 5 (2022): 1850. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s22051850.
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Fifth generation (5G) technology aims to provide high peak data rates, increased bandwidth, and supports a 1 millisecond roundtrip latency at millimeter wave (mmWave). However, higher frequency bands in mmWave comes with challenges including poor propagation characteristics and lossy structure. The beamforming Butler matrix (BM) is an alternative design intended to overcome these limitations by controlling the phase and amplitude of the signal, which reduces the path loss and penetration losses. At the mmWave, the wavelength becomes smaller, and the BM planar structure is intricate and faces issues of insertion losses and size due to the complexity. To address these issues, a dual-layer substrate is connected through the via, and the hybrids are arranged side by side. The dual-layer structure circumvents the crossover elements, while the strip line, hybrids, and via-hole are carefully designed on each BM element. The internal design of BM features a compact size and low-profile structure, with dimensions of 23.26 mm × 28.92 mm (2.17 λ0 × 2.69 λ0), which is ideally suited for the 5G mmWave communication system. The designed BM measured results show return losses, Sii and Sjj, of less than −10 dB, transmission amplitude of −8 ± 2 dB, and an acceptable range of output phase at 28 GHz.
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Kim, Yeong Jun, and Yong Soo Cho. "Cell ID and Angle of Departure Estimation for Millimeter-wave Cellular Systems in Line-of-Sight Dominant Conditions Using Zadoff-Chu Sequence Based Beam Weight." Electronics 9, no. 2 (2020): 335. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics9020335.
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Millimeter-wave (mmWave) bands is considered for fifth-generation (5G) cellular systems because abundant spectrum is available for mobile broadband communications. In mmWave communication systems, accurate beamforming is important to compensate for high attenuation in the mmWave frequency band and to extend the transmission range. However, with the existing beamformers in mmWave cellular systems, the mobile station (MS) cannot identify the source (base station; BS) of the received beam because there are many neighboring BSs transmitting their training signals, requiring a large overhead. This paper proposes a new beam weight generation method for transmitting (Tx) beamformers at the BS in mmWave cellular systems during a beam training period. Beam weights are generated for Tx beamformers at neighboring BSs, so that a mobile station (MS) can estimate the source (cell ID; CID) and angle of departure (AoD) for each BS in multi-cell environments. A CID and AoD estimation method for mmWave cellular systems in a line-of-sight (LOS) dominant condition is presented using the beam weights generated by Zadoff-Chu sequence. A simulation is conducted in a LOS dominant condition to show that the performances of CID detection and AoD estimation are similar for both the proposed and conventional methods. In the conventional methods, the DFT-based beamforming weight is used for Tx beamformer at the BS and orthogonal matching pursuit (OMP) algorithm is used for AoD estimation at the MS. The proposed method significantly reduces the processing time (1.6–6.25%) required for beam training compared to the conventional method.
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Azpilicueta, Leyre, Peio Lopez-Iturri, Jaime Zuñiga-Mejia, et al. "Fifth-Generation (5G) mmWave Spatial Channel Characterization for Urban Environments’ System Analysis." Sensors 20, no. 18 (2020): 5360. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20185360.
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In this work, the channel characterization in terms of large-scale propagation, small-scale propagation, statistical and interference analysis of Fifth-Generation (5G) Millimeter Wave (mmWave) bands for wireless networks for 28, 30 and 60 GHz is presented in both an outdoor urban complex scenario and an indoor scenario, in order to consider a multi-functional, large node-density 5G network operation. An in-house deterministic Three-Dimensional Ray-Launching (3D-RL) code has been used for that purpose, considering all the material properties of the obstacles within the scenario at the frequency under analysis, with the aid of purpose-specific implemented mmWave simulation modules. Different beamforming radiation patterns of the transmitter antenna have been considered, emulating a 5G system operation. Spatial interference analysis as well as time domain characteristics have been retrieved as a function of node location and configuration.
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Saha, Rony Kumer. "3D Spatial Reuse of Multi-Millimeter-Wave Spectra by Ultra-Dense In-Building Small Cells for Spectral and Energy Efficiencies of Future 6G Mobile Networks." Energies 13, no. 7 (2020): 1748. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en13071748.
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The sixth-generation (6G) mobile networks are expected to operate at a higher frequency to achieve a wider bandwidth and to enhance the frequency reuse efficiency for improved spectrum utilization. In this regard, three-dimensional (3D) spatial reuse of millimeter-wave (mmWave) spectra by in-building small cells is considered an effective technique. In contrast to previous works exploiting microwave spectra, in this paper, we present a technique for the 3D spatial reuse of 28 and 60 GHz mmWave spectra by in-building small cells, each enabled with dual transceivers operating at 28 and 60 GHz bands, to enhance frequency reuse efficiency and achieve the expected spectral efficiency (SE) and energy efficiency (EE) requirements for 6G mobile networks. In doing so, we first present an analytical model for the 28 GHz mmWave spectrum to characterize co-channel interference (CCI) and deduce a minimum distance between co-channel small cells at both intra- and inter-floor levels in a multistory building. Using minimum distances at both intra- and inter-floor levels, we find the optimal 3D cluster size for small cells and define the corresponding 3D spatial reuse factor, such that the entire 28 and 60 GHz spectra can be reused by each 3D cluster in each building. Considering a system architecture where outdoor macrocells and picocells operate in the 2 GHz microwave spectrum, we derive system-level average capacity, SE, and EE values, as well as develop an algorithm for the proposed technique. With extensive numerical and simulation results, we show the impacts of 3D spatial reuse of multi-mmWave spectra by small cells in each building and the number of buildings per macrocell on the average SE and EE performances. Finally, it is shown that the proposed technique can satisfy the expected average SE and EE requirements for 6G mobile networks.
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Jurík, Patrik, Pavol Galajda, and Miroslav Sokol. "Realisation of High-Frequency DRO Oscillators with Mosfet Transistors for Sub-MMWAVE Band." Acta Electrotechnica et Informatica 24, no. 2 (2024): 8–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/aei-2024-0005.
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Abstract In high-frequency electronics, optimizing RF oscillators performance is essential, especially as applications reach into wide frequency bands. This article describes proposed clock generators for UWB sensor systems based on oscillators with dielectric resonator (DRO). Evaluation boards with different sizes of microstrip conductors were developed and tested, based on which new versions of boards were created. Improvements were made to integrate the DRO into a shielded box to ensure minimal external interference. The final designs demonstrated stable operation with low phase noise λ (1 MHz) = -108.805 dBc at fc = 21.732 GHz, sufficient power (3.65 dBm) and low power consumption(56 mW).
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Verma, Shekhar, Vaibhav Pandey, and Preeti Khurana. "Load Balancing using Fixed Geometric Arrangements of Fixed and Mobile Small Cells in Mili-Meter Network." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2327, no. 1 (2022): 012053. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2327/1/012053.
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Abstract The upcoming generation of cellular networks is going to make extensive use of mmWave for communication. Hence, there will be a need for small cells to counter the loss incurred due to the more energy dissipation of mmWave. Small cells contain transmitters and receivers and hence there will be the need to balance the load efficiently so that no one is overwhelmed with functions to perform while others are relatively idle. In this paper, the performance of the user association algorithm is analysed when it is subjected to different scenarios like micro-urban, macro urban, suburban and rural. these scenarios are subjected to different frequency bands of mmWave and are compared for the values of the load balancing index. The load balancing algorithm is subjected to different small cell deployment techniques and the comparison is made for best deployment strategy among Quadrature based Approach (QBA) and Random deployment. Simulation results show that the sub-urban scenario has the maximum load-balancing index. On comparing QBA and random deployment approach QBA has a higher load balancing index in the suburban and rural scenarios and random deployment has a higher load balancing index in Indoor environments.
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Hammu-Mohamed, Bilal, Ángel Palomares-Caballero, Cleofás Segura-Gómez, Francisco G. Ruiz, and Pablo Padilla. "SIW Cavity-Backed Antenna Array Based on Double Slots for mmWave Communications." Applied Sciences 11, no. 11 (2021): 4824. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app11114824.
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This paper presents a cavity-backed antenna array in substrate integrated waveguide (SIW) technology in the millimeter-wave frequency band. The proposed antenna design uses double slots as radiating elements instead of conventional single slots. The double slots allow better control in the design of the operating frequency bands of the cavity-backed antenna. The performance of the cavity-backed antennas with single and double slots is compared to assess the enhanced behavior of the double slots. As a proof of concept, a 2 × 2 array of cavity-backed antennas is designed, manufactured, and measured. Each cavity-backed antenna contains 2 × 2 double slots; thus, a 4 × 4 antenna array is considered. The experimental operating frequency band of the proposed antenna array ranges from 35.4 to 37 GHz. There is a good agreement between the simulated and measured results. The measured gain is around 17 dBi in the whole operating frequency band with a 75% total antenna efficiency.
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Moon, Jangwon, Junwoo Kim, Hoon Lee, et al. "Implementation of mmWave long‐range backhaul for UAV‐BS." ETRI Journal 45, no. 5 (2023): 781–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.4218/etrij.2023-0112.
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AbstractUncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs) have become a vital element in nonterrestrial networks, especially with respect to 5G communication systems and beyond. The use of UAVs in support of 4G/5G base station (uncrewed aerial vehicle base station [UAV‐BS]) has proven to be a practical solution for extending cellular network services to areas where conventional infrastructures are unavailable. In this study, we introduce a UAV‐BS system that utilizes a high‐capacity wireless backhaul operating in millimeter‐wave frequency bands. This system can achieve a maximum throughput of 1.3 Gbps while delivering data at a rate of 300 Mbps, even at distances of 10 km. We also present the details of our testbed implementation alongside the performance results obtained from field tests.
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Won, Hoyun, Yang-Ki Hong, Minyeong Choi, et al. "Microwave absorption performance of M-type hexagonal ferrite and MXene composite in Ka and V bands (5G mmWave frequency bands)." Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 560 (October 2022): 169523. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmmm.2022.169523.
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Elmezughi, Mohamed K., Omran Salih, Thomas J. Afullo, and Kevin J. Duffy. "Comparative Analysis of Major Machine-Learning-Based Path Loss Models for Enclosed Indoor Channels." Sensors 22, no. 13 (2022): 4967. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s22134967.
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Unlimited access to information and data sharing wherever and at any time for anyone and anything is a fundamental component of fifth-generation (5G) wireless communication and beyond. Therefore, it has become inevitable to exploit the super-high frequency (SHF) and millimeter-wave (mmWave) frequency bands for future wireless networks due to their attractive ability to provide extremely high data rates because of the availability of vast amounts of bandwidth. However, due to the characteristics and sensitivity of wireless signals to the propagation effects in these frequency bands, more accurate path loss prediction models are vital for the planning, evaluating, and optimizing future wireless communication networks. This paper presents and evaluates the performance of several well-known machine learning methods, including multiple linear regression (MLR), polynomial regression (PR), support vector regression (SVR), as well as the methods using decision trees (DT), random forests (RF), K-nearest neighbors (KNN), artificial neural networks (ANN), and artificial recurrent neural networks (RNN). RNNs are mainly based on long short-term memory (LSTM). The models are compared based on measurement data to provide the best fitting machine-learning-based path loss prediction models. The main results obtained from this study show that the best root-mean-square error (RMSE) performance is given by the ANN and RNN-LSTM methods, while the worst is for the MLR method. All the RMSE values for the given learning techniques are in the range of 0.0216 to 2.9008 dB. Furthermore, this work shows that the models (except for the MLR model) perform excellently in fitting actual measurement data for wireless communications in enclosed indoor environments since they provide R-squared and correlation values higher than 0.91 and 0.96, respectively. The paper shows that these learning methods could be used as accurate and stable models for predicting path loss in the mmWave frequency regime.
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Rubio, Lorenzo, Vicent M. Rodrigo Peñarrocha, Marta Cabedo-Fabres, et al. "Millimeter-Wave Channel Measurements and Path Loss Characterization in a Typical Indoor Office Environment." Electronics 12, no. 4 (2023): 844. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics12040844.
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In this paper, a path loss characterization at millimeter-wave (mmWave) frequencies is performed in a typical indoor office environment. Path loss results were derived from propagation channel measurements collected in the 25–40 GHz frequency band, in both line-of-sight (LOS) and obstructed-LOS (OLOS) propagation conditions. The channel measurements were performed using a frequency-domain channel sounder, which integrates an amplified radio over fiber (RoF) link to avoid the high losses at mmWave. The path loss was analyzed in the 26 GHz, 28 GHz, 33 GHz and 38 GHz frequency bands through the close-in free space reference distance (CI) and the floating-intercept (FI) models. These models take into account the distance dependence of the path loss for a single frequency. Nevertheless, to jointly study the distance and frequency dependence of the path loss, multi-frequency models were considered. The parameters of the ABG (A-alpha, B-beta and G-gamma) and the close-in free space reference distance with frequency path loss exponent (CIF) models were derived from the channel measurements in the whole 25–40 GHz band under the minimum mean square error (MMSE) approach. The results show that, in general, there is some relationship between the model parameters and the frequency. Path loss exponent (PLE) values smaller than the theoretical free space propagation were obtained, showing that there are a waveguide effect and a constructive interference of multipath components (MPCs). Since the measurements were obtained in the same environment and with the same configuration and measurement setup, it is possible to establish realistic comparisons between the model parameters and the propagation behavior at the different frequencies considered. The results provided here allow us to have a better knowledge of the propagation at mmWave frequencies and may be of interest to other researchers in the simulation and performance evaluation of future wireless communication systems in indoor hotspot environments.
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Alsalman, Abdulelah, Azzam Alhumaid, Abdulaziz Alnogithan, Ehab K. I. Hamad, and Mahmoud Shaban. "Reconfigurable 28/38 GHz wideband and high isolation MIMO antenna for advanced mmWave applications." Journal of Electrical Engineering 75, no. 6 (2024): 467–83. https://doi.org/10.2478/jee-2024-0055.
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Abstract This research presents a high-performance MIMO antenna for 5G and next-generation wireless communication. Operating in the millimeter wave (mmWave) band, the antenna offers frequency and radiation pattern reconfigurability. A compact-size antenna, with dimensions of 22.5×30×0.787 mm3, exhibited peak gains of 7.5 and 6.5 dBi at 28 and 38 GHz, respectively. The envelope correlation coefficient (ECC) was improved through proper spacing and adopting a simple decoupling technique, ensuring efficient MIMO operation. Based on the evaluated reflection coefficients, bandwidths of 2.3 and 12.9 GHz at 28 and 38 GHz, respectively have been accomplished. The mutual coupling between antenna elements was minimized achieving improved isolation of −37 and −40 dB at the desired frequency bands. This corresponds to an envelope correlation coefficient and diversity gain of 1.6×10−4 and 9.99, respectively. The antenna gain was enhanced by incorporating a metasurface designed to optimize gain and improve isolation. For a single-element antenna, the gain was enhanced to 7.9 and 7.3 dBi at frequencies of 28 GHz, and 38 GHz, respectively. The antenna design incorporates frequency and pattern reconfigurability through switching selected antenna ports and patches. The proposed design’s simplicity and antenna compactness make it practical for various mmWave communication systems.
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Hossain, Muhammad M., Md Jubaer Alam, and Saeed I. Latif. "Orthogonal Printed Microstrip Antenna Arrays for 5G Millimeter-Wave Applications." Micromachines 13, no. 1 (2021): 53. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/mi13010053.
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This article presents the design of a planar MIMO (Multiple Inputs Multiple Outputs) antenna comprised of two sets orthogonally placed 1 × 12 linear antenna arrays for 5G millimeter wave (mmWave) applications. The arrays are made of probe-fed microstrip patch antenna elements on a 90 × 160 mm2 Rogers RT/Duroid 5880 grounded dielectric substrate. The antenna demonstrates S11 = −10 dB impedance bandwidth in the following 5G frequency band: 24.25–27.50 GHz. The scattering parameters of the antenna were computed by electromagnetic simulation tools, Ansys HFSS and CST Microwave Studio, and were further verified by the measured results of a fabricated prototype. To achieve a gain of 12 dBi or better over a scanning range of +/−45° from broadside, the Dolph-Tschebyscheff excitation weighting and optimum spacing are used. Different antenna parameters, such as correlation coefficient, port isolation, and 2D and 3D radiation patterns, are investigated to determine the effectiveness of this antenna for MIMO operation, which will be very useful for mmWave cellphone applications in 5G bands.