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Journal articles on the topic 'Nitrofuratoin'

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1

G.Chandra, Sekhar* B.Satyanarayana P.Sugunab B.Narasimhulub. "ANALYSIS OF NITROFURATOIN IN BULK DRUG AND PHARMACEUTICAL DOSAGE FORMS BY HPLC METHOD." INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES & RESEARCH TECHNOLOGY 6, no. 5 (2017): 411–22. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.573530.

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A simple, economic, selective, precise, and accurate High Performance liquid Chromatographic method for the analysis of Nitrofuratoin in bulk drug and pharmaceutical formulations was developed and validated in the present study. The mobile phase consists of a mixture of Acetonitrile and buffer 88:12. And adjust the pH to 5.0 ± 0.05 with sodium hydroxide solution. This was found to give a sharp peak of Nitrofuratoin at a retention time of 8.423 min. HPLC analysis of Nitrofuratoin was carried out at a wavelength of 254 nm with a flow rate of 1.6 mL/min. The linear regression analysis data for th
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2

Omorodion, N. T., and Nwibana Barisuka Kiofi. "Histo-biochemical analyses of the ameliorative potentials of Phyllanthus nuriri and Carica papaya on some visceral of Albino rats previously treated with Nitrofuratoin." Dutse Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences 9, no. 1a (2023): 101–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/dujopas.v9i1a.11.

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Herbal medicine has been used since the days of our forefathers. Nitrofuratoin is a synthetic drug used in the treatment of bacterial infections. This study was aimed at the ameliorative potential of Phyllanthus nuriri and Carica papaya on liver, kidney and lungs histomorphologies of albino rats pre-treated With nitrofuratoin. Twenty eight (28) rats were used for this research work. The research was in two stages. The animals were in five groups in stage one, group 1 with 8 animals received rat pellet and water and was used as control while group 2, 3, 4, and 5 with five rats each received 100
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3

VE, Ajumobi. "Antibiotic Resistance and Detection of Blatem and MecA Genes in Bacteria Isolated from Street Vended Pounded Yam in Yenagoa, Nigeria." Open Access Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology 8, no. 2 (2023): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.23880/oajmb-16000260.

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Antibiotic resistant pathogens spread through food are a public health concern. The aim of this study was to determine the profile of antibiotic resistance and to investigate the presence of genes that produce antibiotic resistance in bacterial isolates from pounded yam collected from five sites in Yenagoa, Nigeria (Swali, Amarata, Kpansia, Tombia, and Akenfa). The Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method was used to examine antibiotic susceptibility to nine antibiotics (Augmentin, Ofloxacin, Chloramphenicol, Ampicillin, Erythromycin, Gentamycin, Nitrofuratoin, Streptomycin and Tetracyclin), and the
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4

OTSUKA, Makoto, Reiko TERAOKA, and Yoshihisa MATSUDA. "Characterization of nitrofuratoin anhydrate and monohydrate, and their dissolution behaviors." CHEMICAL & PHARMACEUTICAL BULLETIN 38, no. 3 (1990): 833–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1248/cpb.38.833.

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5

Suguna, P. "Validated Spectrophotometric Method for the Determination of Nitrofuratoin in Pure and in its Dosage Form." International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR) 13, no. 5 (2024): 1551–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.21275/sr24523143818.

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6

Oluyege, J.O, A.J Olaleye, and A.O Oluyege. "ANTIBACTERIAL EFFECT OF SOME NIGERIAN MEDICINAL PLANTS ON DRUG- RESISTANT SALMONELLA SPECIES ISOLATED FROM ENVIROMENTAL SOURCES." Continental J. Microbiology 4 (July 7, 2010): 25–30. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.823813.

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Sensitivity of <em>Salmonella</em> species isolated from different environmental sources to the extracts of <em>Azadirachita indica</em>, <em>Psdium guajava</em>, <em>Kigelia africana</em> and <em>Aloe microcarpa</em> was investigated. Susceptiblity of the isolates to amoxicillin, ofloxacin, tetracycline, gentamicin, nalixidic acid, nitrofuratoin and cotrimoxazone was also examined. The sensitivity assay was done using agar dilution technique at concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 20% v/v. The concentration of all the extracts of the experimental plants that inhibited the growth of <em>Salmonel
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7

Fatah, Mohammed H. "Evaluation of antibacterial activities for three commonly used antibiotics produced by different manufactures on female urinary tract infection Uropathogens in kalar city." Polytechnic Journal 12, no. 1 (2022): 8–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.25156/ptj.v12n1y2022.pp8-15.

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Health professional staff often claims information about trying to differentiate the used antibiotics based on the manufacturers that produce the drug, which may lead to a differentiation in the prescribing of the antibiotics by a physician. Numerous antibiotics produced by different manufactures, under different brands names are available in pharmacies for urinary tract infection (UTI) treatment; this study proceeds to find out and evaluates antibacterial activities of three most used antibiotics, produced by different antibiotic producers on uropathogens in Kalar city. Kirby–Bauer disk diffu
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8

Victor, Atere. "Multidrug resistant Salmonella sp isolated from chicken." International Journal of Biological Research 4, no. 1 (2016): 64. http://dx.doi.org/10.14419/ijbr.v4i1.6030.

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Antibiotic resistance has been a major problem in combatting Salmonella in poultry, this research was designed to determine the antibiotic resistance level of Salmonella isolated from freshly dead chicken. A total of 107 freshly dead chicken were collected from 23 different farms, birds were necropsied, liver and trachea were collected, Salmonella were recovered from the samples using peptone water, Rappaport-Vassiliadis R10 Broth and Salmonella-Shigella agar. Pure culture were identified using cultural, morphological and biochemical characteristics. The pure isolates were subjected to antibio
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9

Victor, Atere, Bamikole Mathew, Oluyege Adekemi, Ajurojo Ayo, and Alo Odunayo. "Prevalence and antibiotic resistance of Pasteurella multocida isolated from chicken in Ado-Ekiti metropolis." International Journal of Scientific World 4, no. 2 (2016): 40. http://dx.doi.org/10.14419/ijsw.v4i2.6273.

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Pasteurella multocida is a poultry bacterial pathogen causing fowl cholera in chicken. The prevalence and antibiotic susceptibility of P. multocida isolates from freshly dead chicken were determined. Ninety seven (97) freshly dead chicken from 23 different farms were analyzed for the presence of P. multocida. Swabs of the trachea and the liver of the necropsied chicken were activated on buffered peptone water and later cultured on blood agar and MacConkey agar. Pure culture of organisms were subjected to cultural and biochemical characterization. In vitro susceptibility of the pure isolates of
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10

B., K. Bello, T. Balogun A., and Oyetayo V.O. "Antibiogram and plasmid profile of Escherichia coli Isolates from Faeces of Cattle in Abeokuta, South West NIGERIA." International Journal of BioSciences and Technology (IJBST) ISSN: 0974-3987 5, no. 5 (2012): 23–27. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1443377.

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<strong>ABSTRACT</strong> Faecal samples collected from cattle in Abeokuta, south west Nigeria were analysed for <em>E. coli </em>counts, antibiotics susceptibility pattern of <em>E.&nbsp; coli</em> and the plasmid profile of <em>E.&nbsp; coli</em> isolates using standard techniques. <em>E. coli</em> were recovered from 30samples representing 28.4% of 107 feacal samples of cattle collected. The faecal <em>E. coli</em> count ranges from 1.1 x 10<sup>3</sup> to 9.0 x 10<sup>3</sup> cfu/ml<sup>-1</sup>. The percentage prevalence of resistance to each antimicrobial agent tested were; Ampicillin, A
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11

Vijetha, Sajjanar, D. E. Premalatha, and K. C. Siddesh. "Fosfomycin and Nitrofurantoin Susceptibility among Extended Spectrum betalactamase (ESBL) Producing Uropathogenic Escherichia Coli." International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research 15, no. 10 (2023): 108–16. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11245398.

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<strong>Introduction</strong><strong>:&nbsp;</strong>Urinary tract infections(UTI) are most common bacterial infections encountered in clinical practice and&nbsp;<em>Uropathogeic Escherichia. Coli( UPEC)</em>&nbsp;is predominant organism which causes UTI. Misuse of antibiotics has led to multidrug resistance in&nbsp;<em>UPEC.&nbsp;</em>Extended spectrum beta lactamase (ESBL) producing organisms has led to emergence of multidrug resistance to routinely usedantibiotics. Fosfomycin and Nitrofurantoin have unique mechanism to delay the evolvement of resistance and are most preferred drugs in multi
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12

Unal Evren, Emine, Hakan Evren, and Nilufer Galip. "Antibiotic resistance in community-acquired urinary tract infections. Did the COVID-19 pandemic cause a change?" Journal of Infection in Developing Countries 18, no. 09.1 (2024): S116—S125. http://dx.doi.org/10.3855/jidc.18844.

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Introduction: This study aimed to evaluate the antimicrobial resistance rates before and during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Methodology: 897 positive urine cultures collected from outpatients of all ages between January 1, 2017, and December 31, 2022, were analyzed. The antibiotic susceptibility tests (AST) were analyzed by using an automated VITEK 2 (Biomerieux, Marcy-l`Étoile, France) compact system. AST results were interpreted according to the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) criteria. The significance of resistance rates was tested
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13

Oluyege, J.O, and J.O Oluyege. "MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION OF SOME HAWKED HERBAL PRODUCTS IN ADO-EKITI, NIGERIA." Continental J. Microbiology 4 (July 8, 2010): 8–14. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.823805.

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An investigation was conducted on the microbial contamination of some herbal products hawked in Ado-Ekiti metropolis. Eight samples were randomly collected from herbal medicine hawkers and were subjected to bacteriological examination and phytochemical analysis. Seven bacteria namely: <em>Escherichia coli</em>, <em>Salmonella typhi</em>, <em>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</em>, <em>Staphylococcus aureus</em>, <em>Serratia marcescens</em>, <em>Klebsiella pneumonia</em> and <em>Proteus mirabilis</em> were isolated from one two samples. Mean total bacterial counts ranged from 4.0 x 104 – 1.7 x 107 cfu/ml
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14

Zige, Douye Victor, and Faith Iyeoma Omeje. "Antibiotics Profile and Public Health Implication of Pathogenic Enteric Bacteria Associated With Poultry Stool." International Journal of Pathogen Research 12, no. 2 (2023): 9–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.9734/ijpr/2023/v12i2221.

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Poultry waste are not properly disposed and most rural farmers make use of it as manure therefore poultry wastes may serve as source of enteric organism capable of infecting humans. The antibiotic resistance from these bacteria can be transferred to natural microbial community as a result of involvement of antibiotics in poultry farming. This research was carried out to assess the multidrug resistant pattern of enteric bacteria in poultry stool dropping. samples of poultry droppings were obtained from a free-range commercial poultry farm in Otuoke, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. Samples were cultured
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15

Recalde-Reyes, Delia Piedad, Natali Alfonso-Ortiz, Michael Farley Fuentes-Quimbayo, et al. "Perfil de resistencia genotípica y fenotípica presente en bacterias aisladas a partir de fómites en Armenia, Quindío-Colombia período junio-julio 2019." Infectio 25, no. 1 (2020): 22. http://dx.doi.org/10.22354/in.v25i1.904.

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Introducción: La antibiótico-resistencia es un fenómeno por el cual las bacterias logran sobrevivir al tratamiento con antimicrobianos; con incidencia en ambientes intra y extrahospitalarios como: fuentes hídricas, sector agrario/ganadero y fómites. Objetivo: Describir bacterias presentes en fómites de alta circulación en una región centro-occidental de Colombia junto a su perfil de sensibilidad fenotípica y presencia de genes para betalactamasas tipo TEM-full, OXA-3 y SHV-full. Metodología: Se aislaron cepas bacterianas de billetes, pasamanos de escaleras eléctricas y botones de cajeros autom
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16

Naveen, Kumar, Kumar Asha, and Kumari Kanchan. "A Hospital-Based Study to Investigate the Common Bacteria Associated With UTI Cases and Their Antibiotic Susceptibility Pattern." International Journal of Current Pharmaceutical Review and Research 16, no. 01 (2024): 291–95. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11543014.

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AbstractAim: The aim of the present study was to investigate the common bacteria associated with UTI cases and theirantibiotic susceptibility pattern.Methods: A retrospective descriptive study was done for one year in DMCH, Laheriasarai, Darbhanga, Bihar.The study included all in-patients of either gender above 18 years of age with a diagnosis of UTI. Data wascollected from the patient&rsquo;s case record files, which were retrieved from the medical records department of ourhospital.Results: Out of 120 significant isolates, gram-negative organisms accounted for 81%. Fungal isolates were seenon
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17

Das, Bitopan, Mrinmoy Sarma, Rohit Kumar, et al. "Isolation, identification and antibiotic sensitivity pattern of Escherichia coli isolated from various clinical sample in a tertiary care hospital, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India." International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences 8, no. 5 (2020): 1774. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2320-6012.ijrms20201925.

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Background: Escherichia coli is one of the most frequent causes of many bacterial infections, including Urinary Tract Infections (UTI), blood stream infections, otitis media, pneumonia, meningitis, traveler’s diarrhoea, enteric infections and systemic infections. This study was done with the aim to surveying antibiotic sensitivity pattern of isolated Escherichia coli in both sex attended in NIMS Hospital, Jaipur under the taken time period.Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 62 Escherichia coli were isolated from various clinical specimens of the patients attending both OPD and IPD. The st
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18

Lovet., T. Kigigha, and U. Odili Judith. "BACTERIOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF SOME NIGERIAN LOCAL FOOD DRINKS (Kunnu-zaki, Yogurt and Zobo)." Continental J. Microbiology 8, no. 1 (2014): 9–16. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.824066.

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Three types of African food drinks ((Kunnu-zaki (or simply Kunnu), Yogurt and Zobo)) were analysed for their bacteria characteristics including their antibiotic sensitivity.The total colony forming units was analysed using the spread plate method for the food drinks. Ten isolates were selected at random from each of the food drinks and tentatively identified in which the following cumulative genera of bacteria occurred: <em>E.coli 10 (33.3)*, Bacillus </em>and <em>Streptococcus species 4(13.3)</em>. For Kunnu, out of 10 identified isolates: <em>E.coli 5 (50)*, Bacillus </em> out of 10 identifi
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19

Yanase, Lucas Eiji. "PADRÃO DA MICROBIOTA EM UROCULTURAS DAS GESTANTES DO HOSPITAL SANTO ANTÔNIO DE BLUMENAU E OS PADRÕES DE SENSIBILIDADE AOS ANTIMICROBIANOS." Arquivos Catarinenses de Medicina 47, no. 4 (2018): 73–79. https://doi.org/10.63845/wdenqz32.

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Definida como a presença de microorganismos no sistema urinário, a infecção urinária pode ser classificada clinicamente como: bacteriúria assintomática, cistite, uretrite e pielonefrite. Como o diagnóstico rápido e o tratamento adequado são de extrema importância para a evolução da gravidez, o conhecimento dos uropatógenos mais prevalentes e o padrão de sensibilidade aos antimicrobianos são imprescindíveis para um tratamento de alta eficácia a fim de evitar complicações a gestante. O objetivo do estudo foi de avaliar a prevalência dos microorganismos em uroculturas das gestantes atendidas no H
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20

Goita, D., D. Sogoba, AI Ado, et al. "Profil épidémiologique et la résistance aux antibiotiques des bactéries isolées au laboratoire d’analyses biomédicales du CHU Mère Enfant le ‘‘Luxembourg’’ de Bamako au Mali." Journal Africain des Cas Cliniques et Revues 7, no. 1 (2025): 37–49. https://doi.org/10.70065/2571.jaccrinfect.006l011503.

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Introduction : La connaissance du profil des pathogènes bactériens est nécessaire dans le traitement des infections. Elle permet la mise en place d’une antibiothérapie de présomption. L’objectif était d’identifier les espèces bactériennes isolées aux les produits pathologiques chez les patients. Méthodologie Il s’agissait d’une étude transversale rétrospective portant sur les prélèvements microbiologiques à visée diagnostique au laboratoire d’analyses biomédicale du CHU Mère-Enfant le « Luxembourg » entre janvier et novembre 2023. Les produits pathologiques concernés étaient les urines, les sé
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21

شريف, هاجر علي, та ساره صباح غريب. "دراسة حساسية بكتريا شيكلا في الغشاء الحيوي للمضادات الحيوية ومقارنتها مع حساسية البكتريا حرة المعيشة". Al-Kitab Journal for Pure Sciences 2, № 1 (2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.32441/kjps.v2i1.165.

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أظهرت نتائج الاختبار عن حساسية عزلات الشيكلا لـ (21) مضادا حيويا امتلاك عزلات الشيكلا مقاومة مطلقة للعديد من المضادات وحساسية مطلقة لعدد من المضادات الأخرى. كما تم اختبار حساسية جرثومة شيكلا في الغشاء الحيوي لاربعة من المضادات الحيوية (Tobramycin ,Imipenem , Amikacin , Nitrofuratoin) بطريقة الاقراص و أظهرت النتائج ان المضاد Imipenem هو المضاد الوحيد الذي أبدى فعالية تثبيطية لعزلات الشيكلا في الغشاء الحيوي.
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22

Peni, D. N., R. Ishaya, M. Yusuf, A. Z. Gwandu, and B. J. Danjumma. "Antibiotic Susceptibility Pattern of E. coli and other Uropathogens Isolated from Patients Attending Martha Bamaiye General Hospital Zuru, Kebbi State Nigeria." February 28, 2024, 219–26. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10965874.

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<strong>Abstract</strong> This study was carried out to establish the prevalence of <em>E. coli </em>and others uropathogen and its drug susceptibility patterns among patients attending Martha Bamaye General Hospital, Zuru, Kebbi State, Nigeria. A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted on outpatients and inpatients presenting with symptoms of UTI. A purposeful sampling was used to obtain 385 respondents, and questionnaires were used to obtain demographic information from them. Mid-stream urine samples were obtained from the respondents using sterile bottles and bacterial isolates iden
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23

B, Satyanarayana G. Chandra sekhar P. Suguna. "VALIDATED SPECTROPHOTOMETRIC METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF NITROFURATOIN IN PURE AND IN ITS DOSAGE FORM." July 23, 2024. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.12798401.

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A simple, pr&eacute;cise, rapid sensitive and accurate spectrophotometric methods have&nbsp;been developed for the estimation of Nitrofuratoin UV in pure form and its&nbsp;pharmaceutical formulations based on oxidative coupling reaction UV with 1,10-phenanthroline reagent at pH - 4 which is extractable at 510 nm. Beer&lsquo;s law is obeyedin the concentration range 0.5- 3 ml (5-30 &micro;gml-1) .The developed method was applied&nbsp;directly and easily for the analysis of the pharmaceutical formulations. RSD was found&nbsp;to be 0.111363% and recovery 98.95%. The method was completely validate
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24

Bello, Temitope, Olubukola Babalola, and William Olu-Aderoumu. "Antibiogram of bacterial flora of public health significance associated with postharvest Irvingia gabonensis seeds in Lagos State, Nigeria." Proceedings of the Nigerian Academy of Science 13, no. 1 (2020). http://dx.doi.org/10.57046/nbka2254.

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The spread of resistant bacteria within the community has continually posed obvious additional problems for infectious control. Efforts to identifying sources of resistant bacteria have not been channeled towards medicinal food condiments. This study investigated the antibiogram of bacterial flora of public health significance associated with postharvest Irvingia gabonensis seeds in Lagos State, Nigeria. The blended, homogenized and serially diluted samples of I. gabonensis seeds were plated using the spread plate technique on selective and differential agar media. API 20E and API 20NE were us
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25

N. A., Ujoh,, Nwokah, E. G., Amala S. E., and Wachukwu, C. K. "Antimicrobial Sensitivity of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) and Virulence Genes of Representative Isolates in Port Harcourt, Nigeria." Journal of Advances in Microbiology, June 29, 2022, 40–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.9734/jamb/2022/v22i930487.

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Aim: To assess the antimicrobial susceptibility, Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) and virulence genes of representative isolates in some selected sites of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.&#x0D; Study Design: Case-controlled study.&#x0D; Place and Duration of Study: Selected places in Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria, between November, 2020 to November, 2021.&#x0D; Methodology: Three hundred and forty-nine (349) samples were analyzed, 80 meat and 63 waste waters from five abattoirs cited in the city, 46 meat samples from five selected roadside butchers sites in the city, 109 patients st
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26

Fuentes Cantero, Sandra, Esperanza Lepe Balsalobre, and Marta Rico Rodríguez. "Cristales de nitrofuratoína en orina." Revista de Medicina de Laboratorio, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.20960/revmedlab.00179.

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Gràcia-Garcia, Sílvia, and Noèlia Lopera Camba. "Réplica al artículo: "Cristales de nitrofuratoína en orina"." Revista de Medicina de Laboratorio, 2025. https://doi.org/10.20960/revmedlab.00247.

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28

Baby, Saritha, Chintu Ravishankar, Koshy John, M. Mini, S. Ajithkumar, and Vinu David. "Antibiogram of Escherichia coli isolates obtained from cases of neonatal calf diarrhoea in Kerala." Journal of Veterinary and Animal Sciences 54, no. 4 (2023). http://dx.doi.org/10.51966/jvas.2023.54.4.927-933.

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A study was conducted to determine the antibiogram of Escherichia coli isolated from cases of neonatal calf diarrhoea in Thrissur and Wayanad districts of Kerala. A total of 101 isolates were tested for susceptibility against 12 antibiotics. The antibiotics to which the isolates were most susceptible were Streptomycin (49.51%) and Chloramphenicol (47%). The isolates showed varying degrees of susceptibility to the other antibiotics tested such as Enrofloxacin (8.92%), Ciprofloxacin (15.85%), Gentamicin (23.77%), Tetracycline (20.8%), Amoxicillin/sulbactam (8.92%), Co-trimoxazole (20.8%), and Ni
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29

Elutade, Olayinka O., Olamide F. Olutunde, Omowumi T. Akinola, and Olayinka O. Oluranti. "Recovery Incidence and Antibiotic Resistance Profile of Some Enteric Bacteria from Well Waters in Iwo, Osun State, Nigeria." Journal of Advances in Microbiology, March 13, 2019, 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.9734/jamb/2019/v15i230083.

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The recovery incidence and antibiotic resistance pattern of Escherichia coli, Shigella and Salmonella species in water from 15 different wells located in Iwo, Osun state, were investigated in an effort to determine the potential health risks associated with the consumption of the water. Each well water sample was separately initially cultured in a non-selective pre-enrichment broth for 24 hours, and subsequently, subcultured on sterile Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB) agar for Escherichia coli and Salmonella-Shigella agar for Salmonella and Shigella species, using the pour-plate technique and the mi
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30

N., ANI, P., C. J. IROEBGULE, and C. C. EZEJIOFOR. "COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF URINARY TRACT INFECTIONS AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS, BOYS AND GIRLS." Journal of Disease and Global Health, October 11, 2022, 6–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.56557/jodagh/2022/v15i27889.

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Urinary tract infection (UTI) represents a serious health problem. The severity of urinary tract infection depends both on the virulence of the bacteria and the susceptibility of the host. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of urinary tract infection and demographic differentials among students, and also to treat effectively the infection, prevent urosepsis and reduce the likelihood of renal damage and provide symptomatic relief to patients. The objectives were to determine the proportion of students who have UTI, identify the common causative organism and to determine diffe
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