Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Peripheral sensory neurons'

Sensory transmission was studied in trigeminal root ganglia (TRG) of guinea pigs, using intracellular recording techniques. One approach was to examine in detail the effects of applications of different K⁺-channel blockers on the membrane voltage responses and outward currents of TRG neurons, in order to better understand the fundamental processes that affect their excitabilities and repetitive spike discharge. The second approach was to examine several endogenous substances for their effects on the excitabilities of TRG neurons. In addition, a strategy was developed for electrophysiological recording from neurons in human sympathetic ganglia. Successful investigations of these neurons revealed properties similar to certain reported characteristics of sympathetic neurons in experimental animals, including high (~29 MΩ input resistances, pharmacological sensitivity of spikes to the specific Na⁺-channel blocker tetrodotoxin (TTX, 1 µM) and to selective K⁺-channel blockers -- 4-aminopyridine (4-AP, 1 mM) and tetraethylammonium (TEA, 10 mM). The investigations demonstrated the potential value of these in vitro preparations for studies of the human condition. The investigations in TRG neurons demonstrated that bath applications of TEA (0.1-10 mM) and 4-AP (0.05-5 mM) or Cs⁺ applied internally from the recording electrode, produced an increase in input resistance and a decrease threshold for spike generation in all neurons. Also, applications of 4-AP increased subthreshold oscillations of the membrane potential and enhanced the repetitive spike firing evoked by intracellular injections of current pulses, or elicited spontaneous firing. In contrast, TEA or Cs⁺ applications blocked the oscillations and the spike afterhyperpolarizations (AHPs) without exaggerating repetitive discharge. These investigations suggestedthat several pharmacologically distinct K -currents contribute to the control of excitability in TRG neurons. Comparison of combined actions of 4-AP and TEA with those of Cs⁺, suggested that other ions in addition to K⁺ may contribute to postspike events. Single electrode voltage-clamp analyses revealed transient outward currents that were evoked at the termination of hyperpolarizing voltage commands from holding potentials near -40 mV. The activation was rapid (<5ms) and inactivation (T≃19 ms) complete at potentials within the activation range (-40 to -75 mV). During combined application of TTX (1 µM) and TEA (10 mM), fast activating, sustained currents (>1 s) were evoked by depolarizing commands from holding potentials near -70 mV. These currents were blocked completely by the additional applications of 4-AP (5 mM). Applications of TEA (0.1 mM to 10 mM) produced dose-dependent reductions of the transient outward currents. Applications of Cs⁺ also blocked the currents. However, administrations of 4-AP (0.05 to 5 mM) only slightly reduced these currents and high doses of muscarinic agonists had no effect. The high sensitivity to TEA, and not to 4-AP, suggest a fundamental distinction from similar currents observed previously in other neurons of vertebrates and invertebrates, and hence this transient outward current in TRG neurons, is termed I(T)- The kinetics of I(T) suggest its involvement in the spike AHPs. Therefore, blockade of I(T) by TEA may interfere indirectly with the re-activation of voltage-dependent Na⁺-channels, leading to decreases in repetitive discharge ability. The TEA-insensitive sustained outward current presumably has an inhibiting influence on repetitive discharge. Conditions that interfere with this current, such as blockade of K⁺-channels by 4-AP without a significant blockade of I(T), strongly favour the generation of repetitive discharge in TRG neurons. The investigations using electrical stimulation of axons revealed that changes in the resting potential could inhibit the invasion of spikes into the perikarya, or facilitate the generation of ectopic spike discharges. Applications of 4-AP (1 mM) facilitated the perikaryal invasion of spikes evoked by axonal stimulation, and also resulted in the appearance of fast (~10 ms) depolarizations that reached spike threshold in the absence of applied stimuli. These investigations provided direct evidence that the perikarya of sensory neurons are capable of spike generation, and suggest that this behavior may occur in normal or pathophysiological conditions. The most notable effects of autacoids were those of substance P and histamine, whereas bradykinin did not affect neuronal membrane properties. Applications of substance P in micromolar doses evoked large (up to 45 mV), reversible depolarizations in the majority of neurons, whereas histamine applications produced similar depolarizations only in a small portion of the TRG neurons. Increases in the repetitive discharge abilities of neurons were evident during substance P-induced depolarizations. Studies on the ionic mechanism of substance P action revealed that the peptide-applications resulted in activation of inward currents as well as blockade of outward currents. In addition, it was shown that Na⁺ and Mg²⁺ were involved in the mechanism of action. These findings represent the first demonstration of the profound actions of substance P on the perikaryal membranes of sensory neurons in mammals. The excitatory actions of this endogenous peptide also give rise to the possibility of physiological actions of substance P at multiple sites in the trigeminal system.
Medicine, Faculty of
Anesthesiology, Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Department of
Graduate

La neuropatia perifèrica induïda per platins (NPIP) és un dels efectes adversos més freqüents del cisplatí, l’oxaliplatí i el carboplatí, agents quimioteràpics de tipus platins administrats pel tractament de càncers altament prevalents. Degut a la seva severitat, la NPIP pot causar reduccions en la dosis de quimioteràpia o inclús una aturada precoç del tractament, derivant en una disminució de les probabilitats de supervivència dels pacients oncològics. S’ha demostrat que la severitat de la NPIP es correlaciona amb la quantitat de platí acumulat en les neurones sensorials del gangli raquidi de l’arrel dorsal (GRD). Així mateix, s’han descrit varis mecanismes fisiopatològics involucrats en l’aparició de la NPIP, incloent el dany a l’ADN i les mitocòndries de les neurones sensorials, juntament amb alteracions en la funció dels canals iònics, entre altres. Malgrat el gran esforç dels clínics i els investigadors per trobar un tractament per la NPIP, els resultats obtinguts en models experimentals no s’han pogut traslladar a la clínica de forma exitosa. L’objectiu d’aquesta tesi doctoral era determinar els mecanismes moleculars més rellevants involucrats en el desenvolupament de la NPIP i així poder testar noves dianes terapèutiques. Mitjançant seqüenciació de l’ARN de cèl·lules aïllades, hem estudiat el perfil d’expressió gènica de les neurones sensorials del GRD en 2 models de ratolí de NPIP òptimament caracteritzats a nivell neurofisiològic. Un model es va desenvolupar mitjançant l’administració de cisplatí i l’altre, d’oxaliplatí. Hem demostrat que el tractament amb cisplatí causa una lesió permanent a l’ADN de les neurones sensorials, juntament amb un increment de l’expressió del gen Cdkn1a i el seu producte proteic p21. Mentre que les vies d’apoptosis no s’activen en resposta a aquest dany de l’ADN, les neurones sensorials sí expressen una sèrie de marcadors relacionats amb processos de senescència cel·lular, incloent l’enzim beta-galactosidasa, la fosforilació de la histona H2AX i la proteïna Nfkb-p65. El fenotip senescent de les neurones sensorials persisteix inclús 6 setmanes després de finalitzar el tractament amb cisplatí. Pel que fa a l’estudi amb oxaliplatí, els resultats de la seqüenciació mostren un increment en l’expressió dels gens Lxn i Klk5, juntament amb una disminució en l’expressió del gen Kyat3. Tots tres gens estan relacionats amb processos de inflamació, modulació del sistema immunitari i dolor. Tot i que no vam poder demostrar l’increment dels productes proteics dels gens Lxn i Klk5 en les neurones sensorials, els nivells de citocines pro-inflamatòries estaven augmentats en el GRD i el nervi ciàtic dels ratolins tractats amb oxaliplatí, juntament amb un increment del número de cèl·lules infiltrades. Basant-nos en aquests resultats, vam analitzar la possible activació de la resposta de mort cel·lular immunogènica, la qual s’activa en cèl·lules tumorals en resposta al tractament amb oxaliplatí. No obstant, no vam trobar evidències de l’activació d’aquesta via en el GRD. Per altra banda, i a diferència dels resultats obtinguts amb el cisplatí, el dany a l’ADN generat a les neurones sensorials per oxaliplatí és ràpidament reparat un cop finalitzat el tractament, fet que podria explicar la manca d’establiment d’un fenotip senescent. Tenint en compte les dades obtingudes en els models animals, les quals indiquen que la senescència pot jugar un paper important en el desenvolupament de la NPIP, finalment vam desenvolupar un model in vitro de senescència neuronal induïda per cisplatí, el qual serà de gran utilitat per testar noves dianes terapèutiques de forma ràpida i econòmica.
La neuropatía periférica inducida por platinos (NPIP) es uno de los efectos adversos mas frecuentes del cisplatino, el oxaliplatino i el carboplatino, fármacos de tipo platino administrados para el tratamiento de neoplasias malignas altamente prevalentes. Debido a su severidad, la NPIP puede causar reducciones en la dosis de quimioterapia e incluso el cese precoz del tratamiento, hecho que influye negativamente en la probabilidad de supervivencia de los pacientes oncológicos. Se ha demostrado que la severidad de la NPIP se correlaciona con la cantidad de platino acumulado en las neuronas sensoriales de los ganglios de la raíz dorsal (GRD). Así mismo, se han descrito varios mecanismos fisiopatológicos involucrados en la aparición de la NPIP, incluyendo la lesión del ADN y las mitocondrias de dichas neuronas, juntamente con una alteración en sus canales iónicos, entre otros. A pesar de los muchos esfuerzos de los clínicos e investigadores para encontrar un tratamiento frente la NPIP, los resultados obtenidos en modelos experimentales no se han podido trasladar a la clínica de forma exitosa. El objetivo de esta tesis doctoral era determinar los mecanismos moleculares mas relevantes involucrados en el desarrollo de la NPIP y así poder encontrar nuevas dianas terapéuticas. Mediante secuenciación del ARN de células aisladas, hemos estudiado el perfil de expresión génica de las neuronas sensoriales del GRD en 2 modelos de ratón de NPIP, óptimamente caracterizados a nivel neurofisiológico. Uno de los modelos se desarrolló a partir de la administración de cisplatino y el otro, de oxaliplatino. Hemos demostrado que el tratamiento con cisplatino causa una lesión permanente en el ADN de las neuronas sensoriales, juntamente con un incremento en la expresión del gen Cdkn1a y su producto proteico p21. Mientras que las vías de apoptosis no se activan en respuesta a la lesión del ADN, las neuronas sensoriales sí expresan marcadores de senescencia celular como la enzima -galactosidasa, la fosforilación de la histona H2AX y la proteína Nfkb-p65. Estos cambios perduran incluso 6 semanas después de finalizar el tratamiento con cisplatino. Referente al estudio con oxaliplatino, los resultados de la secuenciación muestran un incremento en la expresión de los genes Lxn y Klk5, juntamente con una disminución de la expresión del gen Kyat3, en los animales tratados con oxaliplatino. Los tres genes están relacionados con procesos de inflamación, modulación del sistema inmunitario y dolor. A pesar de que no pudimos demostrar un aumento de los productos proteicos de los genes Klk5 y Lxn en las neuronas sensoriales, los niveles de citoquinas pro-inflamatorias estaban elevados en el GRD y el nervio ciático de los ratones tratados con oxaliplatino, juntamente con un incremento en el numero de células infiltradas. En base a estos resultados, analizamos la posible activación de la respuesta de muerte celular immunogénica, la cual se activa en células tumorales en respuesta al tratamiento con oxaliplatino. No obstante, no encontramos evidencias de la activación de esta vía en el GDR. Por otro lado, y a diferencia de los resultados obtenidos con el cisplatino, la lesión del ADN producida por el oxaliplatino es rápidamente reparada al finalizar el tratamiento, hecho que pudiera explicar la falta de establecimiento del fenotipo senescente. Teniendo en cuenta que los resultados obtenidos con los modelos animales apuntan a que la senescencia podría jugar un papel importante en el desarrollo de la NPIP, finalmente desarrollamos un modelo in vitro de senescencia neuronal inducida por cisplatino, el cual nos servirá para testar nuevas dianas terapéuticas de una forma rápida y económica.
Platinum-Induced Peripheral Neuropathy (PIPN) is a frequent serious dose-limiting adverse event of the platinum-based cytostatic agent cisplatin, oxaliplatin and carboplatin, which are given as a first line treatment against high prevalent cancers. Due to its severity, PIPN often causes cancer treatment reduction or even cessation, thus decreasing the survival probabilities of oncologic patients. It has been extensively reported that PIPN severity correlates with the amount of platinum drugs cumulated in sensory neurons of the dorsal root ganglia (DRG). Several pathophysiological mechanisms have been described for PIPN development, including DNA damage, mytotoxicity and channels dysfunction in DRG sensory neurons, among others. Despite the efforts of clinicians and researchers during the last decades, no successful translation from pre-clinical settings to the clinics has been achieved. The aim of this study was to determine the exact molecular mechanisms involved in the development of PIPN following a non-hypothesis driven methodology to find new therapeutical targets. By single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), we studied the transcriptomic profile of DRG sensory neurons from 2 well characterized neurophysiological mice models of PIPN: one induced by cisplatin administration, and the second by oxaliplatin. We demonstrated that cisplatin treatment induced persistent DNA damage and the up-regulation of the Cdkn1a gene and its protein product p21 in the DRG neuronal population. While apoptosis activation pathways were not observed in DRG sensory neurons of cisplatin-treated mice, these neurons did express several senescence hallmarks, including senescence-associated beta-galactosidase (SA-bGAL), phosphor(p)-H2AX and nuclear Nfkb-p65 proteins. The senescent phenotype seen in sensory neurons persisted up to 6 weeks after cisplatin treatment discontinuation. Regarding oxaliplatin study, results of scRNA-seq showed an up-regulation of Lxn and Klk5 genes, and a down-regulation of the Kyat3 gene in oxaliplatin treated animals, among others. All three genes have been involved in the modulation of inflammatory responses, the immune system and pain behaviors. Although the protein products of Klk5 and Lxn did not appear up-regulated in the DRG of oxaliplatin-treated mice, we did see an increase in the pro-inflammatory cytokine profile in both the DRG and the sciatic nerves of oxaliplatin-treated mice, altogether with increased number of infiltrated cells. Based on these results, we checked for factors involved of the so-called Immunogenic Cell Death (ICD) response, which is activated in tumor cells after oxaliplatin treatment. However, we did not find any evidence of ICD activation in DRG of oxaliplatin-treated mice at any time point evaluated. On the other hand, and in contrast to cisplatin, the rapid repair of DNA damage after oxaliplatin treatment cessation could explain the lack of establishment of a senescence phenotype in the DRG. In vivo data showed that senescence pathways could play a key role in platinum neurotoxicity. Thus, we finally set up an in vitro model of cisplatin-induced neuronal senescence in which to start the screening of potential neuroprotective targets in a cost- and time-effective way.
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Programa de Doctorat en Neurociències

Despite surgical innovation, the sensory and motor outcome after peripheral nerve injury is incomplete. In this thesis, the biological pathways potentially responsible for the poor functional recoveries were investigated in both the distal nerve stump/target organ, spinal motoneurons and dorsal root ganglia (DRG). The effect of delayed nerve repair was determined in a rat sciatic nerve transection model. There was a dramatic decline in the number of regenerating motoneurons and myelinated axons found in the distal nerve stumps of animals undergoing nerve repair after a delay of 3 and 6 months. RT-PCR of the distal nerve stumps showed a decline in expression of Schwann cells (SC) markers, with a progressive increase in fibrotic and proteoglycan scar markers, with increased delayed repair time. Furthermore, the yield of SC which could be isolated from the distal nerve segments progressively fell with increased delay in repair time. Consistent with the impaired distal nerve stumps the target medial gastrocnemius (MG) muscles at 3- and 6-months delayed repair were atrophied with significant declines in wet weights (61% and 27% compared with contralateral sides). The role of myogenic transcription factors, muscle specific microRNAs and musclespecific E3 ubiquitin ligases in the muscle atrophy was investigated in both gastrocnemius and soleus muscles following either crush or nerve transection injury. In the crush injury model, the soleus muscle showed significantly increased recovery in wet weight at days 14 and 28 (compared with day 7) which was not the case for the gastrocnemius muscle which continued to atrophy. There was a significantly more pronounced up-regulation of MyoD expression in the denervated soleus muscle compared with the gastrocnemius muscle. Conversely, myogenin was more markedly elevated in the gastrocnemius versus soleus muscles. The muscles also showed significantly contrasting transcriptional regulation of the microRNAs miR-1 and miR-206. MuRF1 and Atrogin-1 showed the highest levels of expression in the denervated gastrocnemius muscle. Morphological and molecular changes in spinal motoneurons were compared after L4-L5 ventral root avulsion (VRA) and distal peripheral nerve axotomy (PNA). Neuronal degeneration was indicated by decreased immunostaining for microtubule-associated protein-2 in dendrites and synaptophysin in presynaptic boutons after both VRA and PNA. Immunostaining for ED1-reactive microglia and GFAPpositive astrocytes was significantly elevated in all experimental groups. qRT-PCR analysis and Western blotting of the ventral horn from L4-L5 spinal cord segments revealed a significant upregulation of apoptotic cell death mediators including caspases-3 and -8 and a range of related death receptors following VRA. In contrast, following PNA, only caspase-8 was moderately upregulated. The mechanisms of primary sensory neuron degeneration were also investigated in the DRG following peripheral nerve axotomy, where several apoptotic pathways including those involving the endoplasmic reticulum were shown to be upregulated. In summary, these results show that the critical time point after which the outcome of regeneration becomes too poor appears to be 3-months. Both proximal and distal injury affect spinal motoneurons morphologically, but VRA induces motoneuron degeneration mediated through both intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic pathways. Primary sensory neuron degeneration involves several different apoptotic pathways, including the endoplasmic reticulum.

We have developed a highly effective method for in vivo gene silencing in the spinal cord and dorsal root ganglia (DRG) by a cationic lipid facilitated delivery of synthetic, small interfering RNA (siRNA). A siRNA to the delta opioid receptor (DOR), or a mismatch RNA, was mixed with the transfection reagent, i-FectTM (vehicle), and delivered as repeated daily bolus doses (0.5 mug to 4 mug) via implanted intrathecal catheter to the lumbar spinal cord of rats. Twenty-four hours after the last injection, rats were tested for antinociception by the DOR selective agonist, D-Ala2, Glu4]deltorphin II (DELT), or the mu opioid receptor (MOR) selective agonist, D-Ala2, N-Me-Phe4, Gly-ol5]enkephalin (DAMGO). Pretreatment with the siRNA, but not the mismatch RNA or vehicle alone, blocked DELT antinociception dose-dependently. The latter was concomitant with a reduction in the spinal immunoreactivity and receptor density of DOR, and in DOR transcripts in the lumbar DRG and spinal dorsal horn. Neither siRNA nor mismatch RNA pretreatment altered spinal immunoreactivity of MOR or antinociception by spinal DAMGO, and had no effect on the baseline thermal nociceptive threshold. The inhibition of function and expression of DOR by siRNA was reversed by 72 hr after the last RNA injection. The uptake of fluorescence-tagged siRNA was detected in both DRG and spinal cord. The low effective dose of siRNA/i-FectTM complex reflects an efficient delivery of the siRNA to peripheral and spinal neurons, produced no behavioral signs of toxicity. This delivery method may be optimized for other gene targets.

Les lesions dels nervis perifèrics provoquen paràlisis, anestèsia i pèrdua del control autonòmic de la zona afectada. Després de lesió, la part distal dels axons queda desconectat del soma i degenera, provocant la denervació dels òrgans diana. La degeneració walleriana crea un microambient favorable per al creixement axonal, alhora que la neurona canvia a un fenotip proregeneratiu. Malauradament, la manca d’especificitat de la regeneració, en termes de creixement motor i sensorial i reinnervació, és un dels grans limitats de la recuperació. Els mecanismes moleculars mplicats en la regeneració axonal i després de lesió són complexes i les interaccions entre els axons i la glia, els factors tròfics, la matriu extracel.lular i els seus receptors són fonamentals. Per aquestes raons, hem caracteritzat un model qeu ens permet comparar sota les mateixes condicions, creixement neurític motor i sensorial. Hem posat a punt un model in vitro, basat en cultius organotípics de medul.la espinal i explants de ganglis de les arrels dorsals de rates postnatals de 7 dies, embeguts en una matriu de col.lagen. Afegitn difernets factors tròfics a la matriu, hem avaluat la fiabilitat de les preparacions de gangli i de medul.la espinal. A més a més, també hem posat a punt un co-cultiu amb cèl.lules de Schwann dissociades que mimetizen millor l’ambient permissiu del nervi perifèric. Amb aquest model, hem analitzat els efectes de diferents factors tròfics que potencialment podien afavorir la especificitat de la regeneració, i com aquests factors podien ser sobre-regulats de manera diferencial per branques de nervis motors i sensorials després de la lesió. Hem observat que l’FGF-2 (18 kDa) és el factor tròfic que exerceix un efecte més selectiu en el creixement de les motoneurones espinals, tant a nivell d’elongació com d’arborització de neurites. El mecanisme que provocaia aquest efecte sembla estar relacionat amb la capacitat de l’FGF-2 d’incrementar la interacció entre l’FGFR-1 i el PSA-NCAM. Les interaccions dels dos receptors són importants durant els estadis més primerencs de la neuritogènesis, mentres que la subunitat alfa7B de les integrines estaria més relacionada amb l’estabilització de les neurites. Amb l’objectiu d’explorar amb més detall la potencial habilitat de l’FGF-2 de promoure de manera selectiva la regeneració in vivo, hem produit un vector lentiviral (LV) que sobreexpressa FGF-2 i l’hem caracteritzat in vitro i in vivo. L’addició de cèl.lules de Schwann infectades amb el LV-FGF2 en la matriu de col.lagen que cobreix els explants de gangli o les medul.les espinals, incrementa el creixement de les neurites motores però no de les sensorials en comparació als co-cultius amb LV-GFP. Per tant, la sobreexpressió de l’FGF2 mitjançant el LV és tan eficaç com l’addició directe del factor en la matriu en la promoció selective de la regeneració motora. Quan el LV-FGF2 es va injectar directament al nervi ciàtic in vivo, vam corroborar que l’FGF2 se secretava a nivell de la lamina basal de les cèl.lules de Schwann. Els nivells de FGF-2 en els homogentats de nervi ciàtic una setmana després d’injectar 1μl LVFGF- 2 eren més alts que els dels nervis injectats amb vehicle o LV-GFP. Per tant, el vector LV pot ser utilitzat in vivo per tal de verificar les troballes in vitro i per investigar amb més detall la capacitate de l’FGF2 de promoure regeneració motora. En aquest treball també hem comparat la capacitat de la glia embolcalladora olfactiva i les cèl.lules de Schwann, en donar suport a la regeneració in vitro de neurites motores i sensorials. En els co-cultius de cèl.lules de Schwann i els explants de gangli i medul.les espinals, s’observava un increment de la regeneració motora, menters que la glia embolcalladora incrementava signifiativament el creixement neurític de les neurones sensorials. Per contra, quan la glia embolcalladora s’afegia al cultiu motor, s’observava una agregació d’aquestes cèl.lules. El comportament de la glia embolcalladora podria estar determinat pel manteniment de la citoarquitectura de les medul.les espinals, on trobem astròcits i cèl.lules Schwann endògenes. Les interaccions entre la cèl.lula de Schwnn, la glia olafctòria i els astròcits, a través del complexe FGFR1-FGF2-HSPG, poden provocar agregació cel.lular. De fet, els nivells elevats d’HSPG van detectar-se al costat de la barrera, i això pot explicar el paper complex d’aquestes neurones. Els nivells elevats d HSPG és van detecar a la zona de lesió , i això pot explicar el paper quimio-repelent dels agregats cel.lulars.
Peripheral nerves injuries result in paralysis, anesthesia and lack of autonomic control of the affected body areas. After injury, axons distal to the lesion are disconnected from the neuronal body and degenerate, leading to denervation of the peripheral organs. Wallerian degeneration creates a microenvironment distal to the injury site that supports axonal regrowth, while the neuron body changes in phenotype to promote axonal regeneration. However, the lack of specificity of nerve regeneration, in terms of motor and sensory axons regrowth, pathfinding and target reinnervation, is one the main shortcomings for recovery. The molecular mechanisms implicated in axonal regeneration and pathfinding after injury are complex, and take into account the cross-talk between axons and glial cells, neurotrophic factors, extracellular matrix molecules and their receptors. For these reasons, we characterized a model that allows us to compare under the same conditions motor and sensory neuron regeneration. We set up an in vitro model, based on organotypic cultures of spinal cord slices and dorsal root ganglia explants from P7 rats, embedded in a collagen matrix. By adding different neurotrophic factors in the collagen matrix, we evaluated the reliability of DRG and spinal cord preparations. Moreover, we also set up a co-culture with dissociated Schwann cells to further mimic the permissive environment of the peripheral nerve. Later, we screened in vitro the different capabilities of trophic factors with promising effect on specific reinnervation of target organs after peripheral nerve regeneration. Trophic factors which promoted in vitro neuritogenesis of sensory and motor neurons were up-regulated in Schwann cells obtained from axotomized sensory and motor branches respectively. We found that FGF-2 (18 kDa) was the trophic factor that exerted the most selective effect in promoting neurite outgrowth of spinal motoneurons both in terms of elongation and arborization. The mechanism underling this effect in neuritogenesis seems related to FGF-2 enhancing the interaction between FGFR-1 and PSA-NCAM. The interaction of these two receptors is important during early stages of neuritogenesis and pathfinding, while integrin alpha7B subunit seems to play a role during neurite stabilization. With the aim to further explore the potential capacity of FGF-2 to selectiveley promote motor regeneration in vivo, we produced a lentiviral (LV) vector to overexpress FGF-2 and we characterized it in vitro and in vivo. Addition of cultured Schwann cells infected with FGF-2 into a collagen matrix embedding spinal cords or DRG significantly increased motor neurite growth but not sensory outgrowth when compared to co-cultures with LV-GFP, thus demonstrating that the LV construct was as effective as direct addition of the trophic factor to selectively promote motor neuron growth. By injecting the LV construct direclty into the sciatic nerve in vivo, we corroborated the localization of the secreted FGF-2 in the basal lamina of Schwann cells. Levels of FGF-2 from homogenated sciatic nerves one week after injection of 1μl LV-FGF-2 were higher than from nerves injected with vehicle or LV-GFP. Therefore, the LV vector can be used in vivo to verify our in vitro results and further study the capacity of FGF-2 to enhance motor nerve regeneration. In the last part of our work, we compare the abilities of Olfactory Enshealting cells and Schwann cells in sustaining in vitro motor and sensory neuritogenesis. Co-culture of cells with DRG explants and spinal cord organotypic slices was set up. SCs were promoting motoneuron growth, whereas OEC were significantly increasing neurite outgrowth in DRGs. In contrast, when OEC were added into motoneuron culture, we saw cell clusters and motoneuron outgrowth inhibition. This behaviour of OEC could be due to the maintained cytoarchitecture of the spinal cord in vitro where astrocytes and endogenous Schwann cells were also present. Interactions of SC, OEC and astrocytes through FGFR1-FGF2-HSPG complex can cause cell clustering. In fact, high levels of HSPG were found into the boundary formations, and this can explain the chemorepellent role of the cluster on neurite outgrowth.

L'homéostasie chlorure (HC) est un acteur essentiel dans la transmission nerveuse. Le GABA, via son récepteur GABAA, permet les mouvements d'ions chlorures en fonction de leur potentiel électrochimique. Dans les neurones sensitifs de ganglions rachidiens dorsaux (GRD), le co-transporteur cation-chlorure NKCC1 est responsable de l'accumulation intracellulaire des ions Cl- et de l'effet dépolarisant du GABA. Suite à une lésion, l'augmentation de la concentration intracellulaire en ions Cl- ([Cl-]i) permet une amélioration des capacités régénératives neuronales. Au cours de ma thèse, je me suis en premier lieu intéressé à la régulation de l'HC par interleukine 6 (IL6) en réponse à une lésion nerveuse. L'axotomie du nerf sciatique induit l'expression de l'IL6 et son récepteur IL6-Rα dans les neurones sensitifs des GRD lombaires L4-L5. Des mesures par patch perforé sur des neurones sensitifs en culture ont montré une augmentation de la [Cl-]i dépendante de l'IL6 dans une sous-population de neurones mécano- et proprioceptifs en réponse à l'axotomie. Cette régulation est permise par la phosphorylation à la membrane plasmique neuronale de NKCC1. Le co-transporteur KCC3 est impliqué dans une maladie génétique conduisant dès la naissance à une perte sensorimotrice, ce qui m'a conduit à étudier son rôle dans la régulation de l'HC des neurones sensitifs au cours du développement et chez l'adulte. Nos données ont démontré l'existence d'un « switch chlorure » développemental, diminuant la [Cl-]i. Ce switch est altéré chez la souris KCC3-/-, dans laquelle une partie des neurones a déjà diminué sa [Cl-]i. Au stade adulte, nous avons également observé un doublement de la [Cl-]i dans 30% des neurones sensitifs de souris KCC3-/-, pourcentage corrélé à la proportion de neurones WT exprimant KCC3. Ces données prouvent que KCC3 est impliqué, de manière directe ou non, dans la régulation de l'HC des neurones sensitifs au cours du développement et chez l'adulte
Chloride homeostasis (CH) is a major component of nerve transmission. Interaction between the neurotransmitter GABA and his receptor, GABAA, allows chloride movements depending on electrochemical potential. In dorsal root ganglia (DRG) sensory neurons, the cation-chloride cotransporter NKCC1 is responsible for intracellular accumulation of chloride ions and depolarizing effects of GABA. After injury, an increase of intracellulaire chloride concentration ([Cl-]i) allows an improvement of neuronal regenerative capacities. In a first time, I worked on regulation of CH by interleukine 6 (IL6) in response to nerve injury. Axotomy of the sciatic nerve induces expression of IL6 and his receptor IL6-Rα in sensory neurons from lombar L4-L5 DRG. Perforated patch measurements of sensory neurons have demonstrated an increase of [Cl-]i depending on IL6 in a sub-population of mechano- and proprioceptors in response to lesion. This regulation is provided by phosphorylation at the neuronal plasma membrane of NKCC1. The cation-chloride cotransporter KCC3 is implicated in a hereditary syndrome leading after birth to sensorymotors defects. This is why I have studied his role in regulation of CH in sensory neurons during development and in adulthood. Data have shown the existence of a peripheral developmental “chloride switch”. This switch is abolished in KCC3-/- sensory neurons, in which a part of neurons has already decreased [Cl-]i. In adulthood, we also observed an [Cl-]i twice as much as WT in 30% of sensory neurons from KCC3-/- mice. This percentage is correlated to the proportion of WT neurons expressing KCC3. These results demonstrate for the first time that KCC3 is implicated in regulation of CH in sensory neurons during development and in adulthood

Douleurs chroniques : Implication et potentiel thérapeutique des membres de la famille FXYDLes douleurs chroniques constituent un problème majeur de santé publique affectant près de 18% de la population mondiale. Elles ont des conséquences néfastes sur la qualité de vie des patients et engendrent des situations critiques sur le plan médical, sociologique et économique. Les traitements actuels sont relativement limités, souvent inefficaces et/ou présentent des effets secondaires délétères. De fait, une meilleure connaissance et une meilleure prise en charge de cette pathologie constituent des enjeux importants en recherche fondamentale et clinique.Dans ce contexte, mon projet de thèse a porté sur deux protéines, Fxyd2 et Fxyd7, qui appartiennent à la famille des protéines à motif FXYD qui contient 7 membres. Ces deux protéines sont décrites comme modulateurs de l’activité de la pompe Na,K-ATPase, et sont présentes dans des sous-types très spécifiques de neurones somatosensensoriels au sein des ganglions rachidiens dorsaux. La pompe Na,K-ATPase est décrite dans de nombreux phénomènes physiologiques et joue un rôle important dans l’excitabilité neuronale par le maintien du potentiel membranaire grâce à un jeu d'entrée et de sortie de sodium (Na+) et de potassium (K+). Le maintien de cet équilibre ionique est d’autant plus important que des phénomènes d’hyperexcitabilité neuronale sont souvent décrits dans le cadre des douleurs chroniques.Dans un premier objectif de mon projet de thèse, j’ai participé au développement d’une stratégie thérapeutique transposable à l’Homme basée sur une approche innovante de thérapie génique d’extinction. Ainsi, nous avons montré que l’usage d’oligonucléotides antisens lipidomodifiés dirigés contre le gène Fxyd2 et administrés par voie intrathécale permet un effet analgésique puissant chez des rats en condition de douleur neuropathique ou inflammatoire, aboutissant au retour à une sensibilité mécanique normale. De plus, des modifications chimiques conférant une meilleure stabilité de notre molécule thérapeutique permettent de prolonger son efficacité jusqu’à 10 jours.Mes travaux se sont portés, dans un deuxième objectif, sur la compréhension des modes d’action de Fxyd2 dans la physiopathologie des neurones somatosensoriels des ganglions rachidiens dorsaux notamment en identifiant ses partenaires protéiques par une approche protéomique. Ainsi, nous avons montré par spectrométrie de masse en tandem et par Proximity Ligation Assay, que Fxyd2 pouvait interagir de manière directe avec d’autres protéines que la sous unité ɑ1 de la pompe Na,K-ATPase en condition physiologique chez la souris. En effet, Fxyd2 semble interagir également avec la sous unité ɑ3 de cette pompe et aussi avec la PMCA, la GST et la Prdx6.Dans un troisième objectif, j’ai également étudié le rôle du gène Fxyd7 dans le système somatosensoriel aussi bien en condition normale que pathologique. Dans un premier temps, j’ai confirmé son profil d’expression au sein de sous populations neuronales de nocicepteurs peptidergiques, de mécanocepteurs et de neurones proprioceptifs dans les GRD de souris. Ensuite, en utilisant la souris Knock-Out pour le gène Fxyd7, j’ai procédé à des différents tests de motricité, d’équilibre et de sensibilité qui n’ont montré aucun défaut majeur chez ces souris en condition naïve. En condition de douleur neuropathique, avec le modèle SNL (Spinal Nerve Ligation), les tests de sensibilité mécanique ont montré aucune influence de la mutation, ni sur la phase aigüe de la douleur, ni sur sa chronicisation alors qu’en condition de douleur inflammatoire, avec le modèle CFA (Complete Freund’s Adjuvant), l’absence du gène empêche la chronicisation de la douleur inflammatoire de manière remarquable.Nos résultats montrent ainsi un potentiel thérapeutique majeur de deux membres de la famille FXYD pour traiter les douleurs chroniques
Chronic pain: Implication and therapeutic potential of FXYD protein members Chronic pain is a major public health problem affecting nearly 18% of the world’s population. It has deleterious consequences on patient’s quality of life and generates critical situations on the medical, sociological and economic levels. Current treatments are relatively limited, often ineffective and/or have deleterious side effects. In fact, better knowledge and an improved management of these pathologies is a major challenge for fundamental and clinical research.In this context, my thesis project is based on two different proteins, Fxyd2 and Fxyd7, which are members of a family of 7 proteins which contain a characteristic FXYD amino-acid motif. These two proteins have been described as modulators of the Na,K-ATPases’ activity, and are present in very specific somatosensory neurons of the dorsal root ganglia. The Na,K-ATPase pump is implicated in a large variety of physiological phenomena with a critical role in neuronal excitability by maintaining membrane potential thanks to the transfer of sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+). The maintenance of this ionic equilibrium is a crucial point since neuronal hyperexcitability has often been described in chronic pain.The first objective of my thesis was to develop a therapeutic strategy suitable for human therapy based on a very innovative gene extinction strategy. Thus, we showed that lipidomodified antisense oligonucleotides directed against the Fxyd2 gene and administered intrathecally induce a strong analgesic effect in neuropathic pain or in inflammatory pain models of rats, leading to normal mechanical sensitivity. Moreover, we showed that specific chemical modifications induce a better stability of our therapeutic molecule which prolongs its efficacy up to 10 days.In the second objective, my work was directed toward understanding the mechanisms of action of Fxyd2 in neuronal physiopathology in dorsal root ganglia, especially by identifying its protein partners using a proteomic approach. Thus, I showed by tandem mass spectrometry and by Proximity Ligation Assay that Fxyd2 could interact directly with proteins other than the ɑ1 subunit of the Na,K-ATPase in physiological conditions in mice. Indeed, Fxyd2 seems to interact also with the ɑ3 subunit of this pump and also with PMCA, GST and Prdx6.My third objective was to study the role of the Fxyd7 gene in the somatosensory system in normal and pathological conditions. In the first place, I used in situ hybridization to show its expression in specific neuronal subpopulations including peptidergic nociceptors, mechanoreceptors and in proprioceptive neurons in the mouse DRG. Then, using motor, equilibrium and mechanical sensitivity tests in Fxyd7 KO mice, I demonstrated the absence of major behavioral defects in these mice in normal conditions. In neuropathic pain conditions, using the SNL (Spinal Nerve Ligation) model, mechanical sensitivity tests did not reveal any influence of this mutation, neither in the acute nor chronic phases. However, in chronic inflammatory pain conditions induced by injection of CFA (Complete Freund’s Adjuvant), Fxyd7 null mutants failed to maintain pain responses. Thus Fxyd7 expression in DRG neurons appears to be specifically required for the maintenance of chronic inflammatory pain.Our results thus show a major therapeutic potential of two FXYD family members to treat chronic pain

Peripheral nerve trauma is a common cause of considerable functional morbidity, and healthcare expenditure. Particularly in the ~15% of injuries unsuitable for primary repair, standard clinical management results in inadequate sensory restitution in the majority of cases, despite the rigorous application of complex microsurgical techniques. This can largely be explained by the failure of surgical management to adequately address the neurobiological hurdles to optimal regeneration. Most significant of these is the extensive sensory neuronal death that follows injury, and which is accompanied by a reduction in the regenerative potential of axotomised neurons, and in the supportive capacity of the Schwann cell population if nerve repair is delayed. The present study aimed to accurately delineate the timecourse of neuronal death, in order to identify a therapeutic window during which clinically applicable neuroprotective strategies might be adopted. It then proceeded to investigate means to increase the regenerative capacity of chronically axotomised neurons, and to augment the Schwann cells’ ability to promote that regenerative effort. Unilateral sciatic nerve transection in the rat was the model used, initially assessing neuronal death within the L4&5 dorsal root ganglia by a combination of morphology, TdT uptake nick-end labelling (TUNEL), and statistically unbiased estimation of neuronal loss using the stereological optical disector technique. Having identified 2 weeks, and 2 months post-axotomy as the most biologically relevant timepoints to study, the effect upon neuronal death of systemic treatment with acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR 10, or 50mg/kg/day) or N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC 30, or 150mg/kg/day) was determined. A model of secondary nerve repair was then adopted; either 2 or 4 months after unilateral sciatic nerve division, 1cm gap repairs were performed using either reversed isografts, or poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) conduits containing an alginate-fibronectin hydrogel. Six weeks later nerve regeneration and the Schwann cell population were quantified by digital image analysis of frozen section immunohistochemistry. Sensory neuronal death begins within 24 hours of injury, but takes 1 week to translate into significant neuronal loss. The rate of neuronal death peaks 2 weeks after injury, and neuronal loss is essentially complete by 2 months post-axotomy. Nerve repair is incompletely neuroprotective, but the earlier it is performed the greater the benefit. Two clinically safe pharmaceutical agents, ALCAR & NAC, were found to virtually eliminate sensory neuronal death after peripheral nerve transection. ALCAR also enhanced nerve regeneration independently of its neuroprotective role. Plain PHB conduits were found to be technically simple to use, and supported some regeneration, but were not adequate in themselves. Leukaemia inhibitory factor enhanced nerve regeneration, though cultured autologous Schwann cells (SC’s) were somewhat more effective. Both were relatively more efficacious after a 4 month delay in nerve repair. The most profuse regeneration was found with recombinant glial growth factor (rhGGF-2) in repairs performed 2 months after axotomy, with results that were arguably better than were obtained with nerve grafts. A similar conclusion can be drawn from the result found using both rhGGF-2 and SC’s in PHB conduits 4 months after axotomy. In summary, these findings reinforce the significance of sensory neuronal death in peripheral nerve trauma, and the possibility of its` limitation by early nerve repair. Two agents for the adjuvant therapy of such injuries were identified, that can virtually eliminate neuronal death, and enhance regeneration. Elements in the creation of a bioartificial nerve conduit to replace, or surpass autologous nerve graft for secondary nerve repair are presented.

In comparison to adult central nervous system (CNS) axons, peripheral nervous system (PNS) axons have a high propensity for regrowth following injury. The PNS axon’s capacity to regenerate depends on an effective response within the neuron itself, combined with a supportive environment maintained by cells surrounding the axon. Unfortunately, successful reconnection of peripheral axons with appropriate targets is hampered by discontinuities associated with injury and by a decreased growth response over time. Studying strategies that improve peripheral nerve repair could enhance functional outcomes following peripheral nerve injury (PNI), and might provide insight for CNS repair. The small protein galectin-1 (Gal1) is required for developmental targeting of specific olfactory axons and promotes peripheral axon regeneration. Despite this, Gal1’s role in sensory axon development and regeneration is not well-defined. In this dissertation, I explore how Gal1 affects developmental and regenerative axon growth. Using mice lacking Gal1 (Lgals1-/-), I show that Gal1 is required for proper targeting of central axons of small-diameter, nociceptive dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. Interestingly, Lgals1-/- mice had corresponding deficits in behavioural responses to noxious stimuli. Next, I characterize the regulation of Gal1 in DRG neurons and their environment following PNI and dorsal root injury (DRI). DRG neurons mount a robust regenerative response following injury of their peripheral, but not central branch. Neuronal Gal1 was upregulated after PNI, but not DRI. In addition, Gal1 expression in the regrowing axon’s environment correlated with the permissiveness of that environment. I then examine whether Gal1 promotes axonal regeneration through mechanisms intrinsic and/or extrinsic to the injured neuron. Gal1 did not affect DRG neurons’ intrinsic growth state: Lgals1-/- neurons did not display abnormal neurite outgrowth, and exogenous oxidized Gal1 (Gal1/Ox) did not affect neurite outgrowth. Gal1 does affect the response of non-neuronal cells. I show that Gal1 promotes accumulation of immune cells called macrophages following PNI. Injection of Gal1-specific antibodies attenuated typical PNI-induced accumulation of macrophages; conversely, Gal1/Ox injection into uninjured nerves facilitated macrophage accumulation in wild-type mice. My data suggest that Gal1 does not elicit axon growth directly; rather, Gal1 likely promotes axon regeneration indirectly by enhancing PNI-induced macrophage accumulation.

The neurotransmitter L-Glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter of sensory neurons in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG). These neurons may also express ionotropic glutamate receptors, causing the potential for them to be directly excited by their own release of glutamate, from a neighboring neuron, or from other tissues. Glutamate is elevated in tissues after injury or inflammation, and iGluR signaling from the periphery has been shown to increase signaling in DRG neurons and contribute to the development of chronic pain. Targeting pharmacologic intervention of sensory neuron iGluRs present in peripheral terminals may constitute an attractive alternative or augmentation to chronic pain treatment regimens. A compartmented culture system was devised to enable the co-culture of sensory neurons and keratinocyte stem cells in discrete compartments to simulate a skin tissue in vitro, and allow focal agonist application to peripheral terminals. Activation of peripheral receptors with focal agonist application caused the propagation of signals towards somata of neurons in a fluidically separated compartment, causing excitatory post-synaptic currents (EPSC) that were observed and recorded via voltage-clamped whole-cell electrophysiology. EPSC responses observed exhibited statistically significant differences between the ? values of the EPSCs after respective agonist exposure. Immunofluorescent labeling and visualization of receptor expression showed that iGluR subunits are expressed in sensory neuron somata, sensory neuron peripheral processes, non-neuronal cells from the DRG, and keratinocyte stem cells. The implementation of this co-culture clamping facilitates the spatially discrete interaction of neuronal and non-neuronal cell types for the characterization of their interfaces, as well as for the discrete application of pharmacologic agents along axons to evaluate their spatially constrained influence on activity at a cellular, and intercellular level. The spatially restricted application of agonists represents a chemotransmissive instigation of electrochemical activity in neurons for studying EPSCs, instead of electrically stimulating a presynaptic cell, and so more faithfully represents what would occur in vivo. Using this system to test novel pharmaceuticals represents an intermediary step between the study of ligand interactions with receptors and systemic administration to experimental animals. The identification of the active receptors and their subunit-specific peripheral expression yield alternative therapeutic targets for chronic pain treatment.

After a defined unilateral sciatic nerve transection in the rat, a novel triple staining technique was employed in order to enable the detection of neuronal death in L4 & L5 dorsal root ganglia by light microscopic morphology, and TdT Uptake Nick-End Labelling (TUNEL). Optical dissection was then used to quantify neuronal loss from statistically unbiased estimates of the number of surviving neurons. Neuronal death was demonstrated to begin within 24 hours of injury and to peak 2 weeks later, while neuronal loss plateaued 2 months after axotomy, and 39.2% of neurons died overall. Thus the most relevant experimental timepoints at which to examine the effects of putative neuroprotective strategies are 2 weeks and 2 months after axotomy, until which time a window of opportunity exists for therapeutic intervention. The principal that sensory outcome might be related to the delay between injury and nerve repair was confined by the fact that although surgical nerve repair reduced neuronal death 2 weeks after axotomy, the neuroprotective benefit depended upon how soon after injury the nerve was repaired. Even immediate repair did not entirely eliminate neuronal loss, confirming the need for an adjuvent therapy. Hence the effect of two promising agents with established clinical safety records was examined. N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC) is a clinically proven glutathione substrate antioxidant, and anti-mitotic properties. Systemic treatment caused a dose-dependent improvement in neuronal morphology, a significant reduction in the number of TUNEL positive neurons 2 weeks after axotomy (p<0.05), and 2 months after axotomy it was found to have reduced neuronal loss from 35% to only 3% (p<0.001). L-acetyl-carnitine (LAC) is a physiological peptide integral to mitochondrial aerobic glycolysis that was found to be even more neuroprotective than NAC, since after LAC treatment no neuronal loss was detected 2 months after axotomy (no treatment 35% loss; high-dose LAC -4% loss, p<0.001).

The mechanisms of pain and hyperalgesia were examined in rats following cutaneous-heat and peripheral-nerve injury. Central mechanisms of hyperalgesia were indicated since a heat injury produced a decrease in foot-withdrawal latencies in the paw contralateral to the injury and an increase in autotomy of the injured paw following section of the sciatic and saphenous nerves. The reduced contralateral foot-withdrawal latencies were reversed by spinal anesthesia and subcutaneous guanethidine, but were unaffected by local anesthetics and capsaicin at the site of injury. The enhancement of autotomy produced by an injury was reduced by spinal anesthesia and a combination of intrathecal capsaicin and subcutaneous guanethidine. Both intrathecal substance P and systemic noradrenaline produced an increase in autotomy following nerve lesions; guanethidine, but neither capsaicin nor procaine, produced a decrease in autotomy. A reduction in inflammation and hyperalgesia within an injured paw was produced by local capsaicin, but not by guanethidine. The results suggest that central mechanisms, such as spinal hyperactivity, combined with peripheral neurogenic mechanisms are involved in the production of hyperalgesia following heat injury. Pain and hyperalgesia following nerve injury are proposed to be due to spinal cord plasticity resulting from deafferentation and abnormal sympathetic activity.

博士
國立臺灣大學
解剖學暨細胞生物學研究所
89
Either peripheral nerve injury or hypoxia will alter the NMDA receptor activity and result to neuronal degeneration or cell death via the over production of nitric oxide and affecting the metabolic pathways of related neurochemicals. By using the histochemical and immunohistochemical methods, the present study was aimed to determine the relationship between the neurochemical expression and neuronal degeneration of motor neurons, sensory neurons and glia cells under peripheral nerve injury along with hypoxia treatment. This study was also thought to explore whether the extra-administration of anti-oxidant (i.e. melatonin) will exert its neuroprotective effect on the lesioned neurons. Firstly, the acute high altitude (10000 m) hypoxic exposure was selected as the experimental paradigm to determine the effect of hypoxia on the expression patterns of related neurochemicals of sensory and motor neurons. The results revealed that after acute hypoxia treatment, the nitric oxide synthase (NOS), NMDA receptor as well as the calcitonin gene-related peptide immunoreactivities in the nodose ganglion were up-regulated, while the cytochrome oxidase (an endogenous metabolic marker) and the acetylcholinesterase histochemical staining were down-regulated. Significant neuronal loss was detected in the nodose ganglion 2 weeks following acute hypoxic exposure. On the contrary, acute hypoxia did not cause any noticeable changes in lower brainstem motor neurons bearing different functional component. Based on these results, we suggest that acute hypoxia will induce NMDA receptor mediated NOS activation in the sensory neuron, by excessive generation of free radicals and disturbing the energy metabolic pathway and neurotransmitter function, directly lead to neuronal damage or cell death. Furthermore, the peripheral nerve injury coupled with hypoxia was adopted as the double injury model to determine and compare the related neurochemical expression among the lower brainstem motor neurons bearing different functional component. The results indicated that following unilateral transection of the vagal and hypoglossal nerves, the NOS immunoreactivities were drastically increased in the lesioned nuclei. The extent of NOS up-regulation was positively correlated with the severity of neuronal damage. Besides, with the over production of nitric oxide, peripheral nerve injury and hypoxia will also suppress the reactivities of cytochrome oxidase, choline acetyltransferase as well as the Mn-superoxide dismutase (an anti-oxidant enzyme). On the other hand, axotomy along with hypoxia will cause the microglia and astrocyte activation within the lesioned nuclei as revealed by the GSA-IB4 lectin binding method and the glia fibrillary acidic protein immunohistochemistry, respectively. The expression patterns of related neurochemicals, activated status of glia cells and the numbers of neuronal loss were all more significant in the double injury treated rats as compared with those of normoxic ones. Based on these results, we suggest that peripheral nerve injury along with hypoxia will contribute to the severer neuronal damage via the over activation of NOS, which could subsequently broke the metabolic pathway, neurotransmitter function as well as the balanced status of the free radical/ anti-oxidative defense system. Results of the effects of melatonin on the acute hypoxia or peripheral nerve injury were indicated that melatonin would indeed suppress the NOS expression and reduce the neuronal demage in the lesioned neurons. The suppressive effect of melatonin on the NOS expression was dose dependent. The present study not only provides the first morphological evidence concerning the neuroprotective effect of melatonin but also increases the current knowledge for the therapeutic use of melatonin as a clinical trial to forestall the related neuropathies induced by hypoxia or peripheral nerve injury. In summary, by the use of acute hypoxia or peripheral nerve injury along with hypoxia as experimental models, the present study was clearly demonstrated the relationship between the related neurochemical expression and neuronal damage in the sensory neurons, motor neurons and glia cells. The results obtained from the present study will not only help us to better understand the physiological significance of hypoxia on the peripheral nerve injury, but also document the possible functional roles of related neurochemicals during the process of neuronal degeneration.

Microtubule targeting agents (MTAs) are chemotherapeutics commonly used in the treatment of breast, ovarian, lung, and lymphoma cancers. There are two main classes of MTAs based upon their effects on microtubule stability. The two classes are the destabilizing agents, which include the drug vincristine, and the stabilizing agents, which include paclitaxel and epothilone B. These drugs are highly effective antineoplastics, but their use is often accompanied by several side effects, one of which is peripheral neuropathy. Peripheral neuropathy can be characterized by burning pain, tingling, loss of proprioception, or numbness in the hands and feet. In some patients, the MTA-induced peripheral neuropathy is debilitating and dose-limiting; however, there are no effective prevention strategies or treatment options for peripheral neuropathy as the mechanisms mediating this side effect are unknown. The goal of this work was to investigate MTA-induced effects on neuronal activity and morphology in order to elucidate the underlying mechanisms involved in the development of MTA-induced peripheral neuropathy. As an indicator of sensory neuronal activity, the basal and stimulated release of the putative nociceptive peptide, calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), was measured from sensory neurons in culture after exposure to the MTAs paclitaxel, epothilone B, and vincristine. Neurite length and branching were also measured in sensory neuronal cultures after treatment with these MTAs. The results described in this thesis demonstrate that MTAs alter the stimulated release of CGRP from sensory neurons in differential ways depending on the MTA agent employed, the CGRP evoking-stimulus used, the concentration of the MTA agent, the duration of exposure to the MTA agent, and the presence of NGF. It was also observed that MTA agents decrease neurite length and branching, independent of the concentration of NGF in the culture media. Thus, this thesis describes MTA-induced alterations of sensory neuronal sensitivity and neurite morphology and begins to elucidate the underlying mechanisms involved in MTA-induced alterations of sensory neurons. These findings will undoubtedly be used to help elucidate the mechanisms underlying MTA-induced peripheral neuropathy.

The effect of interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) on the electrical properties of sensory neurons was assessed at comparable levels and exposure times to those found in animal models of neuropathic pain. Experiments involved whole cell current- or voltage-clamp recordings from rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons in defined medium, neuron enriched cultures. 5-6 days exposure to 100 pM IL-1β produced neuron specific effects. These included an increase in the excitability of medium diameter and small diameter isolectin B4 (IB4)-positive neurons that was comparable to that found after peripheral nerve injury. By contrast, a reduction in excitability was observed in large diameter neurons, while no effect was found in small diameter IB4-negative neurons. Further characterization of changes in medium and small IB4-positive neurons revealed that some, but not all, effects of IL-1β were mediated through its receptor, IL-1RI. Using appropriate voltage protocols and/or ion substitutions, it was found that neuron specific changes in several ionic currents, including alterations in hyperpolarization activated inward current (IH) and decreases in various K+ currents contribute to the increased excitability produced by IL-1β. Overall, these studies revealed that: 1. The effects of long-term exposure of DRG neurons to IL-1β are reflective of the enduring increase in primary afferent excitability reported after peripheral nerve injury. This expands the recognized role of IL-1β in acute inflammatory pain to neuropathic pain. 2. Hyperexcitability in medium neurons exposed to IL-1β likely includes mixed populations of neurons corresponding to nociceptive and non-nociceptive primary afferent fibres and, therefore, has relevance to hyperalgesia and allodynia, respectively. 3. The responsiveness of small IB4-positive neurons, but not IB4-negative, to prolonged IL-1β exposure is consistent with the suggestion that small IB4-negative afferents are involved in inflammatory pain, while small IB4-positive afferents are involved neuropathic pain. 4. The identification of receptor mediated effects and several contributing ionic mechanisms, may have relevance to the development of new therapeutic approaches to neuropathic pain. 5. IL-1β can contribute to increased neuronal excitability by mechanisms that are independent of IL-1RI signalling. This should be taken into account when targeting IL-1β, or more specifically IL-1RI, in the management of neuropathic pain.

Somatosensory neurons densely innervate skin, our largest sensory organ. Adult skin continually remodels throughout the lifespan to maintain a protective barrier for our bodies. How sensory neurons maintain their peripheral endings in the face of continual turnover of their target tissue is not well understood. To address this gap in knowledge, I analyzed the temporal dynamics and mechanisms of structural plasticity of touch receptors in healthy adult skin. My studies focused on the terminals of Merkel-cell afferents in mouse touch domes. These two-part touch receptors comprise epithelial Merkel cells innervated by branching axons of fast-conducting sensory neurons. I show that Merkel cells and their afferents are structurally plastic over the course of hair growth in adults. These two components simplify during active hair growth, with fewer terminal neurites and fewer Merkel cells per touch dome at this stage compared with other phases of hair growth. Merkel-cell removal was observed with multiple molecular markers. Additionally, mice showed diminished touch-evoked behavior during hair growth compared with follicle quiescence. Next, I showed that Sarm1, a key effector of Wallerian degeneration, is not required for structural plasticity of Merkel cell-neurite complexes in young adulthood. Finally, I developed a technique to perform time-lapse in vivo imaging of identified Merkel cells and afferent terminals over the course of a month. These structures were highly plastic, with afferent terminals undergoing frequent growth and regression, as well as both Merkel cells and terminal branches being added or removed. Together, these studies reveal that peripheral nerve terminals undergo a previously unsuspected amount of structural plasticity in healthy tissue.