Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Small-scale miners'

Thesis(MTech (Chem.Eng.Technology))--//Cape Technikon, 1999<br>The gold mining industry has mainly relied upon the use of a highly polluting chemicals, such as mercury and cyanide, to recover gold from its ores. As environmental legislation has become more stringent in all countries and environmental protection has become the focus of world-wide research, development of environmental sound processes has been favoured. The Coal Gold Agglomeration (CGA) process is such a process which was developed some years ago and has the advantage in that gold is recovered by a procedure which has little or no effect on the environment. The CGA process is based on the hydrophobic characteristics of coal, gold and oil. Gold particles which are substantially free become attached to the coal-oil agglomerates during collision, and eventually penetrate into the agglomerates. The resulting agglomerates are recycled to increase the gold loading, separated from the slurry, burnt, ashed and smelted to produce gold bullion. Laboratory scale batch tests were performed on an artificial/synthetic gold ore, containing fine gold powder. The slurry was contacted with a mixture of coal and oil. i.e. coal-oil agglomerates, after which both the agglomerates and ore were analysed for gold. Operating parameters, such as the mode of contact between the coal-oil phase and the gold containing slurry, contact time of the slurry and the coal-oil phase, means of separating the coal-oil gold agglomerates from the slurry, coal to ore, coal to oil and water to ore ratios, type of oil, effect of collectors and the mineralogy of the ore on the gold recovery were investigated. Results have shown that stirring the coal-oil phase and the slug yielded higher gold loadings than shaking and the traditional rolling bottle technique. BI increasing the time of contact between the coal-oil phase and the gold slurry. the final gold loading in the agglomerates increases, until an equilibrium value is reached. An increase in the amount of coal, together with a decrease in the amount of water used in the slurry, has shown to increase gold recoveries. Furthermore, by varying the concentration and volume of a collector. such as potassium amyl xanthate (PAX) enhanced the settling rate and enabled the effectiveness of separation. Moreover, it was found that the gold loading on the coal-oil phase increased after recycling it. Further tests were performed on a real ore sample and after X-ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis, it was found that certain minerals other than gold was transferred to the coal-oil phase. The theoretical foundation of the CGA process is based on the difference in free energy and was expressed as a function of the interfacial tensions and three-phase contact angles between gold, oil and water, together with the ratio of coal-oil agglomerate to gold particle radii, as the free energy is a measure of the thermodynamic stability and hence, partly a measure of gold recoveries, meaningful predictions as to gold recoveries were made by performing a sensitivity analysis on the variables connected to the free energy, It was, however, found that some operating parameters, which were linked to other factors, such as the maximum gold transfer into coal-oil phase and the separation efficiency of the agglomerates. were vital to be taken into account when predictions as to gold recoveries were made. Therefore, the gold recoveries were found to be a function of the thermodynamic stability as well as the maximum gold transfer into the coal-oil phase and the separation efficiency of the agglomerates, The meaningful information gained by performing the theoretical investigations were applied and linked to gold recoveries, thereby providing useful explanations as to the typical gold recoveries obtained during experimentation. A comparative study on mercury amalgamation was done to evaluate the performance of the CGA process. It was found that the CGA process yielded better gold recoveries than amalgamation, which makes it the better process both in terms of recoveries as well as environmental safety, A further application of the theoretical knowledge was, however, very useful to explain the tendency of the CGA process yielding the better results.

The current weak state of the platinum market, as well as the large inventory of platinum group metals held by Russia, necessitates that the South African platinum mining industry must carefully evaluate the benefits and disadvantage of small-scale mining of shallow, open castable ore resources. Until the late 1980's, these resources were ignored due to the metallurgical complexities of treating oxidized ore, as well as the mind set that existed within the South African mining industry which militated against open cast mining in the Bushveld. During the latter part of the 1980's and early 1990's, advances in the metallurgical treatment of oxidized ore, specifically the UG2, as well as operational problems, created the impetus to begin the exploitation of these resources. Small-scale open cast mining has become viable due to the development of suitable mining methods that facilitate mining practices acceptable to the Department of Mineral and Energy Affairs, in terms of environmental legislation. Metallurgical advances and growing experience, especially with respect to the UG2, enables reasonable platinum group metals recovery from oxidized ore. The problems experienced in doing this can, and are being overcome. With growing public awareness of environmental issues, particularly related to the mining industry, the requirement to ensure that the small-scale open cast mine site is well managed is paramount. A methodology for the evaluation is presented along with a case study of a small-scale UG2 open cast pit. Evidence is presented that shows that these small-scale open cast mining operations are extremely profitable and require minimal capital expenditure. However, caution is advised when evaluating Merensky Reef open cast operations because of the problems that they present.

In considering how women navigate the complexity and gendered aspects of the artisanal mining industry, this study seeks to unpack women's labour at step one of the global supply chain of coltan, in the post-conflict context of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Female miners are largely excluded from mine work by blurry regulatory frameworks, gendered social norms and financial disparities, however they manage to remain active labourers in the artisanal mining industry. Within a broader socio-political context of poverty, political instability and rural livelihoods, women maintain access to mine work through strategies, often premised on a gendered solidarity, such as organizing into collectives, engaging in small group collaborations and employing creative ruses to maintain the secrecy of their labour. This thesis seeks to analyze women's exclusions from mine work and the subsequent strategies they employ to circumvent those exclusions and maintain work in the mines. Based on three months of ethnographic fieldwork at artisanal coltan mine sites in Masisi Territory in the province of North Kivu, this study employs ethnographic observations, focus group and interview methodologies.

O estado de São Paulo é o maior consumidor de agregados minerais do Brasil e está entre os maiores produtores destes bens minerais com uma produção voltada principalmente para construção civil, indústria e agricultura. Tendo-se em vista a relevância da mineração, o presente trabalho tem como objetivo caracterizar como a mineração de pequeno porte de areia e brita tem participado no planejamento urbano em regiões metropolitanas, utilizando como exemplo quatro regiões metropolitanas no estado de São Paulo e o Plano de Desenvolvimento Urbano Integrado (PDUI) de cada uma delas. Neste trabalho foi desenvolvido uma metodologia de análise a partir da consulta a fontes de dados primários e secundários. Os dados primários são do setor mineral do estado de São Paulo que engloba a micro, pequena e média mineração, de 2010 a 2014. Os dados secundários foram obtidos a partir de estudos referentes ao mercado produtor e consumidor das substâncias minerais escolhidas para esta pesquisa. Foi realizado também uma análise de como é a gestão de agregados e políticas públicas na Província de Ontário no Canadá. Como o estudo foi focado no estado de São Paulo, cada um dos PDUIs foi analisado e o resultado é que há pouca interação com a setor mineral e que para a mineração no estado de São Paulo ser exemplo de responsabilidade ambiental, social, econômica é necessário transparência e informação sobre a atividade, além da integração dos atores relevantes.<br>The state of São Paulo is the largest consumer of mineral aggregates in Brazil and one of the largest producers of mineral goods with a production focused mainly on civil construction, agriculture and industry. Taking into account the relevance of mining, the present study aims to characterize how sand and gravel small-scale mining has been contributing to urban planning in metropolitan regions, taking as example, four metropolitan regions in the state of São Paulo and their Integrated Urban Development Plans (IUDP). In this work, an analysis methodology was developed based on the investigation of primary and secondary data sources. The primary data is from the mineral sector of the state of São Paulo, which covers micro, small and medium-mining from 2010 to 2014. Secondary data was obtained from studies concerning the producer and consumer market of the mineral substances chosen for this research. In addition, an analysis regarding aggregate management and public policies was conducted in the Province of Ontario in Canada. Since the study was focused on the state of São Paulo, each of the IUDPs was analyzed and the result is that there is little interaction with the mineral sector and that for mining in the state of São Paulo to be an example of environmental, social and economic responsibility, transparency and information on the activity is necessary, as well as the integration of the relevant actors.

Fortified and unfortified soymilk were produced from the same production batches for comparative evaluation. Fortification included a comprehensive array of micronutrients of interest to community and humanitarian nutrition programs. The effects of time after fortification prior to cooling, cooling method, and light or dark refrigerated storage on the stability of 5 vitamins (vitamin A, vitamin C, thiamine, riboflavin, and folate) were investigated for both fortified and unfortified soymilk. Significant vitamin C loss (6%) and mild vitamin A isomerization occurred while soymilk was hot immediately following fortification. Cooling bottled soymilk in an ambient water bath or ice water bath made no difference in the levels of any of the vitamins measured. Significant loss of riboflavin (18%) and significant vitamin A isomerization to cis isomers other than 13-cis, resulting in loss of bioactivity, occurred during 12 days of light-exposed refrigerated storage. An increase of 13-cis isomer was observed in dark refrigerated storage but with no significant loss of vitamin A bioactivity. No significant degradation of any other vitamins occurred during 12 days of dark refrigerated storage. Sensory evaluation by a panel of youth and children revealed no significant preferences between fortified and unfortified soymilk excepting colour, for which property there was a slight preference for unfortified soymilk. Acceptable vitamin stability and sensory characteristics can be achieved in comprehensively fortified soymilk produced in small-scale batch processes with appropriate management of production and storage conditions.

In rural sub-Saharan Africa, tens of millions of people engage in artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM), low-tech, labour-intensive mineral extraction and processing. Working in precarious conditions, these – mostly-impoverished – operators are deeply embedded at the base of global networks of production that supply significant quantities of the world’s minerals and construction materials, including upwards of 20 per cent of global gold and diamonds production each year. But constrained by mineral governance frameworks and an ‘opportunity structure’ that is found to prioritise the development of export-led large-scale mineral extraction and exploration activities, the vast majority of ASM operators find themselves entrenched in cycles of poverty that trap them in the informal economy. Here, their activities, while productive, have, due to a lack of regulation, become strongly associated with a range of deleterious social, health and environmental problems that have had detrimental impacts on rural communities. Significantly, these ‘expressions’ of the sector’s informality have provided a source of inspiration for the pioneering designers of ethical mineral certification schemes, which variously claim to facilitate transformational change by empowering the most marginalised ASM operators. The results thus far, however, are unimpressive: despite the fanfare surrounding their implementation, they are rather commonly associated with elite capture, target the ‘low hanging fruit’, and have failed to reach – and at times, even attempt to target – the unlicensed miners that are entrenched in the shadow economy and who are in the greatest need of support. Further analysis reveals that the designers of ethical mineral schemes, and the NGOs, government bodies and industry organisations backing them, have a poor knowledge of the dynamics of the ASM sector, which has hampered their ability to pinpoint who, specifically, to target in the value chain and how to go about engaging them. The purpose of this thesis, therefore, is to help bridge this gap by deepening understanding of the local level functioning of ASM activities, and the complex multi-layered networks of labour and production they are a part of, with a view toward facilitating the improved design of ethical mineral schemes and complementary support structures for the sector’s operators. It is this crucial information and level of detail that is needed to put organisations in a position to entice impoverished ASM operators to vacate the informal sector ‘spaces’ which they populate, as well as design ethical mineral schemes which are truly ‘pro-poor’. To achieve this, the thesis adapts the Global Production Network (GPN) framework, embracing heavily its core underpinning themes of embeddedness, empowerment, and value, which constitute the pillars of the theoretical and conceptual framework adopted in this thesis. These frameworks are used as a lens to ‘map’ the complex networks found in a diamond-producing section and gold-producing area of Ghana, the location of one of the more dynamic and sizeable ASM economies in sub-Saharan Africa. The thesis found and reconceptualised ASM activities to be deeply embedded within social production networks characterised by trust-based, reciprocal relationships of mutual cooperation and benefit. These social production networks are shaped by long histories of interaction with ‘lead firms’ which continue to influence the contemporary functioning of ASM activities. The thesis also found that in the absence of formal support services for the sector, the so-called ‘unscrupulous middlemen’ – which architects of ethical mineral schemes aim to remove from supply chains and around whom they have managed to drum up significant public support – do, in fact, provide invaluable services and are crucial to ASM’s functioning in informal ‘spaces’. With this information and a detailed understanding of the various roles within the networks of supply, the way in which minerals move upwards through key nodes, and how local-level activities interlock with international markets, a number of key recommendations and draft blueprints are developed. The multiple and significant contributions to knowledge of this thesis are: 1) To the literature on informality and ASM with regard to unpacking the local level functioning of activities and especially the role of a range of actors often referred to collectively as ‘middlemen’. 2) The conceptual development of embeddedness, trust and reciprocity as lenses with which to conceptualise, help explain, and examine the workings of ASM production networks and with which to generate new insights. 3) The significant conceptual and theoretical advancement, and adaptation of, the Global Production Network framework in order to develop the novel Social Production Network as a tool to map and capture the fine details and dynamics, and improve understanding of, informal economic activities, and in particular, those found in artisanal and small-scale mining. 4) The development of two clear draft blueprints for action to help lead to effecting change in policy and practice and support broader formalisation efforts for the ASM sector. These are tailored to: - policymakers in Ghana to help with catalysing formalisation activities through middlemen and reaching informal and semi-formal ASM spaces, including a clear set of recommendations for key national stakeholders. - organisations looking to develop truly pro-poor ethical mineral certification initiatives, and adapt existing ones to reach informal ASM operators in Ghana, and similar geographies in sub-Saharan Africa.

Na mineração, grande parte das incertezas e riscos estão associados à caracterização geológica. A adoção das melhores práticas na pesquisa mineral resulta em menor risco e maiores eficácia e eficiência à operação, agregando valor ao empreendimento. No Brasil, em geral, a mineração em pequena escala emprega poucos recursos para a pesquisa mineral, e as melhores práticas são frequentemente ignoradas. Este trabalho aborda a incerteza geológica na mineração e como as melhores práticas de pesquisa mineral podem ser aplicadas na pequena mineração para diminuir riscos e incorporar valor ao projeto. A aplicação da Matriz de Priorização CEBIm em três projetos de pesquisa mineral em pequenos depósitos mostra como essa ferramenta pode ser utilizada de forma simples, prática, rápida e econômica para avaliação do nível de aderência do programa de pesquisa mineral às melhores práticas, que pode indicar a magnitude da incerteza geológica associada ao projeto.<br>In mining, a large number of uncertainties and risks are associated with geological characterization. The adoption of best practices in mineral exploration results in lower risk and greater effectiveness and efficiency to the operation, adding value to the enterprise. In Brazil, in general, small-scale mining employs little resources for mineral exploration, and the best practices are often ignored. This work addresses the geological risks in mining and how best practices in mineral exploration can be applied in small mining to reduce risks and incorporate value to the project. The application of the CEBIm Priority Matrix in three projects of mineral exploration in small deposits shows how this tool can be utilized in a simple, practical, fast and economical way for assessment of the level of compliance of the mineral exploration program to the best practices, which can indicate the magnitude of geological uncertainty associated with the project.

Includes bibliographical references.<br>The small-scale mining (SSM) sector in South Africa has been overshadowed by the wealth generating capacity of the formal mining industry. To address the disparity between the SSM sector and the large formal mining industry, a number of government initiatives have been introduced, the latest being the preparation of the Minerals and Petroleum Resources Development Act 28, which was finalized in October 2002. The Act, which has not yet been implemented, is expected to redress some of the sector's current obstacles. Two case studies conducted in the Northern Cape and North West Provinces, provided the basis for this social impact assessment (SIA). The aim of these studies was to identfy the most serious issues faced by the SSM sector and to assess the likely socio-econiomic impacts of the Act.

This thesis determines that over four hundred thousand artisanal and small-scale gold miners all over China systematically use amalgamation and release approximately 240 tonnes of mercury per annum. Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is one of the largest sources of mercury pollution in China. This thesis outlines an approach to investigating ASGM in China based on a series of three studies. The main findings of the thesis were that ASGM and amalgamation are widespread in China, and that mercury releases from ASGM have serious health and environmental impacts on the miners themselves and on their surrounding communities and environment. The use of whole ore amalgamation was demonstrated to be the primary source of these releases, and Muller mill amalgamation was pinpointed as being responsible for over 70% of the ASGM mercury releases. In addition, the practice of following amalgamation with cyanidation was indicated to increase the solubility of mercury and perhaps further increase its risks. The test work completed on an ore sample from the community of "Gold Mountain" demonstrated that alternative technology could largely replace whole ore amalgamation (although not cyanidation) with gravity methods and thus greatly mitigate the health and environmental impacts of ASGM.

This thesis analyses cooperation and trust as key components of organization in artisanal and small-scale mining. Significant economic, health and social issues are associated with artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) activities. Work conducted as part of the GEF/UNDP/UNIDO Global Mercury Project has illuminated opportunities to improve the situation for artisanal and small-scale miners and their communities through enhanced organizational structures. Improvements in organization can present opportunities for groups of miners to access technology and finance, conduct work that is safe and in accordance with best practices, increase productivity and earnings, and reduce the numerous social impacts associated with involvement in the sub-sector. Upon identification of barriers to improved organisation in ASM, research by the GMP concluded that distrust and uncooperativeness among miners were two of the most significant concerns to address prior to introducing organizational alternatives. It was determined that in order to promote pro-social and trusting behaviours within ASM groups, the current nature of these components should be defined. It was believed that the adaptation of economic games to ASM contexts could contribute to an understanding of the nature of trust and cooperation. In addition, this could also provide evidence to either support reasons for distrust between groups of miners or highlight a proclivity towards trust and cooperation. It was also believed that economic games could be applied as an educational tool in the promotion of cooperative behaviours by illustrating in a tangible, direct and interactive manner the benefits of cooperation and trust over the pursuit of self interest. With current lack of organization being attributed in part to anti-social and individualistic behaviour among miners, this work demonstrates how economic games can serve as analogies of situations in ASM whereby benefits to both individuals and groups can be derived through cooperation. The following work is an examination of these applications of economic games in ASM in Tanzania.<br>Applied Science, Faculty of<br>Mining Engineering, Keevil Institute of<br>Graduate

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (Environmental Science). Johannesburg, 2017.<br>South Africa’s SDFIs have potential to play a critical role in fostering environmental compliance in the mining industry. Their role is particularly important in the small-scale and junior mining sector which is usually shunned by private finance institutions because of high environmental credit risk. Equipped with knowledge and experience of working with clients across different sectors and their potential leadership role in technology transfer, SDFIs can leverage their position in acting as trusted third party environmental regulation enforcers. Financial institutions have long been criticised for showing little interest in environmental impacts of their clients while concentrating on profit maximisation. This study sought to investigate the response by financial institutions to this criticism through evaluating the role of SDFIs in fostering environmental compliance by small-scale and junior mining companies which are generally viewed as having a poor environmental compliance record. Through the twin qualitative research methods of interviews and document analysis, the role of three state-owned development finance institutions in fostering environmental regulation compliance by small-scale mining enterprises in South Africa was evaluated. The study revealed that SDFIs explicitly and implicitly provide a wide range of products and services which help small-scale and junior miners in complying with environmental regulations. The study also found that, while SDFIs are beginning to adopt market-based mechanisms to encourage environmental compliance, they still heavily rely on command and control mechanisms as a way of mitigating environmentally related risks arising from financing mining companies.<br>LG2018

In this thesis, I examine the case of the Canadian-based multinational mining corporation GreyStar resources Ltd. in Colombia. Angosturas is GreyStar’s large-scale gold mining project in the sensitive wet highland of páramo de Santurbán in the northeast of the Andes. Although GreyStar has undertaken explorations in this area since 1994, Colombia’s Ministry of Environment denied the environmental license to the company to start with extractions in 2011. I suggest that the government’s decision must be understood in the context of massive mobilizations against the project in large cities such as Bucaramanga and Bogotá as well as the principle of sustainable development (hereafter SD). The latter forms part of the 1991 Colombian constitution, and thus, through this legal presence, is considered to provide environmental protection in the country. Despite this government’s recent ruling, GreyStar (which renamed itself ‘Eco Oro’ after the 2011 decision) and other mining companies (e.g. Ventana Gold) have continued their quest to gain permission to begin with extractions in Santurbán. I explore why these continued attempts to persuade the government regarding extraction licensing is possible. In doing so, I critically investigate the principle of SD, which is central to the resolution by which the Ministry of the Environment denies the environmental license to Eco Oro (GreyStar). In other words, this thesis asks why SD allows for the classification of large-scale mining as a ‘common-good’ activity, which has negative implications on attempts to designate certain ecosystems (e.g. páramo) as common-goods on the basis that there are to be sustained as such, and therefore, an unequivocal moratorium on large-scale mining in these ecosystems is necessary. What and whose common-good does large-scale mining in sensitive ecosystems represent? I argue that in the scope of SD, commoditized nature is vulnerable to the volatility of markets and corporate profitability. This thesis is a criticism of SD and the limitations it places on hearing certain kinds of languages and discourses that resist the key assumptions of SD. The case study allows for addressing a gap in the existing literature, which is the distinctive situation of no legally considered ethnic minorities (e.g. small farmers, small miners, and the cities).<br>Thesis (Master, Cultural Studies) -- Queen's University, 2012-09-24 10:28:50.601

A project report submitted to the Faculty of Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Engineering.<br>This study addresses a principal issue associated with the small-scale mining industry in South Africa, namely mineral rights. Firstly it defines a small-scale mine and its role in the South African economy. It then examines the current mineral rights policy and the conditions under which the current mineral rights policy could be reformed in order to encourage the growth of the small-scale mining sector. Various models and proposals have been examined in an attempt to suggest the most suitable policy in terms of acquisition and distribution of mineral rights, Acquisition of mineral rights remains one of the major obstacles facing small-scale mining companies. The need to change the legal framework surrounding the acquisition of mineral rights is clearly demonstrated in this project report. Simplification of the legal framework would lead to easy access to mineral rights by both large-scale and small-scale, South African and foreign mining companies and remove the traditional complexities associated with the current South African mineral rights policy which tend to sterilise mineral rights. These complexities include subdivision of mineral rights, potential lockup of mineral rights by private companies and individuals and the State. Analysis of methods to rationalise the mineral rights policy have demonstrated that nationalisation and expropriation of mineral rights are counter productive and can not be used as vehicles for access to mineral rights. In order to strengthen the small-scale mining industry changes to the mineral rights have been proposed. A model mineral rights policy framework has been designed to promote small-scale mining. Introduction of a mineral fights tax, taking into consideration the specifics of the South African mining industry, similar to that of Swaziland of 1958 is proposed as one of the ways of discouraging the sterilisation of mineral rights. It introduces a cost element in the locking up of mineral rights by private companies and individuals. It is envisaged that when the cost of holding these mineral rights is greater than the benefits of holding the mineral rights, mineral rights holders would relinquish them thereby allowing access to these mineral rights to other interested parties. The relinquished mineral rights should revert to the State, which in tum should allocate them to qualified mining companies. Due considerations of the unique characteristics of the South African mining industry need to be taken into account when designing any mineral rights policy. Implementation of any such policy should therefore be done with the consensus of the mining industry. Access to State mineral rights is also considered vital. Whilst it is important to provide the small-scale mining sector with access to mineral rights it is recognised that the success of the sector depends many factors, mineral rights among others. A holistic approach that take into all facets of small-scale mining are included in the proposed policy framework for the development of the small-scale mining industry in South Africa.<br>AC2017

Small-scale variation (SSV) of mine soils is enhanced by stripping, mixing and stockpiling of materials. Soils with enhanced variation are difficult to assess, causing misleading results that indirectly affects mine rehabilitation outcomes. This thesis aims to determine if standard soil chemical and biological methods are applicable in the assessment of enhanced SSV mine soils from Barrick (Cowal) Gold mine. Mine soils are firstly discussed in context of rehabilitation. Rehabilitating mine sites involves ecosystem engineering, in which landscape, function, structure and composition are essential ecosystem features. Using these features, a framework for planning, implementing and monitoring for ecosystem engineering was developed. The issue of SSV in mine soils was reviewed in the literature. It was determined that SSV directly and indirectly influences mine rehabilitation outcomes. The development of sampling strategies, alternative analytical and statistical methods, and standard guidelines are required for reliable assessment of mine soils. Nineteen topsoil stockpiles at Cowal were sampled for characterisation, with sample numbers proportional to stockpile size. Electrical conductivity (EC), exchangeable cations, cation exchange capacity (CEC), total carbon (TC), nitrogen (TN), sulphur (TS), nitrate-N, ammonium-N and Colwell phosphorus (P) were analysed. The soils require stabilisation and amendments for successful revegetation. Variation in exchangeable cations, TC and TN indicate soil management may cause variation in the stockpiles. Lack of matching pre- and post-mine surveys resulted in inconclusive causes of variation. Standard organic (wood mulch and compost) and inorganic (gypsum) amendments were used in the rehabilitation of a heterogeneous mine soil. This was undertaken as a 32-week laboratory (biological) and 72-week glasshouse (chemical characteristics and plants) study. The wood mulch increased C:N, C:P, C:S, respiration and moisture, which positively influenced revegetation. Gypsum had no significant impact on revegetation. Compost, however, increased all nutrients measured and decreased C:N, C:P and C:S. The low C:N:P:S ratios resulted in poorer revegetation. Coefficients of variation (CVs) were greater than 30% for microbiological biomass carbon (MBC), EC and nitrate-N (NO3-). The high variation in EC was related to gypsum application. The variation for MBC and NO3- was probably due to underlying enhanced SSV and inconsistent interferences in methods. TC, TN, TP, TS, respiration, water-P, bicarbonate-P, EC, pH, and moisture were demonstrated to be precise and accurate indicators for the assessment of mine soils. Large CVs in the standard salicylate Berthelot reaction for ammonium-N were investigated. Gypsum and enhanced variation of the soil cause inconsistent interferences. Pre-treatment by steam distillation is recommended. The anion exchange membrane method for measuring P (AEM-P) was assessed along with a range of low ionic solutions (LIS) to limit the variability associated with mine soils. Deionised water and NH4F with AEMs are precise for a range of mine soils. This thesis identifies DI AEM-P, WP, TC, TN, TP, TS, pH, EC and respiration as accurate and precise approaches for the assessment of mine soils. Nitrate-N, ammonium-N and MBC methods are not accurate, nor precise. There is a need to standardise analytical and statistical methods, and survey techniques for mine soils.

M.A.<br>This mini-dissertation establishes the extent to which small scale artisanal diamond mining impacts on the environment. There has, in the past, been research undertaken specifically on the water related impacts of small scale artisanal diamond mining. This study however, looks at the environment holistically, and gauges the total degradation to the receiving environment. Small scale artisanal diamond mining is considered to be a major contributor to the local economy and improved quality of life for the communities participating in this mining and is being actively supported through the National minerals and mining policies. It is for this reason that it was deemed imperative to understand the nature of the mining and the associated environmental impacts so that the outcome of this report could be used to inform decision makers when considering the licencing and management of artisanal diamond mining operations. In order to achieve the aim of the study, a literature review needed to be conducted focusing on the nature of small scale diamond mining operations, its influence on the social and economic spheres and the known environmental damage induced by such mining activities. However, in order to internalize the impacts, the literature review also drew a comparison with large scale artisanal diamond mining. The problems identified at the four sample sites were evaluated through the OWL Risk Assessment method to gauge the high risks and major impacts. This study showed that water pollution, biodiversity depletion and waste generation were some of the main problems traversing all four sites. In all cases assessed, artisanal diamond mining impacts on the water regime as mining takes place within the riverine environment. This study also underscored the fact that there is very little, if any rehabilitation, of disturbed areas and this impacts upon fitness for use of the receiving environment in the long term. An urgent need exists for monitoring and regulating artisanal diamond mining so as to reduce the impacts to the receiving environment. More enforced regulation will also ensure that the mining operations practice responsibly with due care for the environment coupled to a legal undertaking for rehabilitation of the mining area.

MENVSC (Geography)<br>Department of Geography and Geo-Information Science<br>Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) has devastating impacts on different parts of the environment and is a source of environmental degradation and contamination. ASGM degrades water resources, contaminate soil, sediments and water and lead to serious land degradation problems. ASGM activities are also associated with socio-economic issues such as child labour, prostitution and health and safety concerns. Insufficient understanding of the environmental and social problems of ASGM in Giyani Greenstone Belt has led to lack of mitigation strategies to reduce such problems. The main aim of this research was to assess and manage the environmental and socio-economic impacts of ASGM in Giyani Greenstone Belt. Remote sensing and GIS and Normalised Differential Vegetation Index were used to assess the effects of mining activities on vegetation cover. Assessment of the effects of ASGM on water, sediments and soil quality involved collection of samples in order to establish their physical and chemical properties. The concentration of toxic and trace metals were determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS) and X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) instruments. The pH meter was used to determine the pH level of the collected samples. Questionnaires, interviews and SPSS were used to assess socio-economic impacts of ASGM. The study culminated in devolvement of NDVI maps and this was used to assess the effects of ASGM on vegetation cover. Results showed that the mining activities in the area had caused extensive environmental degradation due to serious removal of vegetation cover in the site. ASGM had serious effects on soil, water and sediments quality such as environmental contamination by toxic and trace elements. Soil samples were found with high concentration of As, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn as compared to the recommended South African Soil Quality and WHO threshold values for plants. It was found that Klein Letaba had high concentration of Ba, La, V, and Ce above the World Soil Averages for plants. Sediments were heavily contaminated with Cr, Ni, Pb, Zn, As and Ba as compared to the recommended standards prescribed by US EPA and WHO. The pH of water, soil and sediments samples collected from both mining sites were found to be strongly alkaline which affects the plants growth as well as aquatic flora and fauna. Socio-economic issues such as child labour, injuries, educational problems, health and safety issues, police disturbance, creation of jobs and income generation were identified at mine sites. ASGM had serious effect on vegetation cover through environmental degradation. ASGM also had serious environmental contamination by toxic and trace elements. ASGM had both positive and negative socio-economic issues at mining site which include employment opportunities, income generation, occupational health and safety, police disturbance and arrests and the use of child labour. Mine site rehabilitation is recommended in this study to reduce environmental degradation. The remediation of contaminated area by concentrated toxic and trace elements should be applied at both mining sites. ASGM should be legalised to enhance positive aspects of the mining such as increase in income generation and creation of more employment opportunities. However, there should be enforcement of mining policies to reduce social and environmental problems.

This study explores the potential extension of occupational health and safety to informal small scale miners in South Africa. It was motivated by an understanding of the integral but much neglected relationship between the quality of work and the goals of poverty reduction and economic development. The study recognises that poor working conditions can reduce productivity and that work-related injury or illness is an unaffordable risk for those working without access to adequate social protection. Further, the protection of labour standards, including work health and safety, is an established basic right in those countries where relevant LLO Conventions have been ratified. Conventional occupational health and safety (OHS) regulation operates through formal employment structures and therefore offers limited or no protection to informal workers. In a country where increasing policy attention is being paid at national and local level to the employment and economic growth potential of the informal economy, this study practically explores within one sector - mining - how the institutional positions of both conventional and identified non-conventional OHS stakeholders work to constrain, or provide opportunities for, the extension of health and safety protection to those working informally. The focus on one kaolin and one clay/coal informal small scale mine site within KwaZulu-Natal and the use of in-depth interviews with workers and a range of identified stakeholders enabled a structured qualitative investigation into the health and safety challenges faced by informal miners; the nature of the support provided to small scale mining by the Department of Minerals and Energy (DME); and the institutional processes acting through national, provincial and local structures that do or could influence workers' access to OHS. The threats presented by each mine to worker and public, as well as environmental health and safety were found to be numerous and severe. There was also evidence of a negative impact of poor working conditions on both the health and economic security of the workers. Despite this, the study identified a vacuum of accountability for the labour protection of informal miners. Conventional mining OHS mechanisms are vertically driven, resource intensive and technocratic. They are both inappropriate for and inflexible towards meeting the challenges presented by informal work. In a minority of cases interdependent links between the responsibil ities of non-conventional OHS stakeholders and work health and safety are understood, but the lack of a worker focus, the institutional boundaries within which people work, their limited OHS knowledge, and the major financial and human resource constraints they face, appear to present significant barriers to any actual OHS intervention. Through the research process it became clear that the management and nature of the DME's small scale mining support strategy itself present fundamental barriers to the extension of OHS. The strategy is a product of a narrow conceptual isation of what is needed to achieve formalisation. This, and the lack of genuine worker representation and accountability within it, means that not only does the strategy fail to attend to OHS and a variety of other worker needs, but that the DME continues unchallenged in its neglect of such issues. With an understanding of the real constraints faced by both workers and the range of identified OHS stakeholders, and in view of the future plans to overhaul the existing national OHS framework in South Africa, the study concludes by outlining some practical opportunities and recommendations that could help to break down existing barriers to the OHS protection of informal workers. Conventional OHS mechanisms could be reoriented to take advantage of cheaper, simpler and more appropriate workerled approaches which could potentially achieve substantial improvements for large numbers of informal workers. Realistic opportunities also exist to more firmly secure the participation of promising non-conventional OHS stakeholders including, in this case, formal mining companies and local government. Finally, there are ways to bridge existing deep divides between social and economic institutional responsibilities that currently serve to obscure potential resource sharing and multiplier impact opportunities of working more collaboratively to improve OHS for the benefit of informal workers.<br>Thesis (M.Dev. Studies)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2006.

The socio-economic importance of small-scale mining in a developing country such as South Africa cannot be overstated. Millions of rural people trapped in abject poverty and disappointingly high unemployment, where the availability and accessibility to natural resources like sandstone is at their doorstep should never be allowed to remain poor and starve if job creation and poverty alleviation take precedence in both local and national agendas. It is against this backdrop that this pilot case study was initiated, the primary objective of which was to recommend tailor-made strategies for developing and stimulating socio-economic growth from small-scale mining operations in Qwaqwa. In order to do this a literature review was conducted, strategically aiming at establishing what was already known and in place on the subject through prior research. The process that ensued entailed designing a systematic blue print on the process of collecting, analysing and interpreting data about small-scale mining in the area. The study used multiple sources of evidence in the form of statistical analysis of the questionnaires, personal interviews, site observations and various documents to indeed confirm the indispensable nature of small-scale mining in the socio-economic fibre of rural communities. In order to stimulate socio-economic growth from small-scale mining, the formation of cooperatives for structured and coordinated assistance, favourable and encouraging regulations and policies, innovation, communication and publicity, product and market development strategies as well as the adoption and nurturing of small-scale mines by big conglomerates are some of the strategies postulated.<br>Thesis (M.B.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2008.

The junior and small-scale mining sectors in South Africa play an important role in the livelihoods of numerous communities. Mining is an opportunity, in the post-1994 democratic era, for many individuals to obtain access to much required empowerment and socio-economic development. These sectors are, however, not without numerous characteristics that pose problems for operators, legislators, and other role-players. Mining is inherently risky, with operators experiencing numerous difficulties throughout the life of mine. This critical analysis provides understanding relating to the junior and small-scale mining sectors of South Africa, as well as how mineral resource management issues impact these sectors. The different phases within the risk management cycle are described together with key techniques available to reduce the associated risks. The applicability of these techniques for use in the junior and small-scale mining sectors is highlighted. Opportunity does exist for junior and small-scale prospects and operations to include such techniques in either the search for funding or monthly planning and functioning. It is, therefore, the risk management cycle and how it currently applies to a mineral resource suitable for exploitation by the junior and small-scale mining sectors that are the core focus. No management process can create additional value in the ground, but various available mechanisms can go a long way to quantifying the inherent risk that exists, highlighting the need to manage the risks and hopefully allowing the entrepreneur access to the intrinsic opportunities of the emerging mining sector in South Africa.<br>Dissertation (MSc (Earth Science Management and Practice))--University of Pretoria, 2007.<br>Geology<br>unrestricted

Dissertação de Mestrado em Geociências (Especialização em Valorização de Recursos Geológicos)<br>O trabalho dedica-se à Prospecção e Pesquisa Mineral de pegmatitos na região leste de Minas Gerais- Brasil, em contexto de Mineração de Pequena Escala (MPE). Foram investigados 811 depósitos pegmatíticos (minas e garimpos), cadastrados pelo Projeto Leste (1998). Os jazigos descritos foram contextualizados com os Cenários de Geologia e Mineração, do Projeto de Ordenamento Territorial Geomineiro (2008) e, posteriormente, submetidos à análise de critérios de avaliação, que culminaram na seleção de 78 Pegmatitos com Relevante Interesse para Mineração (PRIM’s). A Prospecção Mineral dos pegmatitos foi desenvolvida por meio de ferramentas e técnicas de Geoprocessamento, que deram suporte a etapa de Geologia de Campo. Os métodos investigativos foram aplicados de acordo com a sequência gradativa das fases de prospecção: Estratégica, Tática e Pontual. A cartografia temática, desenvolvida nas duas primeiras fases de prospecção, permitiu identificar tendências e características intrínsecas dos Campos e Distritos Pegmatíticos investigados. A fase de prospecção pontual realizou a interceção dos pegmatitos no terreno, possibilitando a caracterização mineralógica e estrutural dos jazigos, descritos como controle das mineralizações. Para melhor compreensão das massas pegmatíticas em profundidade, foram executados serviços mineiros tradicionais, para abordagem direta das jazidas, através de galerias, cavas, poços e etc. Além desses, foi aplicado ainda o método de prospecção geofísica de Georadar (GPR), com intuito de reconhecer depósitos em subsuperfície e ainda, identificar anomalias geofísicas associadas a zonas de cavidades (bolsadas), produtoras de gemas e minerais de coleção. A Prospecção Mineral permitiu definir blocos de Reservas Minerais orientados ao aproveitamento mineral integrado dos pegmatitos. Os depósitos avaliados como aptos para o desenvolvimento de novos projetos mineiros foram encaminhados para regularização junto ao órgão regulador (DNPM/ANM). O objetivo principal do trabalho foi apresentar um estudo amplo e integrado dos pegmatitos da região com vista o aproveitamento mineral e o fomento mineiro e, por consequência, buscou-se criar uma metodologia de pesquisa replicável a outros depósitos pegmatíticos, inseridos em outras regiões do Brasil. Considerando o crescente valor estratégico atribuído aos recursos pegmatíticos, vislumbra-se a aplicabilidade efetiva para as metodologias e resultados aqui exploradas ,tanto para o Ordenamento Territorial de recursos geológicos, quanto para a atração de novos investimentos no setor mineral, incrementando o desenvolvimento intelectual, social e econômico do Brasil.<br>The work is dedicated to Prospection and Mineral Research of pegmatites in the eastern region of Minas Gerais, Brazil, in the context of Small Scale Mining (SSM). 811 pegmatitic deposits (mines and diggings), registered by Projeto Leste (1998), were investigated. The deposits described were contextualized with the Geology and Mining Scenarios of the Geomining Territorial Planning Project (2008) and were subsequently subjected to the analysis of evaluation criteria, which culminated in the selection of 78 Pegmatites with Relevant Interest for Mining (PRIM's). The Mineral Prospecting of the pegmatites was developed from tools and techniques of Geoprocessing, that supported the stage of Field Geology. The investigative methods were applied according to the gradual sequence of the phases of exploration: Strategic, Tactical and Specific. The thematic cartography developed in the first two phases of exploration allowed the identifications of trends and intrinsic characteristics in the Fields and Pegmatitic Districts investigated. The specific prospecting phase carried out the interception of the pegmatites on the ground, making possible the mineralogical and structural characterization of the deposits described as mineralization control. For a better understanding of the pegmatitic masses in depth, traditional mining services were performed, for direct approach to the deposits, through galleries, cavas, wells and others. In addition, geophysical prospecting (GPR – Ground Penetrating Radar) was applied to identify subsurface deposits and to identify geophysical anomalies associated with areas of pockets (pockets), producing gems and collection minerals. The Mineral Prospecting allowed to define blocks of Mineral Reserves oriented to the mineral utilization of pegmatites. The deposits assessed as eligible for the development of a new mining project were submitted to regularization with the regulatory body (DNPM / ANM). The main objective of this work was to present a comprehensive and integrated study of the pegmatites of the region with a view to mineral utilization and mineral development and, consequently, sought to create an integrated research methodology replicable to other pegmatitic deposits, inserted in other regions of the region. Brazil. Considering the increasing strategic value attributed to pegmatitic resources, it is possible to see the effective applicability to the methodologies and results explored here, both for the Territorial Ordering of geological resources and for the attraction of new investments in the mineral sector, increasing the intellectual, social development and economic development of Brazil.