Relevant bibliographies by topics / Spacing sizes

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  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
  4. Book chapters
  5. Conference papers
  6. Reports

Academic literature on the topic 'Spacing sizes'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 3 June 2025
Last updated: 19 July 2025

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Journal articles on the topic "Spacing sizes"

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Saifullah, Mangal, Abid Hakimullah, Bihroz Moula Khan, and Atif Mudir. "Studying the Effects of Tuber Size and Spacing between Plants on Growth and Yield of Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)." Journal for Research in Applied Sciences and Biotechnology 3, no. 1 (2024): 129–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.55544/jrasb.3.1.21.

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A field experiment was carried out to investigate the impact of different plant spacings and tuber sizes on the growth and yield of potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.). Four tuber sizes (10-20 g, 20-30 g, 30-40 g, and 40-50 g) and three plant spacings (60 x 15 cm, 60 x 30 cm, and 60 x 45 cm) were examined. The study found significant effects of both plant spacing and tuber size on various growth and yield parameters. Increasing plant spacing generally led to increased shoot growth and tuber weight per plant but decreased plant height and overall tuber yield. Similarly, larger tuber sizes were associated with higher emergence rates and yields. The 'Desiree' potato variety showed the highest total tuber yield (62.363 t/ha) when planted with 40–50 g tubers at a spacing of 60 x 15 cm, followed by a yield of 41.136 t/ha with 30–40 g tubers at a spacing of 60 x 30 cm. Optimal production was achieved with a spacing of 60 x 15 cm, and using 40–50 g tubers resulted in the highest yield.
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Marodin, Josué C., Francisco V. Resende, Juliano TV de Resende, et al. "Virus-free garlic: yield and commercial classification as a function of plant spacing and seed size." Horticultura Brasileira 38, no. 3 (2020): 295–300. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0102-053620200309.

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ABSTRACT Studies on the interaction between garlic plant density and virus-free seed size are scarce in Brazil. Thus, this study was installed to evaluate the effect of plant spacing and seed size on garlic traits and yield for infected and virus-free bulbs. Treatments were arranged in a randomized block design and 2x5x3 factorial combination [infected and virus-free bulbs, five plant spacings (210, 260, 300, 360, and 390 cm2 per plant), and three bulbous seed sizes (sieve one, two, and three)]. The highest bulb yield was observed for virus-free seeds at a plant spacing of 390 cm2 plant-1, while the highest commercial yield was verified for 210 cm2 plant-1 spacing. The combination of virus-free seeds, larger bulbs, and 332 cm2 plant-1 spacing promoted the highest leaf area index. For virus-free garlic, lower plant densities resulted in higher yields and garlic bulb quality. The best option for higher yields and improved commercial quality bulbs was the use of medium-sized virus-free bulbils at a plant density of about 300 thousand plants ha-1.
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Hu, Gaojian, and Gang Ma. "Size effect of parallel-joint spacing on uniaxial compressive strength of rock." PLOS ONE 16, no. 9 (2021): e0257245. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257245.

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The existence of parallel joints has an impact on the size effect of the uniaxial compressive strength of rock, but the relationship is yet to be obtained. In this paper, the influence of parallel-joint spacing on the size effect and characteristic size of rock uniaxial compressive strength is studied by establishing five types of parallel-joint-spacing simulation schemes. The influence of parallel-joint spacing on the size effect of rock uniaxial compressive strength is explored by analyzing the stress–strain curves of rocks with different parallel-joint spacings and rock sizes. The relationship between the uniaxial compressive strength and the size of the rock with parallel joints and its special mathematical model are obtained, and the particular form of the compressive-strength characteristic size and parallel-joint spacing is obtained.
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Zhu, Shangshang, Xinyu Su, and Yenan Dong. "Effects of the Font Size and Line Spacing of Simplified Chinese Characters on Smartphone Readability." Interacting with Computers 33, no. 2 (2021): 177–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwab020.

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Abstract In this study, we explored the effects that the font size and line spacing of simplified Chinese characters had on their readability on smartphones. One hundred and fifteen participants were recruited to complete Chinese text comprehension tasks and provide user preferences on a 5.9-inch smartphone. Nine test conditions were studied, consisting of three font sizes (10-, 12- and 14-point) and three line spacing variations (1.25-F, 1.5-F and 2-F). The results showed that both font size and line spacing significantly affect reading time, but only font size significantly affects reading accuracy; font size, line spacing and the interaction between them have significant effects on the difficulty of reading and the degree of visual fatigue. Medium and large font sizes are more comfortable to read with large line spacing, while small and medium font sizes are more attractive with large line spacing. The results provide useful information for mobile text interface design.
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Rahman, Md Atikur, Luke Gibbon, Md Zahirul Islam, Eric Hall, and Chad A. Ulven. "Adjustment of Mechanical Properties of 3D Printed Continuous Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Thermoset Composites by Print Parameter Adjustments." Polymers 16, no. 21 (2024): 2996. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym16212996.

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Reinforcing thermoset polymers with continuous carbon fiber (CF) tow has emerged as a promising avenue to overcome the thermal and mechanical performance limitations of 3D printed polymeric structures for load-bearing applications. Unlike traditional methods, manufacturing continuous fiber-reinforced composites by 3D printing has the unique capability of locally varying the mechanical properties of the composites. In this study, continuous CF thermoset composite specimens were printed with varying line spacing, resin flow rate, and nozzle sizes. The resin flow rates for different line spacings and nozzle sizes were optimized by topographic analysis. Printed composite mechanical properties were evaluated, and their trends were correlated with the trend of print parameter changes. Results showed that tensile strength and modulus could be altered and improved by ~50% by adjusting the printing process parameters. Higher composite strength and modulus were obtained by shortening the line spacing and nozzle diameter.
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Liu, Jing, Xuanran Peng, Yaru Kang, et al. "Design of High-Q-Gradient Dielectric Nanoparticle Chain Surface Plasmonic Cavities." Photonics 11, no. 2 (2024): 117. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/photonics11020117.

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Surface plasmonic cavities consisting of dielectric nanoparticle chains directly placed on a metal substrate are designed and studied, including a periodic nanoparticle chain (PNC) cavity and several different surface plasmon trap (SPT) cavities. The SPT cavities are designed by adjusting the nanoparticle sizes and the spacing between nanoparticles. Among them, the nanoparticle sizes range from 10 nm to 140 nm, and the spacings between the nanoparticles range from 200 nm to 280 nm. Compared to the PNC cavity, the SPT cavities support a single mode operation with higher Q factors within a relatively wide bandwidth. In particular, when the particle size and the spacing between the particles of the chain are set to vary in a parabolic gradient profile, the Q factor of the SPT cavity can be improved up to 85% compared to the PNC cavity. Our designs can be applied in the development of high-Q-factor plasmonic nanolasers.
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Jester, W. R., and Brad Taylor. "THE EFFECT OF IN-ROW TRANSPLANT SPACING ON SPRITE MELON YIELD AND SIZES." HortScience 40, no. 3 (2005): 887c—887. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.40.3.887c.

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Sprite is an oriental crisp melon owned by Sakata Seeds. Markets and cultural practices were developed through the efforts of the N.C. Specialty Crops Program. In 2003 and 2004 studies were conducted to determine the in-row spacing, which would maximize the 20 (10.16 to 11.43 cm diameter) to 24 (9.53 to 10.16 cm diameter) count melons. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with four replications. Plot size was 1.5 m × 6.1 m with a 1.5-m alley. Spacing treatments were as follows: 30.48 cm = 20 plants/plot; 45.72 cm = 13 plants/plot; 60.96 cm = 10 plants/plot; 76.2 cm = 8 plant/plot; 91.44 cm = 7 plant/plot and 106.68 cm = 6 plant/plot. In both years a conventional muskmelon plasticulture regime was used and a conventional fungicide and insecticide program was followed beginning at fruit set. Differences in total marketable yield at any in-row spacing were not evident in either year. In 2003, the 45.72-cm spacing produced significantly more 24 and 28 count melons and no differences were evident at other in-row spacing. In 2004, the 45.72-cm spacing yielded significantly more 20-count melons and significantly fewer 15–18 count melons than the other in-row spacing treatments. No difference between spacing treatments in the 24 and 28 count grades were evident in 2004. When the data was combined for both years, the in-row spacing treatments were not significantly different with respect to the 20, 24, and 28 count grades. The 45.72-cm spacing produced significantly less 15–18 count melons.
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Pugh, Miriam, and John D. Altringham. "The effect of gates on cave entry by swarming bats." Acta Chiropterologica 7, no. 2 (2005): 293–99. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13422894.

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(Uploaded by Plazi for the Bat Literature Project) Temperate bats make extensive use of caves and mines as nursery roosts, swarming sites and hibernacula. For a variety of reasons, the entrances to many sites have been modified in the past to restrict human access. Early barrier design often gave little regard to bats, leading to massive population declines in many nursery and hibernation sites. Free access to bats has become an increasingly important design feature, as the damaging effects of early gates were recognised. However, given the large number of gates that have been constructed, relatively few studies have looked at either the short or long-term effects of gates on bat behaviour and population sizes. Even fewer studies have examined specifically the effects of different gate designs. We have looked at the immediate effects of gates on the behaviour of swarming bats as they entered a natural cave. Three gates were tested, all with vertical grille spacings of 750 mm, but with horizontal spacings of 150, 130 or 100 mm. The gate with 150 mm spacings had no significant effect on the behaviour of the bats (predominantly Myotis nattereri). Gates with both 130 mm and 100 mm spacing caused a significant and substantial increase in the number of bats aborting their first and often subsequent attempts to enter the cave. The consequences to swarming behaviour and long-term use of the site by bats are unknown, but we suggest that following the precautionary principle, the minimum spacing between horizontal bars in gates should be 150 mm.
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Pugh, Miriam, and John D. Altringham. "The effect of gates on cave entry by swarming bats." Acta Chiropterologica 7, no. 2 (2005): 293–99. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13422894.

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(Uploaded by Plazi for the Bat Literature Project) Temperate bats make extensive use of caves and mines as nursery roosts, swarming sites and hibernacula. For a variety of reasons, the entrances to many sites have been modified in the past to restrict human access. Early barrier design often gave little regard to bats, leading to massive population declines in many nursery and hibernation sites. Free access to bats has become an increasingly important design feature, as the damaging effects of early gates were recognised. However, given the large number of gates that have been constructed, relatively few studies have looked at either the short or long-term effects of gates on bat behaviour and population sizes. Even fewer studies have examined specifically the effects of different gate designs. We have looked at the immediate effects of gates on the behaviour of swarming bats as they entered a natural cave. Three gates were tested, all with vertical grille spacings of 750 mm, but with horizontal spacings of 150, 130 or 100 mm. The gate with 150 mm spacings had no significant effect on the behaviour of the bats (predominantly Myotis nattereri). Gates with both 130 mm and 100 mm spacing caused a significant and substantial increase in the number of bats aborting their first and often subsequent attempts to enter the cave. The consequences to swarming behaviour and long-term use of the site by bats are unknown, but we suggest that following the precautionary principle, the minimum spacing between horizontal bars in gates should be 150 mm.
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Pugh, Miriam, and John D. Altringham. "The effect of gates on cave entry by swarming bats." Acta Chiropterologica 7, no. 2 (2005): 293–99. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13422894.

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(Uploaded by Plazi for the Bat Literature Project) Temperate bats make extensive use of caves and mines as nursery roosts, swarming sites and hibernacula. For a variety of reasons, the entrances to many sites have been modified in the past to restrict human access. Early barrier design often gave little regard to bats, leading to massive population declines in many nursery and hibernation sites. Free access to bats has become an increasingly important design feature, as the damaging effects of early gates were recognised. However, given the large number of gates that have been constructed, relatively few studies have looked at either the short or long-term effects of gates on bat behaviour and population sizes. Even fewer studies have examined specifically the effects of different gate designs. We have looked at the immediate effects of gates on the behaviour of swarming bats as they entered a natural cave. Three gates were tested, all with vertical grille spacings of 750 mm, but with horizontal spacings of 150, 130 or 100 mm. The gate with 150 mm spacings had no significant effect on the behaviour of the bats (predominantly Myotis nattereri). Gates with both 130 mm and 100 mm spacing caused a significant and substantial increase in the number of bats aborting their first and often subsequent attempts to enter the cave. The consequences to swarming behaviour and long-term use of the site by bats are unknown, but we suggest that following the precautionary principle, the minimum spacing between horizontal bars in gates should be 150 mm.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Spacing sizes"

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Dittrich, Regina, Erhard Reschenhofer, and Immanuel Bomze. "Behaviour on the Length Test for Medium Sample Sizes." Department of Statistics and Mathematics, WU Vienna University of Economics and Business, 1993. http://epub.wu.ac.at/1428/1/document.pdf.

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In this note it is shown that even for relatively large sample sizes the asymptotic distribution of the smoothed length as derived in Reschenhofer and Bomre (1991) should not be used for the determination of critical values. Therefore extended tables of critical values for both the 1% and 5% levels of significance generated by simulation are presented. (author's abstract)<br>Series: Forschungsberichte / Institut für Statistik
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Ndirangu, Christopher Mwangi. "Soybean seed yield and size as influenced by row spacing and seeding rate and seed-size heritability." Diss., This resource online, 1997. http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-10052007-143343/.

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Bennett, Jeffrey. "The Effect of Mass and Web Spacing on the Loads and Structural Response of Increasing Wind Turbine Blade Size." Thesis, KTH, Kraft- och värmeteknologi, 2012. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-103434.

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The research presented considers the effect of varying shear web spacing and mass for two blades; a61.5m 5MW blade (based on the NREL5MW reference turbine) and a 100m 13.2MW blade (based onthe SNL100 blade). The variations are analyzed using HAWC2 aeroelastic simulations and Abaqus/CAE finite element simulations;and the effect of the variations is measured by comparing natural frequencies, loads, tip deflection,equivalent fatigue loads, material strength and buckling. Additionally, a tool was developed to facilitatethe modeling of blade variations. Varying the web spacing showed that the web placement is able to reduce loads, tip deflection, and equivalentfatigue loads. Mass variations demonstrated that reducing the mass will decrease edge-wise loadingand equivalent fatigue loads. The increase in blade size has shown that edge-wise fatigue loads becomelarger than the flap-wise fatigue loads for the larger blade.
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Saul, Francieli Alves Caldeira. "Progênies de Myracrodruon urundeuva fr. All. Em diferentes sistemas de plantio para fins de conservação genética ex situ /." Ilha Solteira, 2020. http://hdl.handle.net/11449/192098.

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Orientador: Mario Luiz Teixeira de Moraes<br>Resumo: Myracrodruon urundeuva é uma espécie arbórea nativa suscetível à extinção. O objetivo foi avaliar a variação genética para caracteres silviculturais, a sobrevivência e a proporção sexual, em dois testes de progênies de M. urundeuva, visando fornecer subsídios para conservação ex situ. Foram analisadas 30 progênies em dois testes de progênies em sistemas de plantio distintos - misto (TP-MUE) e homogêneo (TP-DES). Os caracteres silviculturais avaliados foram altura (ALT), diâmetro a altura do peito (DAP), diâmetro médio de copa (DMC), sobrevivência (SOB), número de árvores com florescimento masculino (Nm), feminino (Nf), árvores monóicas (Mo) e sem florescimento (Sf). As estimativas dos parâmetros genéticos foram obtidas pelo procedimento REML/BLUP. A taxa de SOB foi alta para os dois testes (> 80%). A média para ALT variou de 7,58 m (TP-MUE) a 10,02 m (TP-DES); para DAP de 8,24 cm (TP-MUE) a 10,91 cm (TP-DES). A herdabilidade da média de progênies variou de moderada a alta (0,39 a 0,72). No TP-MUE, a proporção sexual foi de 2♂:1♀ e no TP-DES de 4♂:1♀. O tamanho efetivo (Ne) do TP-MUE representou 38% do Ne esperado e no TP-DES foi de 12%. Existe variabilidade genética para conservação genética ex situ de M. urundeuva a curto prazo.<br>Abstract: Myracrodruon urundeuva is a native tree species susceptible to extinction. The objective was to evaluate the genetic variation for silvicultural traits, survival and sex ratio, in two tests of progenies of Myracrodruon urundeuva, aiming to provide subsidies for ex situ conservation. Thirty progenies were analyzed in two progeny tests in different planting systems - mixed (TP-MUE) and homogeneous (TP-DES). The silvicultural characters evaluated were height (ALT), diameter at breast height (DBH), average crown diameter (DMC), survival (SOB), number of trees with male flowering (Nm), female (Nf), modern trees (Mo) and without flowering (Sf). Estimates of genetic parameters were obtained using the REML / BLUP procedure. The SOB rate was high for both tests (> 80%). The mean for ALT ranged from 7.58 m (TP-MUE) to 10.02 m (TP-DES); for 8.24 cm DAP (TP-MUE) to 10.91 cm (TP-DES). The heritability of the average of progenies varied from moderate to high (0.39 to 0.72). In the TP-MUE, the sex ratio was 2♂: 1♀ and in the TP-DES 4♂: 1♀. The effective size (Ne) of the TP-MUE represented 38% of the expected Ne and in the TP-DES it was 12%. Therefore, there is genetic variability for ex situ genetic conservation of M. urundeuva in the short term.<br>Mestre
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Gearhart, Gregory P. Jr. "Synthesis Study on Load Capacity of Concrete Slabs without Plans." University of Cincinnati / OhioLINK, 2018. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ucin1522057637077884.

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Gadoury, Jonathan. "Impact of numerical grid spacing and time step size on vortex Rossby waves in secondary eyewall formation in a simulation of hurricane Wilma (2005)." Thesis, McGill University, 2012. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=110599.

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To understand the impact of numerical grid spacing and time step size on vortex Rossby waves in hurricanes going through an eyewall replacement cycle, multiple simulations with identical parameterization but with different numerics were carried out using the WRF model on hurricane Wilma (2005). The method of Empirical Normal Modes was then applied on the dataset in order to find radially outward propagating vortex Rossby waves (VRWs). It was found that for varying grid lengths, using high resolution can resolve these VRWs while a mixture of gravity and vortex Rossby waves was propagating from the eyewall using coarse resolution. An examination of the divergence of the Eliassen-Palm flux showed that high resolution is required to form a secondary eyewall. In terms of varying the time step size, differences were noted in the eyewall replacement cycles as well as the final shape of the eyewall, implying that non-converging numerical errors can impact strongly the vortex Rossby waves and therefore the dynamics of the hurricane.<br>Pour comprendre l'impact de l'espacement de grille numérique et la taille du pas de temps sur les ondes de Rossby de tourbillon (ORT) dans les ouragans affectés par un cycle de remplacement du mur de l'oeil, plusieurs simulations avec des paramètres identiques mais des données numériques changeantes ont été éffectuées en utilisant le modèle WRF sur l'ouragan Wilma (2005). La méthode des Modes Normaux Empiriques a été appliquée sur un ensemble de données afin de trouver des ORT se propageant radialement vers l'extérieur. Il a été trouvé que pour un espacement de grille variable, une haute résolution permet de résoudre ces ORT alors qu'en utilisant une résolution plus grossière, un mélange d'ondes gravitationnelles et d'ORT se propageaient à partir du mur de l'oeil. Une examination de la divergence du Flux d'Eliassen-Palm a montré qu'une haute résolution est requise pour former un deuxième mur. Pour le pas de temps variable, des différences ont été notées lors du cycle de remplacement du mur de l'oeil ainsi que sur la forme finale du mur de l'oeil, laissant entendre que la non-convergence des erreurs numériques peut fortement affecter les ORT et ainsi la dynamique de l'ouragan.
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Blankenship-Sefczek, Erin C. "Assessing the effects of developmental stress and the shift to agriculture on tooth crown size, cusp spacing, and accessory cusp expression in modern humans through the Patterning Cascade Model of morphogenesis." The Ohio State University, 2019. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1574420596070903.

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Pernas, Jose A. "Evaluation of Early Concrete Pavament Responses at USR 23, Delaware, Ohio." Ohio University / OhioLINK, 2009. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ohiou1251301075.

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Altubayyeb, Abdulaziz Samir. "A numerical study of the impact of waterflood pattern size on ultimate recovery in undersaturated oil reservoirs." Thesis, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/2152/26455.

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The reserve growth potential of existing conventional oil reservoirs is huge. This research, through numerical simulation, aims to evaluate pattern size reduction as a strategy for improving waterflood recovery in undersaturated oil reservoirs. A plethora of studies have reported improvements in waterflood recovery resulting from pattern size reduction in heterogeneous reservoirs. The dependence of waterflood recovery on pattern size was attributed to factors such as areal reservoir discontinuity, preferential flooding directions, “wedge-edge” oil recovery, irregular pattern geometry, communication with water-bearing zones, vertical reservoir discontinuity, and project economics (Driscoll, 1974). Though many of these publications relied on decline curve analysis in estimating ultimate oil recovery, simulations completed in this thesis support their findings, specifically for compartmentalized reservoirs, fractured reservoirs, and layered reservoirs. Geostatistically-generated permeability fields were employed in the creation of various types of reservoir models. These models were populated with vertical production and injection wells. Sensitivity analysis was then performed on three development scenarios: 160, 40, and 10 acre five-spots. Based on assigned production and injection constraints, the quantity of oil recovered at simulation termination was used to calculate ultimate recovery efficiency. In homogeneous reservoir models, simulation results suggest that waterflood recovery was independent of pattern size. Similar results were also obtained from models with highly-variable non-zero permeabilities. On the other hand, pattern size reduction was found to enhance oil recovery from reservoir models with a high degree of permeability anisotropy. In such reservoirs, recovery was found to be highly dependent on bottom-hole injection pressures. The higher the injection pressure the larger the quantity of oil bypassed by widely spaced patterns. Likewise, high infill potential exists for reservoir models exhibiting areal discontinuity. In these types of models, the improvement in waterflood recovery resulting from pattern size reduction was directly related to the percentage of imbedded zero-permeability grid blocks. Ultimate oil recovery depended on the percolation of permeable grid blocks between production and injection wells. Increasing well density also enhanced waterflood recovery in vertically discontinuous reservoir models. In such layered reservoirs, the amount oil unswept with large patterns was considerably diminished because of the improved injection profiles associated with tighter patterns.<br>text
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Wang, Shi Ping 1956. "Influence of planting density on spike size and grain yield in five winter wheat cultivars." Thesis, 1990. http://hdl.handle.net/1957/37720.

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Books on the topic "Spacing sizes"

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Health, Malawi Ministry of, ed. Child spacing policy and contraceptive guidelines. Republic of Malawi, The Ministry, 1992.

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1958-, Sauter U. H., and Forintek Canada Corp. Western Laboratory., eds. Influence of thinning on wood density and branch size of young western larch. Forintek Canada, Western Division, 1999.

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Anderson, Hal E. Relationship of fuel size and spacing to combustion characteristics of laboratory fuel cribs. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, 1990.

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Intermountain Research Station (Ogden, Utah), ed. Relationship of fuel size and spacing to combustion characteristics of laboratory fuel cribs. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, 1990.

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Taşıran, A. C. Wage and income effects on the timing and spacing of births in Sweden and the United States. Göteborgs universitet, 1993.

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Salonius, P. O. Effects of cell size and spacing on root density and field performance of container-reared black spruce. Canadian Forest Service, Atlantic Forestry Centre, 2000.

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Mardzhanishvili, M. A. Analysis of the spacial behavior and size of modern buildings for earthquake-proof design. Edited by Napetvaridze Sh G and National Science Foundation (U.S.). Division of Engineering. Published for the Division of Engineering, National Science Foundation by Amerind Pub. Co., 1985.

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Stein, Gabriele. Typography in sixteenth-century English dictionaries. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198807377.003.0001.

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The chapter constitutes the first detailed study of how early lexicographers and printers exploited typography to present the description of the meaning of words and their morphological analyses to their readers. It provides an outline of the bi- and multilingual English dictionaries printed between 1499 and 1604 and illustrates the changes in the page layout (e.g. columns, indentation, frame structure), the introduction and use of different fonts and type sizes (e.g. black letter, italic type, roman type), capitalization, letter-spacing, and symbols (the pilcrow, the pointing hand, the ivy leaf, the asterism, etc.). Three typographical phases are distinguished.
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Wang, Shi Ping. Influence of planting density on spike size and grain yield in five winter wheat cultivars. 1990.

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The effect of sensor spacing on wind measurements at the shuttle landing facility. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, John F. Kennedy Space Center, 1995.

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Book chapters on the topic "Spacing sizes"

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Sreedharan, Nishanth, Jit Sinha, Sahdev Dineshkumar Chavda, and Sunil Manohar Dash. "A Numerical Study on the Effects of Wing Spacing on the Thrust Performance of the Two-Dimensional Tandem Flapping Wings for Different Rear Wing Sizes." In Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering. Springer Nature Singapore, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6970-6_52.

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David, Laurent, Ludovic Chatellier, Dominique Courret, Ismail Albayrak, and Robert M. Boes. "Fish Guidance Structures with Narrow Bar Spacing: Physical Barriers." In Novel Developments for Sustainable Hydropower. Springer International Publishing, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99138-8_7.

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AbstractChapter 7 deals with the fish guidance structures (FGS) with narrow bar spacing and focuses on both vertically inclined and horizontal bar racks as well as vertically inclined perforated plate with bypass systems. These FGSs are physical barriers and placed in front of a water intake with either vertical or horizontal angle to the flow direction. They protect fish from entering the water intakes and guide them to the bypass systems and hence into the tailwater. They are suitable for small-to-medium size hydropower plants with design discharge less than 120 m3/s. In the following, different types of FGSs with narrow bar spacing are introduced and their fish guidance performance, head loss prediction and design recommendations presented.
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Li, Shiwei, Yixuan Gong, Bingsen Li, Shiqian Sun, Qixiang Tang, and Youwu Dai. "Simulation Experiment of Horizontal Disk Type Precision Seed Dispenser Based on Discrete Unit Method for Carrot Sowing." In Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering. Springer Nature Singapore, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-7887-4_85.

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Abstract We designed a mechanical horizontal disc radish seeder. To verify the reliability of the seed discharger, we analyzed and optimized the rotational speed, thickness and rounded hole size of the seeding disc by discrete element software, and through the experimental simulation, we successfully achieved the effects of uniform seed discharge, low seed jamming rate, and reduction of the leakage phenomenon, with the qualified index of grain spacing S = 85.21%, the index of replanting D = 13.73%, and the index of leakage M = 1.05%.
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Jin, Zhao Xia, Tom Plocher, and Liana Kiff. "Touch Screen User Interfaces for Older Adults: Button Size and Spacing." In Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-73279-2_104.

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LaVictoire, Maria, and Nick Everhart. "A Touch Screen Button Size and Spacing Study with Older Adults." In Universal Access in Human-Computer Interaction. Addressing Diversity. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-02707-9_29.

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Coskun, Atakan, Yeter Tuğba Çetin, Mehmetcan Fal, and Ertan Zaferoğlu. "Optimal Touchscreen Button Size and Button Spacing for Next Generation Fighter Aircrafts." In Human Interface and the Management of Information: Applications in Complex Technological Environments. Springer International Publishing, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-06509-5_23.

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Mazharul Islam, M. "Rapid Decline in Family Size in Oman: Untangling the Puzzles and Paradoxes." In Gulf Studies. Springer Nature Singapore, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-3412-5_5.

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Abstract It is puzzling to note that the ‘sea-change’ in the family size in Oman (from about 9 births in 1988 to 3.3 births per woman in 2008) has occurred in the midst of many paradoxes, which is still remained unnoticed. This study provides a critical review of the recent fertility decline in Oman and its underlying causes. The study is based on data obtained from available national-level surveys, published reports, and the World Population Prospects report. The massive economic and social development, women education and participation in the labor force brought a big change in family formation, reproductive behavior, and lifestyles of women, resulting in a fertility decline in Oman. Delayed age at marriage and spacing birth appeared as the major cause of fertility decline in Oman. The tradition of prolonged duration of breastfeeding also contributes to declining fertility. The Omani government should be aware of the current trends in fertility and its consequences, and adopt the culturally appropriate policy for future population management.
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Chen, Jianwen, Lei He, Zhangming Wang, et al. "Research on 3D Laser Scanning for Enhancing Production Quality Control of Concrete Prefabricated Beams." In Novel Technology and Whole-Process Management in Prefabricated Building. Springer Nature Singapore, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5108-2_33.

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AbstractBased on the Hangzhou-Ningbo Expressway project, with the aim of addressing the drawbacks pertaining to challenging quality control, lengthy production duration, and low cost-effectiveness in the process of manufacturing concrete precast beams, this study employs three-dimensional laser scanning technology as a means of data acquisition in monitoring the quality of concrete precast beam spacing, size, and flatness within precast beam yards. By means of statistical analysis on the collected deviation data, various deviations in key indices of prefabricated components are identified, and the underlying causes for installation discrepancies are summarized. The test results convincingly demonstrate that the utilization of three-dimensional laser scanning technology can significantly enhance both efficiency and accuracy in quality inspections of finalized precast beams. Furthermore, this technique holds tremendous potential for application in quality control measures concerning concrete precast beams, thereby offering valuable technical support towards advancing the development of prefabricated concrete beams.
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Huang, Shih-Miao. "Effects of the Chinese Character Size, Page Spacing and Scrolling Frequency on Reading Time of Smartphones." In Design, User Experience, and Usability. Design for Contemporary Interactive Environments. Springer International Publishing, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49760-6_18.

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Srikanth Gorti, V. P. N., and Srinivas Gosukonda. "Particle Size and Spacing Effects on Convective Heat and Mass Transfer of a Nanofluid in Wavy Annulus." In Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering. Springer Singapore, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5329-0_6.

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Conference papers on the topic "Spacing sizes"

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Littell, Justin, and Martin Annett. "The Evaluation of Anthropomorphic Test Device Response under Vertical Loading." In Vertical Flight Society 74th Annual Forum & Technology Display. The Vertical Flight Society, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.4050/f-0074-2018-12738.

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During the winter of 2018, a series of vertical tests was conducted on three sizes of Anthropomorphic Test Devices (ATDs) for the evaluation of their vertical loading response. The three sizes of ATDs represented a 5th percentile female, a 50th percentile male, and a 95th percentile male. There were two variations of the 50th percentile male as defined in 49 CFR Part 572: a Hybrid II and an FAA Hybrid III. Tests were conducted on a drop tower located at NASA Langley Research Center's (LaRC) Landing and Impact Research (LandIR) Facility. The ATDs were seated on 14 CFR § 25.562 certified seats, in either a triple (window, middle and aisle) or a double (window and aisle) seat configuration, with seat leg spacing replicating a Fokker F28 MK-1000 aircraft. The seat and ATDs were attached to a drop plate on the tower, which was lifted to a height of 14 ft. The system was dropped onto different sections of crushable foam wedges to achieve multiple input deceleration environments. The purpose of the tests was to evaluate the differences in lumbar response, to examine scaling characteristics from sizing factors in the ATDs, and also to compare the results to computer simulation efforts. Results will be presented and comparisons will be discussed.
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Tang, Fujian, Lizhi Zhao, Hong-Nan Li, et al. "Spatial Variation Analysis of Localized Corrosion of Steel Bar with Spectral Analysis Technique." In CONFERENCE 2022. AMPP, 2022. https://doi.org/10.5006/c2022-17792.

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Abstract This study aims to statistically analyze the distribution characteristics of localized corrosion along the length of corroded steel bars with spectral analysis techniques. Steel bars were embedded in a concrete prism and subjected to accelerated corrosion to levels ranging from 5.0 wt.% to 30.0 wt.% mass loss. After the corrosion test, the corroded steel bars were taken out of the concrete and cleaned with a sand blaster, and then scanned with a 3D laser scanner. The scanned point clouds were processed with an image processing software to determine the residual cross-sectional area distribution. Empirical mode decomposition (EMD) was performed by considering the area distribution of the steel bars as a nonlinear and non-stationary time series and the length as time. The intrinsic mode functions (IMFs) extracted from the EMD reveal the characteristics of pitting corrosion of various sizes, and the magnitude of the IMF is related to the cross-sectional area of corrosion pits. To extract the characteristic length of pitting corrosion, the fast Fourier transform (FFT) was performed on each IMF. Results show that the EMD-FFT successfully extracts the spatial distribution characteristics of corroded steel bars including surface irregularity, deformation (ribs and lugs), small corrosion pits and big corrosion pits. Presence of pitting corrosion changes the characteristic length of surface irregularity and rib spacing compared to a non-corroded bar.
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Wang, Bo, Banglin Liu, Yong-Yi Wang, Alex Wang, and Steve Rapp. "Burst Pressure Prediction of Pipes With SCC Colonies: Development of Intelligent Flaw Interaction Rules." In 2020 13th International Pipeline Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/ipc2020-9693.

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Abstract Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) often occurs in clusters or colonies containing anywhere from a few cracks to hundreds of individual cracks. Multiple closely spaced cracks may interact, resulting in a burst pressure lower than what might be expected from a single crack. Most existing flaw interaction rules account for these interactions by using a single interacting crack to represent multiple cracks when the separations between them are less than a critical spacing. The length of this interacting crack is usually the sum of the individual crack length plus the spacing between them. Using this interacting length and the maximum depth in the colony could produce overly conservative burst pressure predictions which can lead to unnecessary hydrotests and/or other remediation actions. This two-paper series covers the PRCI-funded work aimed at the development of intelligent flaw interaction rules (termed PRCI-CRES SIA-1-5 rules) that can account more accurately the impact of multiple cracks without being overly conservative. This paper focuses on the development of the rules using numerical analyses. A companion paper covers the evaluation of the rules through full-scale burst tests. The PRCI-CRES SIA-1-5 rules use the principles of equivalent impact among multiple interacting cracks and represent the magnitude of the impact by a single virtual crack. The new rules do not rely on a critical spacing to determine whether there is an interaction. The magnitude of the interaction is a continuous function of the size of adjacent cracks and the spacing between them. A large number of finite element analyses (FEA) were conducted to examine the interaction among cracks for many crack configurations, including coplanar and noncoplanar cracks with different sizes and spacings. An analysis process was then developed to use the sizes and spacings of all cracks in an SCC colony to predict the equivalent virtual crack size and burst pressure.
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Rajvanshi, Saurabh, Aman Sharma, Shilpy Gargmukh, et al. "Development of a Mathematical Model for Optimization of Rod Guide Spacing to Mitigate SRP Failures Due to Tubing Buckling." In Asia Pacific Unconventional Resources Symposium. SPE, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/217298-ms.

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Abstract Tubing buckling is a common and persistent problem encountered in Sucker Rod Pump (SRP) wells in onshore fields. This paper discusses about the optimization of rod guide spacing below the neutral point in SRP wells and development of a mathematical model for rod guide spacing. In SRP wells, tubing below the neutral point buckles during the pump upstroke, causing frequent tubing and rod failures due to rod-on-tubing wear. The friction caused by tubing buckling increases polished rod load, pump wear and decreases lift efficiency. To avoid tubing buckling, tubing anchors and tail pipe are used for balancing of compressive force. Additionally rod guides are placed in SRP wells to prevent rod-tubing contact load but accurate spacing of rod guides is challenging task. To address this challenge, a mathematical model for rod guide spacing has been developed and validated with field data. Lubinski et al. (1957) have analyzed tubing buckling phenomena in details and provided charts for rod guide spacing for 2″ and 2 1/2″ tubing sizes. In this paper, the work of Lubinski et al. has been carried forward. Analysis has been done for more accurate differential pressure across plunger for calculation of the compressive force in different scenarios and also generated charts for the most common tubing sizes of 2 7/8″ and 3 1/2″ for spacing of rod guides. The developed mathematical model considers various parameters, such as specific gravity of fluid, dynamic liquid level, tubing size, and plunger diameter etc. to estimate the neutral point and optimization of rod guide spacing. The developed model has been used for more than 100 SRP wells of Indian onshore fields. This study can also be helpful in production of unconventional resources such as shale oil production and dewatering of Coal Bed Methane. The proposed mathematical model provides accurate placement of rod guides according to the neutral point in the tubing string resulting in increased the mean time between failures. From the findings of this study, charts for spacing of rod guides have been generated for most common tubing sizes of 2 7/8″ and 3 1/2″ which will be a valuable reference for oil and gas operators in onshore fields.
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Sharma, Pradeep, Abhijit Dasgupta, Surya Ganti, and James Loman. "Prediction of Rate-Independent Constitutive Behavior of Pb-Free Solders Based on First Principles." In ASME 2002 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. ASMEDC, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/imece2002-39254.

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This paper presents a methodology for the theoretical estimation of rate-independent plastic constitutive properties of Pb-free solders using three approaches. The first approach is based on a Nonlinear Effective Medium Theory (NEMT) that is scale independent. The second approach is based on the micromechanics and physics of plastic slip in heterogeneous alloys (henceforth called the physical model). This approach explicitly includes microstructural features such as grain size, particle size etc. The third approach is a combination of NEMT and the physical model. Our estimates involve no adjustable calibration parameters and are based on first principles and constituent properties. Parametric studies are conducted to show that the physical model is more effective for small particles sizes, small particle spacing and low volume fractions; while NEMT performs well for large volume fractions, large particle sizes and large particle spacing. The proposed hybrid approach, however, is valid for all particle sizes and volume fractions. Limited comparison with experimental data is also made and implications of our work in the economical design of novel Pb-free solders is discussed.
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Palmer, Ian D., Zissis A. Moschovidis, Aaron Schaefer, and Steve Mcketta. "Case Histories From Fayettville Shale: SRV Sizes, Fracture Networks, Spacing, Aperture Widths, and Implications for Proppant." In SPE Unconventional Resources Conference. Society of Petroleum Engineers, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/169015-ms.

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Amah, Edison C., Naga Musunuri, Ian S. Fischer, Pushpendra Singh, and Md Shahadat Hossain. "Self-Assembly of Monolayers of Mixtures of Particles." In ASME 2016 14th International Conference on Nanochannels, Microchannels, and Minichannels collocated with the ASME 2016 Heat Transfer Summer Conference and the ASME 2016 Fluids Engineering Division Summer Meeting. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/icnmm2016-1050.

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We have numerically studied the self-assembly process of particle mixtures on fluid-liquid interfaces when an electric field is applied in the direction normal to the interface. The electric and capillary forces on the particles causes them to self-assemble into molecular-like hierarchical arrangements consisting of composite particles arranged in a pattern. As in experiments, the structure of a composite particle depends on factors such as the relative sizes of the particles and their polarizibilities, and the electric field intensity. If the particles sizes differ by a factor of two or more, the composite particle has a larger particle at its core and several smaller particles forming a ring around it. The number of particles in the ring and the spacing between the composite particles depends on their relative polarizibilities, the size of the smaller particles and the electric field intensity. Approximately same sized particles, on the other hand, form chains (analogous to polymeric molecules) in which positively and negatively polarized particles alternate.
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Chen, Sen, Yitao Shen, Guiyan Qiang, et al. "Identification of Size and Distribution Features of Spherical Magnetic Wear Particles in Engine Lubricant." In WCX SAE World Congress Experience. SAE International, 2025. https://doi.org/10.4271/2025-01-8398.

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&lt;div class="section abstract"&gt;&lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;To address the issue of signal aliasing when multiple particles pass through a metallic particle sensor, which can lead to misidentification of particle count, we employ numerical simulation methods for an in-depth investigation. We developed a mathematical model of a three-coil inductive metal particle sensor to explore the signal variations induced by the passage of a single particle. We utilized micro-element simulation analysis to dissect the signal generated by a single particle, elucidating the underlying change process.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;Focusing on dual ferromagnetic particles as the subject of study, we conducted simulations and demodulation of the induced voltage under various combinations of sizes and spacings to investigate the influence patterns of dual adjacent ferromagnetic particles on the sensor's induced signal. Further research into the peak signals of different diameter particles at a constant spacing revealed that, for a given spacing, the ratio of peak signals between particles of varying diameters and those of a single particle remains relatively consistent.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;We then extended the scope of the study to simulate multiple adjacent particles, decomposed multi-particle signals based on the characteristics of dual-particle signals, and proposed a method for identifying the number of closely spaced particles. Additionally, using a single-particle signal model, our analysis of multi-particle signals demonstrated that the diameter, quantity, and spacing of particles can be identified to some extent by examining the distances and magnitudes of peaks and troughs in the multi-particle signal. Our findings provide theoretical support and technical references for the accurate identification of multiple particles by inductive sensors.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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Koch, Grady, Leo Staton, and Chi Nguyen. "Design Considerations for an Operational Wake Vortex Lidar Sensor at 2-micron Wavelengths." In Coherent Laser Radar. Optica Publishing Group, 1995. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/clr.1995.tud4.

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NASA and FAA initiated a program in 1994 to develop methods for setting aircraft spacings in the air terminal area by incorporating information on the real-time behavior of aircraft wake vortices. The current wake separation standards were developed in the 1970’s when there was relatively light airport traffic and a logical break point by which to categorize aircraft. Today’s continuum of aircraft sizes and increased airport packing densities have created a need for re-evaluation of wake separation standards. The goals of this effort are to ensure that separation standards are adequate for safety and to reduce aircraft spacing for higher airport capacity. Of particular interest are the different requirements for landing under visual flight conditions and instrument flight conditions. Over the years, greater spacings have been established for instrument flight than for visual flight conditions.1
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Zhang, Qian, Pradeep Sharma, and Abhijit Dasgupta. "Prediction of Rate-Dependent Constitutive Behavior of Pb-Free Solders." In ASME 2003 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. ASMEDC, 2003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/imece2003-41774.

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This paper examines a potential microscale mechanism that contributes to rate-dependent creep of Sn3.9Ag0.6Cu Pb-free solders. The experimentally measured transient and steady-state creep constitutive properties are first presented. Empirical constitutive models are derived, based on this data. Finally, a microstructural model, based on thermally activated dislocation detachment, is explored as a possible source of the creep behavior. This approach explicitly includes microstructural features such as grain size, particle size, particle spacing, etc. The model is calibrated by using the steady-state creep test results to estimate the dislocation density as a function of the stress and temperature. The behavior of the model is explored for different dispersoid sizes as the particle sizes of Cu6Sn5 and Ag3Sn intermetallics are known to vary between 5 and 50 nm [Wiese, et. al., 2001]. The results indicate that dislocation detachment can only dominate over a limited range of particle sizes and stress magnitudes at each temperature. Other competing rate-governing mechanisms are Coble creep at low stresses and dislocation climb at high stresses.
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Reports on the topic "Spacing sizes"

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Wang, Bo. PR-350-144502-R01 Assessment of Cracks Clusters with Intelligent Interaction. Pipeline Research Council International, Inc. (PRCI), 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.55274/r0011743.

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This project developed intelligent flaw interaction rules that can account more accurately the impact of multiple cracks without being overly conservative. These rules use the principles of equivalent impact among multiple interacting cracks and represent the magnitude of the impact by a single virtual crack. These rules do not rely on a critical spacing to determine whether there is an interaction. The magnitude of the interaction is a continuous function of the size of adjacent cracks and the spacing between them. There is a related webinar.
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Anderson, Hal E. Relationship of fuel size and spacing to combustion characteristics of laboratory fuel cribs. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, 1990. http://dx.doi.org/10.2737/int-rp-424.

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Shivakumar, Pranavkumar, Kanika Gupta, Antonio Bobet, Boonam Shin, and Peter J. Becker. Estimating Strength from Stiffness for Chemically Treated Soils. Purdue University, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.5703/1288284317383.

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The central theme of this study is to identify strength-stiffness correlations for chemically treated subgrade soils in Indiana. This was done by conducting Unconfined Compression (UC) Tests and Resilient Modulus Tests for soils collected at three different sites—US-31, SR-37, and I-65. At each site, soil samples were obtained from 11 locations at 30 ft spacing. The soils were treated in the laboratory with cement, using the same proportions used for construction, and cured for 7 and 28 days before testing. Results from the UC tests were compared with the resilient modulus results that were available. No direct correlation was found between resilient modulus and UCS parameters for the soils investigated in this study. A brief statistical analysis of the results was conducted, and a simple linear regression model involving the soil characteristics (plasticity index, optimum moisture content and maximum dry density) along with UCS and resilient modulus parameters was proposed.
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Nevarez Garibaldi, Roberto. Comparison between Linear and Staggered Pile Configurations For Slope Stabilization. Deep Foundations Institute, 2025. https://doi.org/10.37308/cpf-2023-land-rr.

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The paper addresses slope stabilization through use of deep foundation elements (for simplicity, we refer to them generically as “piles” throughout this paper) and particularly focuses on the efficiency of linear versus staggered arrangements of piles along a slope. The study investigates the impact of pile arrangement on shear resistance, assuming constant soil properties, pile size, and reinforcement. The research employs Slope/W and Group software for slope stability analysis and reinforcement design; however, the analysis procedure detailed in this paper can be applied to other applicable programs such as Slide, LPile, etc. This paper defines and addresses use of piles to mitigate slope instability and soil flow between piles. The design procedure involves initially modeling a stable slope that is close to failure. Piles configured in linear and staggered alignments, with varying spacing, are then applied to the model to increase the shear resistance along the potential sliding surfaces. Lastly, through a Group analysis, pile arrangement efficiency is evaluated. Results from this research indicate that a linear arrangement of piles is more efficient than a staggered arrangement
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A SURROGATE MODEL TO ESTIMATE THE AXIAL COMPRESSIVE CAPACITY OF COLD-FORMED STEEL OPEN BUILT-UP SECTIONS. The Hong Kong Institute of Steel Construction, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.18057/icass2020.p.316.

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This paper proposed a surrogate model to simplify the process of estimating the axial compressive capacity of cold-formed steel (CFS) open built-up sections composed of lipped channels with different section sizes, thickness, length, and connector spacing. The surrogate model was developed based on the current design methods, i.e., the Effective Width Method (EWM) and Direct Strength Method (DSM), which are codified in the North American Specification AISI S100-16. This new model features two surface regression equations with a boundary inequality criteria, anchored on two important parameters, i.e., modified slenderness ratio, (KL/r)m and minimum thickness-to-width ratio (t/w)min of the built-up sections. The model was validated with 1089 sets of the experimental results data collected from previous research tested on the axial capacity of CFS open built-up sections with the different design configurations. The proposed surrogate model is aimed to simplify the design process among practising engineers for a quick preliminary calculation of the axial compressive capacity of these new CFS open built-up sections.
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NUMERICAL AND THEORETICAL STUDIES ON DOUBLE STEEL PLATE COMPOSITE WALLS UNDER COMPRESSION AT LOW TEMPERATURES. The Hong Kong Institute of Steel Construction, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.18057/ijasc.2021.17.4.6.

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Double steel plate composite walls (DSCWs) with several unique types of connectors have been implemented to protect offshore oil exploration platforms from concentric forces caused by ice in the Arctic region. This paper investigates the compressive perfor-mance of DSCWs with interlocked J-hooks and overlapped headed studs at low temperatures ranging from 20 ℃ to -80 ℃ with nonlinear finite element models (FEMs). The intricate geometric size of the concrete, multiple interactions of the concrete with the connectors, and material nonlinearities of the concrete have been thoroughly simulated. The reasonable consistency between the results of the monotonic tests and finite element analysis (FEA) on nine DSCWs with interlocked J-hooks and seven DSCWs with overlapped headed studs indicates that the FEMs can effectively predict the compressive performance of the DSCWs at low temper-atures. On the basis of the validated FEMs, the effects of the horizontal and vertical spacing of the connectors on the compressive performance of the DSCWs are studied. Finally, theoretical models of the load-displacement curves are developed to reveal the compressive response of DSCWs at low temperatures with different types of connectors, taking into account the restraining effect of steel plates on the inner concrete and the local buckling of steel plates. Compared with previous tests and FEA, the developed theoretical models have reasonable consistency for the load-displacement curves of DSCWs at low temperatures.
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