Tesis sobre el tema "Antipredatory behaviour"

Predation is among the selective forces that shape the phenotype and lifestyle of prey. Different prey types may show different antipredatory responses to the same predator or level of risk based on their ability to avoid predation. I tested antipredatory behaviour of prey species, the Australian plague locust, Chortoicetes terminifera, and the cricket, Acheta domestica, against a predator, the Central netted dragon, Ctenopherus nuchalis. Many theoretical and empirical studies suggest that increased safety has resulted in the evolution of aggregation or group living in prey species. I tested the general idea that being a member of a larger and denser group increases safety among prey. I quantified the predation behaviour of the lizards and the antipredatory strategies of the locusts and crickets in the laboratory using high and low densities of prey and the two phases of C. terminifera; solitarious and gregarious locusts. I compared the number of attacks and success rate of the predator between high and low density groups of prey to determine the influence of prey density on the behaviour of the predator. To investigate differences in level of risk perception among prey with different lifestyles and escape abilities, antipredatory behaviour; escape initiation distance and activity level, of solitarious and gregarious locusts were compared. Additionally, injured gregarious locusts were used to test if disability of prey leads to behavioural changes that indicate that a higher level of risk is perceived by the prey. I also compared attack strategies of juvenile and adult lizards capturing prey. Lizards were more successful attacking groups of locusts than groups of crickets. Prey capture efficiency of lizards was not lower when preying on high density locust groups; although locusts benefit from a higher level of safety due to encounter-dilution effect. Moreover, solitarious and injured gregarious locusts behaved in a manner that indicates a higher perceived risk of predation compared to intact gregarious locusts and they relied more heavily on crypsis to avoid predation. Adult lizards showed faster attack speed and chose larger attack distances than juvenile lizards. In addition, lizards chose smaller attack distances when prey moved directly toward the lizards. In conclusion, prey aggregation or sociality provides more safety for prey individuals through the concealing mechanisms of group living and predators choose their attack strategies based on their physical performance and/or prey behaviour.

The introduction of trout has been implicated in the declines in native fish fauna in New Zealand and worldwide. Since the introduction of brown (Salmo trutta) and rainbow (Oncorhynchus mykiss) trout to New Zealand in 1867, their distribution has spread and they have been implicated in the fragmentation of native fish distributions, particularly native non-migratory galaxiids. However, in the Upper Waimakariri basin the co-occurrence of trout and galaxiid populations is relatively common, even in streams where trout reach sizes known to be piscivorous. To investigate mechanisms that may regulate trout and galaxiid co-occurrence, I investigated differences in antipredator behaviour and growth rate between stream types with varying levels of trout presence. Using quantitative survey data collected between 1997 and 2006, I found that trout abundance was low and varied annually in frequently disturbed sites compared their high abundance in stable streams. This finding was used to classify streams into three population types, barrier (trout absent), disturbed (trout presence intermittent) and sympatric (constant trout presence). Using this classification, I tested the effects of trout chemical cues on galaxiid activity and refuge use in artificial channels. There were no differences in activity or refuge use between trout odour and there were no effects of population type or galaxiid size during both the day and the night. Using otolith weight-fish length relationships in galaxiids collected from each population type, I found that galaxiid growth rate was higher in disturbed streams than in stable streams either with or without trout. An experiment manipulating trout size and presence, over two months in a natural stream, found galaxiids from treatments without trout grew slower than those with trout. Slow growth rates in galaxiids above trout-migration barriers and in sympatry, combined with low growth rates in treatments without trout suggest that the mechanisms that regulate galaxiid growth are more complex than previously thought.

For desert fishes in the American Southwest, predation by invasive species has triggered massive population declines for decades, leaving researchers speculating on the underlying cause. It has been shown that Post-Pleistocene isolation of desert fishes in small habitats with limited predation pressure has led to loss of antipredator traits. Determining the status of antipredator behavioral and morphological traits could identify the most vulnerable desert fishes. In aquatic ecosystems, detection and response to chemical alarm cues derived from epithelial tissue increases the probability of predation survival. In chapter two, I evaluate alarm cue responses of two desert cyprinodontids: endangered Pahrump poolfish and Amargosa pupfish. In chapter three, I assess the prevalence and densities of epithelial club cells, the source of chemical alarm cues, for several desert fishes: Pahrump poolfish, Amargosa pupfish, White Sands pupfish, White River Springfish, and Hot Creek Valley tui chub.
North Dakota State University. Department of Environmental and Conservation Science
Desert Fishes Council (U.S.)
North American Native Fishes Association

Chipmunk antipredator calls were examined during the summers of 1990 and 1991. The structural characteristics of the three calls, chipping, chucking and the trill, were obtained through taped recordings and sonagraphic analysis. Behavioural observations indicated that chucking by choruses of individuals occurs in the presence of aerial predators, chipping by choruses of individuals occurs in the presence of terrestrial predators and the trill is given by single individuals when fleeing from predators.
Experiments were carried out to determine the function of the trill and chipping. Demographic and contextual effects indicate that the trill is in part a call which functions to warn kin but may also indicate to conspecifics that the caller has escaped into a refuge. An experiment with a tethered cat concluded that chipping is likely to function to deter predators from hunting in the area. This is done through vocal mobbing by several individuals whose home ranges overlap.

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Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico
As plantas possuem mecanismos de defesa contra os ataques dos herbívoros. Estes mecanismos podem afetar diretamente os herbívoros, por exemplo, plantas podem produzir metabólitos secundários que reduzem ou param o desenvolvimento dos herbívoros, ou indiretamente por meio de interação com os inimigos naturais dos herbívoros. Plantas atacadas podem produzir compostos voláteis atrativos para inimigos naturais. Essas pistas voláteis são indicativas da presença das presas e são importantes para o sucesso do forrageamento de inimigos naturais. Por outro lado, herbívoros também são capazes de perceber pistas indicativas da presença de predadores e usá-las para evitar locais com risco de predação. Comportamentos antipredação aumentam a sobrevivência das presas, no entanto também podem gerar custos. No presente trabalho, foram estudados os comportamentos de forrageamento e antipredação no sistema do tomateiro com os ácaros fitófagos Tetranychus urticae e Tetranychus evansi, e os ácaros predadores Phytoseiulus longipes e Phytoseiulus macropilis. Ambos os predadores foram capazes de reconhecer pistas de tomateiros infestados mostrando preferência por plantas infestadas por T. evansi e T. urticae em relação a plantas limpas, mas não mostram preferência entre as presas. Estes predadores se alimentam de ambas as presas, no entanto P. macropilis não completa seu ciclo de vida se alimentando apenas de T. evansi. Assim, para P. longipes ambasas presas como fonte de alimento adequada, mas para P. macropilis T. evansi é um alimento de qualidade inferior. É possível que P. macropilis não seja capaz de distinguir pistas oriundas de tomateiros infestados por T. evansi ou T. urticae. Adicionalmente, T. evansi é capaz de perceber a presença de P. longipes e P. macropilis, e foi capaz de reconhecer pistas oriundas desses predadores e mudar seu comportamento de acordo com a espécie de predador e da escala espacial. Tetranychus evansi tentou escapar por mais vezes nos discos foliares com pistas de ambos predadores, tendo também redução no tempo de alimentação. No entanto, também há custos associados a estes comportamentos: T. evansi apresentou redução na taxa de oviposição nos discos foliares com pistas de P. longipes, mas não com pistas de P. macropilis, provavelmente por que este predador não é perigoso para T. evansi como P. longipes é. Em uma escala espacial maior (hexágono de plantas) onde os ácaros caminhariam sobre substrato tendo de percorrer longas distâncias e perceber pistas com intensidade provavelmente mais fraca, T. evansi não evitou plantas com predadores. Todos os tomateiros estavam infestados com coespecíficos que produzem grande quantidade de teia, possivelmente T. evansi não evitou plantas com predadores pela possível proteção conferida pela teia. Concluindo, os predadores P. longipes e P. macropilis são capazes de usar pistas de plantas atacadas para localizar suas presas T. evansi e T. urticae, mas não as distinguem. Tetranychus evansi é capaz de perceber a presença de ambos predadores e mostrar comportamento antipredação de acordo com o perigo oferecido pelo predador e a escala espacial envolvida.
Plants have mechanisms to defend themselves against herbivore attacks. These mechanisms may affect the herbivores directly, for example, plants can produce secondary metabolites that reduce or stop the growth of the herbivores, or indirectly by interacting with the natural enemies of the herbivores. Upon herbivore attack, plants are known to produce volatiles that are attractive to natural enemies. These volatile cues are indicative of the presence of prey, and are important for the foraging success of the natural enemies. In return, herbivores are able to recognize cues associated with the presence of predators and use these to avoid patches with predators. Such antipredator behaviour increases the survival of the prey; however, it may also have costs. Here, we studied the antipredator and foraging behaviour of the spider mites Tetranychus urticae and T. evansi, the predatory mites Phytoseiulus longipes and P. macropilis on tomato plants. Although the predators feed on both prey, P. macropilis can not complete its life cycle feeding only on T. evansi. Thus, for P. longipes both prey are adequate food sources, but T. evansi is a bad food source for P. macropilis. Both predators were able to recognize cues from infested or uninfested plants, showing preference for plants infested by T. evansi or T. urticae compared to uninfested plants, but they did not show a preference for plants with either of the two prey.It is possible that P. macropilis are not able to discriminate cues from tomato plants infested by these prey. Additionally, T. evansi can perceive the presence of P. longipes and P. macropilis. This herbivore was able to recognize cues from these predatory mites and to change its behaviour according to the species of predator and spatial scale. The spider mite tried to escape more often from leaf discs with predator cues, and also reduced its time spent feeding. However, there were also costs associated with this antipredator behaviour: T. evansi showed a decrease in oviposition rate on leaf discs with cues from P. longipes, but not with cues from P. macropilis, probably because this predator is not as dangerous to T. evansi as P. longipes is. At a larger spatial scale (hexagon of plants), where the spider mites walked on substrate soil and in all directions, T. evansi did not avoid plants with conspecific and predators; probably it perceived the presence of conspecific that produce high density of web which can protect it against predation. Concluding, the predatory mites P. longipes and P. macropilis can use cues from attacked plants to locate T. evansi and T. urticae, but do not discriminate between these two prey. In turn, T. evansi can perceive the presence of these predators, showing antipredator behaviour towards dangerous and harmless predators, according to the spatial scale.

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Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)
Ouriços-do-mar são capazes de avaliar o ambiente externo a partir de pistas químicas, por meio de quimiorreceptores presentes em seus espinhos, pés ambulacrários e pedicelárias. Neste estudo, utilizamos pistas químicas que indicam potencialmente o risco de predação de maneira diretas (odor de predador) ou indiretas (odor de coespecífico injuriado fisicamente) para avaliar os padrões de resposta de Echinometra lucunter. Num primeiro experimento, avaliamos a respostas dos ouriços expostos ao odor de estrela-do-mar equinívora Oreaster reticulatus em 1) jejum, alimentada com 2) E. lucunter, 3) Lytechinus variegatus ou 4) Perna perna; estrela-do-mar não equinívora Echinaster brasiliensis alimentada com 5) P. perna ou expostos a 6) água do mar sintética não condicionada (veículo). Num segundo experimento, os ouriços foram expostos ao extrato de 1) E. lucunter, 2) L. variegatus, 3) P. perna e 4) veículo. Esses estudos mostraram que E. lucunter é capaz de identificar, distinguir e reagir a diferentes extratos de animais, coespecíficos ou não. A dieta do predador modula a intensidade de resposta do E. lucunter, sendo mais pronunciadas as respostas frente ao odor de estrela que se alimentou de presas coespecíficas. Para o extrato, identificamos as respostas aos extratos de equinóides, sendo a mais forte para os de E. lucunter. Visto que muitos vertebrados respondem a estímulos similares qualitativamente, especulamos que esse comportamento anti-predatório possa ter evoluído a partir dos Echinodermata, grupo basal dos deuterostômios
Sea urchins are able to evaluate chemical information from the environment by using chemosensory receptors in their spines, tube feet and pedicellariae. In this study, we used chemical cues that potentially indicate directly (predator odor) or indirectly (injured conspecific) predation risk to assess antipredator behavior in the black sea urchin Echinometra lucunter. In a first experiment, the urchins were exposed to echinivorous starfish Oreaster reticulatus 1) starved, fed on 2) E. lucunter, 3) Lyfechinus variegatus or 4) Perna perna; nonechinivorous starfish 5) Echinaster brasiliensis fed on P. perna or exposed to 6) the vehicle, synthetic salt-water (control). In a second experiment, the urchins were exposed to extract of crushed 1) E. lucunter, 2) L. variegatus, 3) P. perna and 4) the vehicle (control). This study shows that E. lucunter are able to identity, distinguish and react to different animais extracts, conspecifics or not. Predator diet modulates E. lucunter intensity of behavioral responses. The response to echinivorous starfish odor fed on conspecifics is more pronounced. For the extract, urchins responded only to echinoids ones, and the response to extract of E. lucunter was the strongest. Speculatively, since vertebrates respond to qualitative similar stimuli, this kind of antipredator behavior might have evolved from the Echinodermata, a basal group of deuterostomes

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Indiana University, Dept. of Biology, 2007.
Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 68-09, Section: B, page: 5787. Adviser: Edmund D. Brodie, III. Title from dissertation home page (viewed May 9, 2008).

Few studies have rigorously assessed the adaptive value of diel rhythms in animals. We laid the groundwork for assessing the adaptive rhythm hypothesis by assaying diel rhythms of foraging and antipredator behavior in the orb-weaving spider Cyclosa turbinata. When confronted with a predator stimulus in experimental arenas, C. turbinata exhibited thanatosis behavior more frequently and for longer durations during the day. However, assays of antipredator response within webs revealed more complex diel patterns of avoidance behaviors and no pattern of avoidance behavior duration. Assays of prey capture behavior found that the likelihood of exhibiting prey capture behavior varied significantly across times of day and test subjects, but only test subject predicted attack latencies. Although C. turbinata foraging aggression changed over the diel cycle, we found no evidence of a trade-off between foraging behavior and predator vigilance. However, overall patterns of vigilance may be masked by diel changes in antipredator strategies.

While antipredator strategies have been a focus of behavioral research for decades, scientists generally study the responses of prey toward overt, explicit threat. However, risk can also be significant when a threat is covert, such as when an ambush predator may be nearby or a secondary threat remains after a predator's departure. Little is known about the mechanism that prey use to assess risk in a predator's absence. Tests were conducted to determine the manner in which coyotes respond to these ambiguous threats. Specifically, I tested whether coyotes respond to prior anthropogenic activity that has occurred near their only food source, whether they investigate human activity at both profitable (feeding) and unprofitable (non-feeding) locations, and what sort of information coyotes are capable of gaining through their investigation. I explored these questions in three experiments spanning 4 years at the USDA/APHIS/WS National Wildlife Research Center's Logan field station. Test subjects were eight pairs of captive coyotes. Results showed that coyotes delayed or avoided feeding in response to prior anthropogenic activity, and that often a delay was due to investigation of human scent trails. Investigation of non-feeding areas occurred but was relatively brief. When coyotes were prevented from investigating locations of prior anthropogenic activity, foraging ceased altogether. In addition, coyotes were able to differentiate among the activity of different humans based on their association with negative, neutral, or positive threat levels, even in the presence of confounding visual and olfactory cues. They remembered these associations even after one month. This study is the first that provides evidence suggesting that canids gather and interpret complex information for cognitive inference about threat level associated with access to food.

Orientador: Rodrigo Egydio Barreto
Banca: Gilson Luiz Volpato
Banca: Ronaldo Adriano Christofoletti
Resumo: Ouriços-do-mar são capazes de avaliar o ambiente externo a partir de pistas químicas, por meio de quimiorreceptores presentes em seus espinhos, pés ambulacrários e pedicelárias. Neste estudo, utilizamos pistas químicas que indicam potencialmente o risco de predação de maneira diretas (odor de predador) ou indiretas (odor de coespecífico injuriado fisicamente) para avaliar os padrões de resposta de Echinometra lucunter. Num primeiro experimento, avaliamos a respostas dos ouriços expostos ao odor de estrela-do-mar equinívora Oreaster reticulatus em 1) jejum, alimentada com 2) E. lucunter, 3) Lytechinus variegatus ou 4) Perna perna; estrela-do-mar não equinívora Echinaster brasiliensis alimentada com 5) P. perna ou expostos a 6) água do mar sintética não condicionada (veículo). Num segundo experimento, os ouriços foram expostos ao extrato de 1) E. lucunter, 2) L. variegatus, 3) P. perna e 4) veículo. Esses estudos mostraram que E. lucunter é capaz de identificar, distinguir e reagir a diferentes extratos de animais, coespecíficos ou não. A dieta do predador modula a intensidade de resposta do E. lucunter, sendo mais pronunciadas as respostas frente ao odor de estrela que se alimentou de presas coespecíficas. Para o extrato, identificamos as respostas aos extratos de equinóides, sendo a mais forte para os de E. lucunter. Visto que muitos vertebrados respondem a estímulos similares qualitativamente, especulamos que esse comportamento anti-predatório possa ter evoluído a partir dos Echinodermata, grupo basal dos deuterostômios
Abstract: Sea urchins are able to evaluate chemical information from the environment by using chemosensory receptors in their spines, tube feet and pedicellariae. In this study, we used chemical cues that potentially indicate directly (predator odor) or indirectly (injured conspecific) predation risk to assess antipredator behavior in the black sea urchin Echinometra lucunter. In a first experiment, the urchins were exposed to echinivorous starfish Oreaster reticulatus 1) starved, fed on 2) E. lucunter, 3) Lyfechinus variegatus or 4) Perna perna; nonechinivorous starfish 5) Echinaster brasiliensis fed on P. perna or exposed to 6) the vehicle, synthetic salt-water (control). In a second experiment, the urchins were exposed to extract of crushed 1) E. lucunter, 2) L. variegatus, 3) P. perna and 4) the vehicle (control). This study shows that E. lucunter are able to identity, distinguish and react to different animais extracts, conspecifics or not. Predator diet modulates E. lucunter intensity of behavioral responses. The response to echinivorous starfish odor fed on conspecifics is more pronounced. For the extract, urchins responded only to echinoids ones, and the response to extract of E. lucunter was the strongest. Speculatively, since vertebrates respond to qualitative similar stimuli, this kind of antipredator behavior might have evolved from the Echinodermata, a basal group of deuterostomes
Mestre

As charismatic megafauna and a flagship species, African elephants (Loxodonta africana) are vital to the African tourist economy. Conversely, high levels of wildlife tourism can induce behavioral shifts that push desired animals into less frequented areas and disrupt natural behaviors. In order to examine this trade-off, tourism levels and African elephant behaviors were studied in Zambezi National Park (ZNP) near Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe. Over the course of 14 weeks, in-person observations and camera traps in ZNP were used to collect geographic, demographic, and behavioral data from elephant sightings. As a proxy for human presence, geo-locational data were collected for each vehicle sighted in ZNP. These data of vehicles and elephants were mapped in ArcGIS to show a visual representation of their spatial relationship and identify high density and hotspot locations. Analyses from physical observations found that elephants were more frequently sighted in the park region with less vehicle traffic, as expected, but surprisingly also expressed more vigilance behaviors in that region. These results imply that elephants in high traffic regions become accustomed to vehicles but still avoid them when possible. Analyses from camera trap data revealed that only two of the six waterholes monitored had inversely related elephant and human presence, as predicted. There was no clear relationship between elephant and human presence. Future studies should account for habitat type differences in behavioral observations and compare elephant waterhole use in more heavily visited parks.

Le Grand hamster (Cricetus cricetus), l’un des mammifères les plus menacés d’Europe, est en voie d’extinction en France. Toutefois, nous manquons d’information sur les causes de son déclin et sur comment améliorer sa conservation. Durant ma thèse, je me suis intéressée à l’effet des cultures sur la reproduction du hamster. Les principaux résultats indiquent qu’une consommation importante de maïs conduit à une diminution drastique du succès reproducteur en raison d’une carence en vitamine B3. Une autre étude démontre que des associations de cultures (blé-soja ou maïs-tournesol) sont favorables au hamster et devraient être mises en place en Alsace. En parallèle, j’ai développé un tube anti-prédation (TAP) pour améliorer les passages à faune et reconnecter les populations sauvages. Des tests comportementaux ont révélé que les hamsters présentent des comportements audacieux face au prédateur, mais utilisent tout de même le TAP comme refuge, validant sa fonction anti-prédation. Le TAP sera maintenant mis en place dans plusieurs passages à faune en Alsace. Les résultats de cette thèse vont maintenant bénéficier à la conservation du hamster en France et en Europe
The European hamster (Cricetus cricetus), one of the most endangered mammal in Europe, is on the verge of extinction in France. However, we are still lacking information on the causes of its decline and on how to improve its conservation. During my PhD, I therefore investigated for the nutritional effects of crops on hamsters’ fitness. The main results highlight that elevated maize consumption is severely reducing hamsters’ reproduction because of a major deficiency in vitamin B3. Then, I found that crop associations such as wheat-soybean and maize-sunflower are favorable to the species and should be implemented in the Alsace. I also developed an anti-predation tube (APT) that will serve to upgrade wildlife underpasses and ultimately allow to reconnect wild populations. Moreover, behavioral tests presented in this thesis reveal that hamsters display bold behaviors when facing a predator. Nonetheless, they use the APT as a refuge in such cases, which validated its anti-predatory function. Therefore, the APT will now be implemented in wildlife underpasses in the Alsace. Results of this PhD will now benefit the conservation of the species in France and in Europe

Predation, classically described as the negative effect of the predator on the density of their prey, will be examined for their effects on the behavior of prey,in the form of antipredator responses. Antipredator responses may arise on the morphology, physiology and/or the behavior of prey, by predation or by the mere presence of the predator, in this case called non-lethal predator. In this context we mainly examine the effect of predators on foraging and change of habitat of their prey, as a antipredator response. Through the diversity of models surveyed, we exam the dynamics as often they are analised, through indirect effects mediated by density, and exam the same dynamic added of the trait-mediated indirect effects,through behavioral modeling techniques.
A predação, classicamente descrita como sendo o efeito negativo do predador sobre a densidade de suas presas, será aqui analisada a respeito de seus efeitos sobre o comportamental da presa, na forma de resposta antipredatória. Respostas antipredatórias podem surgir sobre a morfologia, a fisiologia e/ou o comportamental da presa, pela predação ou pela mera presença do predador,nesse caso denominado de predador não letal. Nesse contexto examinamos principalmente o efeito do predador sobre o forrageamento e a mudança de habitat de suas presas, como forma de resposta antipredatória. Por meio dos diversos modelos pesquisados, buscamos avaliar as dinâmicas da forma usualmente analisada, através dos efeitos indiretos mediados pela densidade, e analisar essa mesma dinâmica adicionada dos efeitos indiretos mediados por traço, através da modelagem comportamental.

Si le signalement du prédateur provoque le plus souvent la fuite des proies, il induit parfois un comportement particulier incitant la proie à s’approcher du prédateur et le harceler pour provoquer son départ plutôt que de se mettre hors de sa portée. Ce comportement de harcèlement s’accompagne de l’émission d’un signal hétérospécifique conduisant de nombreuses espèces à venir harceler le prédateur. L’objectif de mon travail de thèse est de comprendre comment est régi le transfert d’informations entre plusieurs espèces de passereaux dans le cas du comportement de harcèlement d’un prédateur. Mes travaux montrent que le comportement de harcèlement des passereaux face à un rapace nocturne dépend du risque de prédation posé par ce prédateur. Par ailleurs, les résultats indiquent un transfert d’informations entre les espèces et mettent en évidence une propension variable des différentes espèces à se rallier autour du harceleur. Les variations observées dans la réponse aux cris de harcèlement émis par des individus hétérospécifiques peuvent dépendre de la similarité acoustique, des relations interspécifiques et des variations saisonnières. Mes résultats indiquent aussi que la connaissance préalable des signaux de harcèlement n'est pas indispensable pour induire une réponse, même si un processus d’apprentissage associatif favorise sa mise en place. Mon travail suggère également une évolution convergente des cris de harcèlement, générant des signaux dont la structure permet une localisation rapide de l’émetteur, indispensable pour rameuter des proies potentielles lors du harcèlement. L’ensemble de ces avancées nous oblige désormais à considérer la communication acoustique chez les passereaux en prenant en compte le risque de prédation, les interactions hétérospécifiques et la complexité des signaux acoustiques
Signaling the presence of a predator most often causes the escape of prey, but it sometimes induces a particular behaviour prompting prey to approach and harass the predator to cause his departure. This mobbing behaviour is associated with the emission of signals leading individuals from different species to come harass the predator. The objective of this thesis is to understand how the transfer of information between several passerine species is organized in mobbing behaviour against predators. My work shows that the mobbing behaviour of passerine birds against a nocturnal raptor depends on the predation risk imposed by this predator. In addition, my results indicate a transfer of information between species and highlight a variable propensity of different species to rally around the harasser. The observed variations in the response to heterospecific calls depended on acoustic similarity, interspecific relationships and seasonality. My results also indicate that prior knowledge of harassment signals is not essential to induce a response, even if an associative learning process promotes its implementation. My work also suggests a convergent evolution in mobbing calls, generating signals with a structure that allows the emitter to be quickly located, an essential parameter to rally potential prey during harassment. My thesis consequently shows that to better understand acoustic communication in passerine birds, it is necessary to consider predation risk, heterospecific interactions and the complexity of acoustic signals

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Predation, classically described as the negative effect of the predator on the density of their prey, will be examined for their effects on the behavior of prey,in the form of antipredator responses. Antipredator responses may arise on the morphology, physiology and/or the behavior of prey, by predation or by the mere presence of the predator, in this case called non-lethal predator. In this context we mainly examine the effect of predators on foraging and change of habitat of their prey, as a antipredator response. Through the diversity of models surveyed, we exam the dynamics as often they are analised, through indirect effects mediated by density, and exam the same dynamic added of the trait-mediated indirect effects,through behavioral modeling techniques.
A predação, classicamente descrita como sendo o efeito negativo do predador sobre a densidade de suas presas, será aqui analisada a respeito de seus efeitos sobre o comportamental da presa, na forma de resposta antipredatória. Respostas antipredatórias podem surgir sobre a morfologia, a fisiologia e/ou o comportamental da presa, pela predação ou pela mera presença do predador,nesse caso denominado de predador não letal. Nesse contexto examinamos principalmente o efeito do predador sobre o forrageamento e a mudança de habitat de suas presas, como forma de resposta antipredatória. Por meio dos diversos modelos pesquisados, buscamos avaliar as dinâmicas da forma usualmente analisada, através dos efeitos indiretos mediados pela densidade, e analisar essa mesma dinâmica adicionada dos efeitos indiretos mediados por traço, através da modelagem comportamental.

Anfíbios anuros representam um grupo de vertebrados cujo plano corpóreo apresenta uma série de modificações associadas ao desempenho locomotor através de saltos, sendo estas especializações muito antigas e conservadas filogeneticamente. Embora estudos comparativos venham demonstrando associações entre desempenho de salto e diversidade de habitat e história de vida para esse grupo filogenético, as relações entre o desempenho locomotor e o comportamento antipredatório dentro do contexto da diversificação do uso do micro-habitat permanecem inexploradas. Primeiramente, nós testamos modelos adaptativos de evolução morfológica associados com a diversidade do uso do micro-habitat (aquático, arborícola, fossorial, reofílico e terrestre) em espécies de anuros e foi examinada a relação da distância máxima do salto como uma função dos componentes das variáveis morfológicas e do uso do micro-habitat. Nós também investigamos, tanto em nível intra quanto interespecífico a influência da complexidade do microambiente (arena vazia, arena com folhiços ou arena com folhiço e arbustos) e do tipo de estímulo (aproximação versus toque) na manifestação do comportamento antipredatório em anuros. Adicionalmente, nós investigamos o efeito do uso de diferentes tipos de refúgio pelos anuros quando sujeitos aos testes de simulação predatória no laboratório. Nossos resultados demostram a existência de múltiplos ótimos adaptativos para os comprimentos dos membros associados aos diferentes usos do micro-habitat, com uma tendência de aumento dos membros posteriores em espécies reofílicas, arborícolas e aquáticas quando comparadas com espécies terrestres e fossoriais, as quais evoluíram em direção ao ótimo adaptativo com membros posteriores mais curtos. Além disso, espécies reofílicas, arborícolas e aquáticas apresentaram maior desempenho para o salto e membros posteriores mais longos quando comparadas com espécies terrestres e fossoriais. Em seguida foi abordada a influencia da complexidade do ambiente no comportamento antipredatório e nossas análises intraspecíficas mostraram que o número de respostas ativas (salto) e passivas é fortemente dependente do tipo de estímulo e varia de acordo com a complexidade estrutural do ambiente. Simultaneamente, nossas análises comparativas interespecíficas mostraram que anuros modulam a distância saltada em resposta ao toque do predador de acordo com a complexidade ambiental, e nós ressaltamos uma variação interespecífica associada ao uso de micro-habitat. Por fim, foi investigado o uso de refúgios pelos anuros expostos a testes de simulação predatória. Nossos resultados mostram que os anuros usam a vegetação arbustiva, o folhiço e a água como areas de refúgio quando sujeitadas a simulação predatória. Além disso, ocorreu variação interespecífica na escolha de refúgios potencialmente associados à diversificação do uso de microhábitat
Anuran amphibians represent a group of vertebrates whose body plan presents a series of changes associated with jumping locomotor performance; these specializations are very old and phylogenetically conserved. Although comparative studies have shown associations among jumping performance, habitat diversity and life history for this phylogenetic group, the relationship between locomotor performance and antipredator behavior remains unexplored within the context of diversification of microhabitat use and habitat. First, we tested adaptive models of morphological evolution associated with the diversity of microhabitat use (aquatic, arboreal, fossorial, torrent and terrestrial) in species of anurans and examined the relation of the maximum distance jumped as a function of components of morphological variables and microhabitat use. We also investigated, both at intra and interspecific levels, the influence of the complexity of microenvironment (empty arena, with leaf litter or bushes) and stimulus type (approach versus touch) on the manifestation of antipredator behavior in anurans. In addition, we investigated the effect of the use of different types of refuges by anurans when subjected to simulated predator tests in the laboratory. Our results demonstrate the existence of multiple optima of limb lengths associated to different microhabitats, with a trend of increasing hindlimbs in torrent, arboreal, aquatic species whereas fossorial and terrestrial species evolve toward optima with shorter hindlimbs. Moreover, arboreal, aquatic and torrent anurans have higher jumping performance and longer hindlimbs, when compared to terrestrial and fossorial species. Then, was addressed the influence of the complexity of environment on antipredator behavior and our intraspecific analyzes showed that the number of active responses (jump) and passive responses is strongly dependent on stimulus type and varies according to the structural complexity of the environment. At the same time, our interspecific comparative analyzes showed that anurans modulate the distance jumped in response to the predator\'s touch according to environmental complexity, and we highlight an interspecific variation associated with the use of microhabitat. Lastly, was investigated the use of refuges by anurans exposed to simulated predation events. Our results show that anurans use bushes, leaf litter and water as refuge areas when subjected to simulated predator. Moreover, there is interspecific variation in the choice of refuges potentially associated to diversification of microhabitat use

Recent research has focused on the non-lethal effects of predator intimidation and fear, dubbed non-consumptive effects (NCEs), in which prey actively change their behavior and habitat use in response to predator chemical cues. Although NCEs can have large impacts on community structure, many studies have ignored differences in predator population structure and properties of the natural environment that may modify the magnitude and importance of NCEs. Here, I investigated the roles of predator size and density (i.e. biomass), as well as habitat characteristics, on predator risk assessment and the magnitude of consumptive and NCEs using blue crabs, mud crabs, and oyster prey as a model system. Predation experiments between blue crabs and mud crabs demonstrated that blue crabs consume mud crabs; however, the consumptive effects were dependent upon blue crab body size and habitat type. When mud crabs were exposed to chemical cues from differing biomasses of blue crabs in laboratory mesocosms, mud crab activity and predation on oysters was decreased in response to high biomass treatments (i.e. large and multiple small blue crabs), but not to low biomass predators (i.e single small blue crab), suggesting that risk associated with predator size is perceptible via chemical cues and is based on predator biomass. Further experiments showed that the perception of risk and the magnitude of the NCEs were affected by the sensory cues available and the diet of the blue crab predator. The NCE based on blue crab biomass was also demonstrated in the field where water flow can disperse cues necessary for propagating NCEs. Properties of water flow were measured within the experimental design and during the experiment and confirmed cage environments were representative of natural conditions and that patterns in NCEs were not associated with flow characteristics. These results affect species conservation and commercial fisheries management and demonstrate that we cannot successfully predict NCEs without considering predator size structure and the contexts under which we determine predator risk.

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The study of the interaction between pairs of species is the basis for understanding the coexistence in biological communities. The ability to select habitats may be important in the coexistence of competing species and in the interactions between predators and prey. This selection is often associated with the capacity of perception of chemical cues of prey and structural components of the habitat. The perception and response to chemical cues have been demonstrated for wandering spiders, but only for the family Lycosidae in temperate regions. The soil is among the structural factors that affect habitat selections in spiders, but this has been demonstrated only for burrowing spiders. In tropical forests, high biological diversity and the rapid degradation may hinder the recognition of cues from multiple species of predators and prey. Habitat selection based on different soil types may be important in this ecosystem where drastic soil alternations are common between nearby sites, especially if the soil type is related to some important resource. We assessed the response of two species of wandering spiders in a forest in central Amazonia, Ctenus amphora Melo-Leitão 1930 and Ctenus crulsi Melo-Leitão 1930 (Araneae, Ctenidae) (1) to chemical cues from potential prey, crickets Gryllus assimilis (Fabricius, 1775) (Orthoptera, Gryllidae) and termites Syntermes Holmgren, 1910 (Isoptera, Termitidae), (2) to chemical cues from predators, spiders Phoneutria Perty, 1833 (Araneae, Ctenidae) and army ants Labidus praedator (Fr. Smith, 1858 ) (Formicidae, Ecitonini), (3) and two soil types, sandy and clay soils on which the distribution and abundance of these species diverge. For the first two evaluations we compared the proportion of time on filter paper with and without the chemical cues, to the third evaluation we compared the proportion of time on the two types of soil. These observations were performed over 09 hours with 54 observations per spider at intervals of 10 minutes. A total of 65 spiders were observed in the experiment with prey (termites cues, crickets cues and control), 36 in the experiment with predators Phoneutria (Phoneutria cues and control), 15 in the experiment with army ants (army ants cues and control) and 67 spiders in the soil experiment. The two species spent significantly longer time on the filter paper with chemical cues from the 9 prey, which indicates that the perception of cues can be important for the foraging of the two species. Although C. crulsi consumes far more Syntermes termites in natural conditions, the two species did not differ in the proportion of time on the cues from termites in comparison to the time on cues from crickets, sugesting that they do not differ in the ability to detect the chemical from these prey. No antipredator response was detected for the two species of Ctenus. Therefore, there is no evidence that the coexistence of these species is facilitated by differences in the perception of chemical cues. Only C. crulsi presented preference to a type of soil, the clay soil, which coincides with the type of soil where it is found in abundance in nature. This response of C. crulsi can influence the distribution of C. amphora, due to interactions of these species. Therefore, the perception of soil type is probably an important proximal factor in determining the distribution patterns and dynamics of coexistence of these species.
O estudo da interação entre pares de espécies é uma das bases para a compreensão da coexistência em comunidades biológicas. A capacidade de selecionar habitats pode ser importante tanto na coexistência de espécies que competem entre si como nas interações entre predadores e presas. Esta seleção está muitas vezes associada à capacidade de percepção de pistas químicas de presas e de componentes estruturais do habitat. A percepção e resposta a pistas químicas já foram demonstradas para aranhas errantes, mas somente para a família Lycosidae em regiões temperadas. O solo está entre os fatores estruturais que influem na seleção de habitat em aranhas, mas isto apenas foi demonstrado para aranhas construtoras de toca. Em florestas tropicais, a alta diversidade biológica e a rápida degradação podem dificultar o reconhecimento de pistas das múltiplas espécies de predadores e de presas. A seleção de habitat com base nos diferentes tipos de solo pode ser importante neste ecossistema em que são comuns alternâncias drásticas de solos entre locais próximos, especialmente se o tipo de solo estiver relacionado com algum recurso importante. Avaliamos a resposta de duas espécies de aranhas errantes de uma floresta na Amazônia central, Ctenus amphora Melo-Leitão 1930 e Ctenus crulsi Melo-Leitão 1930 (Araneae, Ctenidae) (1) às pistas químicas de potenciais presas, grilos Gryllus assimilis (Fabricius, 1775) (Orthoptera, Gryllidae) e cupins Syntermes Holmgren, 1910 (Isoptera, Termitidae); (2) às pistas químicas de predadores, aranhas Phoneutria Perty, 1833 (Araneae, Ctenidae) e formigas de correição Labidus praedator (Fr. Smith, 1858) (Formicidae, Ecitonini); (3) e dois tipos de solo, solo arenoso e argiloso, sobre os quais a distribuição e abundância destas espécies diverge. Para as duas primeiras avaliações, comparamos a proporção de tempo sobre recortes de papel filtro com e sem as pistas químicas, para a terceira avaliação comparamos a proporção de tempo sobre os dois tipos de solo. Estas observações foram realizadas ao longo de 09 horas com 54 observações por aranha realizadas em intervalos de 10 minutos. Foram observadas 65 aranhas no experimento com as presas (pistas de cupins, grilos e controle), 36 aranhas no experimento com Phoneutria (pistas de Phoneutria e controle), 15 no experimento com formigas de correição (pistas de 7 formiga e controle), e 67 aranhas no experimento de solos. As duas espécies permaneceram significativamente mais tempo sobre as pistas de presas, indicando que a percepção de pistas pode ser importante para o forrageio das duas espécies. Apesar de C. crulsi consumir muito mais cupins Syntermes em condições naturais, as duas espécies não diferiram na proporção do tempo sobre as pistas de cupins em comparação ao tempo sobre pistas de grilos, indicando que não diferem na capacidade de detectar quimicamente estas presas. Não foi detectada resposta antipredatória pelas duas espécies de Ctenus. Portanto, não encontramos evidências que a coexistência destas duas espécies seja facilitada por diferenças na percepção de pistas químicas. Apenas para C. crulsi foi encontrada resposta de preferência a um dos tipos de solo, o argiloso, que coincide com o tipo de solo onde ela é encontrada em maior abundância na natureza. A resposta de C. crulsi pode influir na distribuição de C. amphora, em função das interações destas duas espécies. Portanto, a percepção do tipo de solo provavelmente é um fator proximal importante a determinar os padrões de distribuição e a dinâmica da coexistência destas espécies.

This thesis "Antipredatory and exploratory behavior as an expression of personality in Leopard (Eublepharis macularius)" focuses on behavior Leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius) in the exploratory and antipredation test. The aim is to determine whether some of the symptoms are characteristic of personality Leopard. The theoretical part will demonstrate the concept of personality. What are the terms for it to be about the phenomenon say that it is an expression of personality. We will deal with the various attempts used. The practical part will focus on the design of individual experiments and the results arising therefrom. Keywords: personality, repeatability, antipredator behavior, exploratory behavior

In the wild, snakes are known to elicit strong antipredator responses in primates. Primates often mob the snakes, which is also accompanied by loud calls. In evolution, the deadly threat posed by snakes goes as far as to the origin of placental mammals. In this study, the reactions of naïve individuals to snakes were tested. Naïve pigtail macaques (Macaca nemestrina) and mouse lemurs (Microcebus murinus) avoided the snake stimulus. For the macaques there was a longer latency to touch the rubber snake compared to the latency to touch the rubber lizard. The mouse lemurs avoided feeding on the side of experimental box where the snake odor was presented. The reactions of macaques and mouse lemurs were not accompanied by vocalizations and they seemed to be overall mild. Nevertheless, the snake stimuli used here were strong enough for these naïve primates. For ringtail lemurs (Lemur catta), the reactions to uncovering a hidden rubber snake was tested. But the lemurs showed no avoiding reactions. A question for further research is whether the different results for lemurs were not caused by different experimental procedure. As well as in macaques and mouse lemurs, the reactions seemed to be very mild. But no deeper analysis of the behavior was performed. Thus, a reaction could have been overlooked, which...

This thesis summarizes findings on a recognition and categorization of different sorts of stimuli at birds, it deals with predator recognition in the Red-backed Shrike (Lanius collurio) in its practical part. The aim of my study was to examine if Red-backed Shrikes follow by sign stimuli or colour of stimulus during the predator recognition. I performed my research by means of experiments with dummies, I have observed antipredatory reactions of Red-backed Shrikes on various types of dummies which differ in the presence or absence of features of raptor or in the different coloration. I concluded according to Shrikes' reactions that during the predator recognition the information on sign stimuli playes the principal role, but only this information alone is not fully sufficient. Antipredatory behaviour of the Red-backed Shrike was also influenced by sex of bird apart from type of dummy, males were more active during the nest defence than females.

1 Abstract Aim of the present study was to test antipredatory function of fulguration (or flash display), which means sudden exposition of conspicous body part on otherwise cryptic animal during escape. Adult squash bugs (Coreus marginatus; Heteroptera) were used as model prey, while as model predator served two species of passerine birds - blue tit (Cyanistes caerulus) and great tit (Parus major). Three approaches were undertaken. Test of palatability should have assessed the efficiency of squash bug chemical defence against bird predators. Experiment was carried out in experimental cage without interference of experimenter and without occurrence of fulguration. The results show that chemical defense of squash bug is less efficient than defense of other species of true bugs (Pyrrhocoris apterus, Graphosoma lineatum) and that the efficiency differs between two generations of squash bugs. In the test of efficiency of fulguration, the prey was forced by experimenter to fly in response to bird attack. Blue tits attacked the immobile prey more often than the flying and fulgurating one, but the same relation wasn't significant with great tits. The latencies of birds' returns to the bugs that landed after fulguration wasn't influenced by colour of the bugs' abdomen. Third experiment consisted of computer...

Trophic cascades have been occurring at an increased rate due to the global decline of top predators. Top predators are important in maintaining the biodiversity of ecosystems through their top-down influence on prey species, both consumptive via predation which affects population vital rates and behavioural in response to the risk of predation. Predator presence and density is known to have strong influence on prey behaviour and demographics. Antipredator, or risk-sensitive, behaviours of prey individuals reflect their perceived level of threat in the environment. Behavioural responses in prey to changes in predator abundance, either declines or increases, can happen after a relatively short periods exposure (weeks or months). However, the expression of such behaviours will vary between species and individuals, depending on factors such as ecological niche, body-size and age. The flexibility of prey behaviour can therefore indicate the perceived level of risk, predator-induced or otherwise, in the environment. A rare opportunity to study the simultaneous effects of top predator decline and increase is afforded by the natural decline of the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) from a novel infectious disease across its distributional range in Tasmania, Australia, and an assisted translocation for conservation of the devil to an offshore island. Tasmanian devils have drastically declined in abundance in the past two decades due to the transmissible devil facial tumour disease, with some areas of the state reduced to only 5% of the original devil population. Devil decline has already begun to have an impact on the behaviour of prey species in the environment but is likely to cause greater effects to the ecosystem balance as the disease continues to spread across Tasmania. To provide a wild-living insurance population, in the event of extinction of the devil in the wild, a disease-free population of devils was introduced onto Maria Island, a historically devil-free island and National Park 5km off the east coast of Tasmania. To determine the influence of devil abundance on Tasmanian macropod antipredator behaviours, three types of antipredator behaviour were studied (vigilance behaviour, flight initiation distance and emergence time and distance from cover) following the loss and gain in abundance of devils. The three species studied, the Tasmanian pademelon (Thylogale billardierii), Bennett’s wallaby (Macropus rufogriseus) and Forester kangaroo (Macropus giganteus tasmaniensis), are all susceptible to predation from Tasmanian devils, but due to species differences will express different levels of risk-sensitive behaviours. Macropod behaviours were compared at three sites with distinct devil abundances using both historic and novel data sets collected ‘before’ and ‘after’ changes in Tasmanian devil abundance. Top predator pressure proved to have little influence on the expression of antipredator behaviours in macropods. No universal changes were seen among all species in response to devil decline or increase over time. However, changes in the structural complexity of the environment (vegetation regrowth) had a strong influence on risk-sensitive behaviour, irrespective of devil abundance. Species ecology, body size (between species and within species) and age also influenced the expression of antipredator behaviours of macropods. Smaller prey animals (both due to species body size and age) are most vulnerable to predation. This vulnerability was reflected in their anti-predator behaviour which did not reflect changes in predator pressure. Larger species are more influenced by vegetation changes than predator abundance changes. These results illustrate the complex and multifaceted relationship between predator and prey and the need for more comprehensive studies on interspecies relationships to prevent further loss of top predators in the natural environment.

Laura investigated the effects of vessel noise on reef fishes. She found that the noise produced by ships and small boats affected the antipredator behaviour of juvenile fishes, moreover boat noise had long-term effects on growth. These results suggest that vessel noise has the potential of compromising the survival of juvenile fishes.

The risk of death by predation has been a major driver of group living in many prey animals. Animals must adapt to temporal and spatial variation in predation risk and would benefit from using relevant and reliable sources of information both from conspecifics and heterospecifics to better learn about danger. Research on the effects of group living on antipredator strategy has focused largely on group size. However, sociality is often more complex than simple amalgamations of individuals. Those living in groups are likely exposed to unequal levels of predation risk; some are exposed to more danger than others because of factors related to their age, sex, and spatial or social positioning. An individual’s antipredator strategy should reflect its perceived safety levels. I studied antipredator strategies in blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis stuhlmanni) in the Kakamega Forest, Kenya. Blue monkeys are arboreal guenons that live in matrilineally-based social groups and form differentiated social relationships. These social relationships could affect how monkeys respond to variable predation risk. Blue monkeys live in dense, biodiverse rain forests and are preyed upon by both aerial and terrestrial predators. They have a well-developed acoustic communication repertoire and have been known to associate with other primates to reduce predation risk (Cords 1987). I conducted five playback experiments and two sets of observational studies, and used data gathered on social interactions among adult females to further our understanding of how group living affects antipredator strategies. I also used 14 years of social interaction data to explore the heritability of social tendencies. In the first chapter, I present a comprehensive literature review of the connections between group living and antipredator behavior. I describe the effects of group size on antipredator behavior and how research on sociality has shifted towards focusing on individuals’ specific relationships and social connectivity. I then describe several ways in which social connectivity has been shown to influence antipredator behavior. I conclude with future directions and then introduce the dissertation. In the second chapter, I focus on heterospecific eavesdropping. I identified the extent to which blue monkey adult females respond to playbacks of alarm and social calls of two syntopic non-predatory bird species—black-faced rufous warblers (Bathmocercus rufus) and joyful greenbuls (Chlorocichla laetissima). Blue monkeys responded differentially depending on both call type and species. I then evaluated differential responses to conspecific and heterospecific callers, hypothesizing that conspecific signals would trigger stronger anti-predator responses because conspecifics are more relevant signals of risk. I conducted a playback experiment in which adult females were presented simultaneously with one alarm or social call from both conspecifics and warblers (4 combinations of alarm and social calls), or ambient rain forest sound (control). Subjects did not differentiate their responses to simultaneous calls according to the type of playback stimulus. These findings suggest that blue monkeys do not differentiate their responses to alarm calls according to caller relevance. Heterogeneous results among different response variables also highlight the importance of examining multiple modes of antipredator behavior. Next, I examine how an individual’s social connectivity influences its antipredator strategy, hypothesizing that more socially connected individuals would benefit from the proximity of more and closely bonded groupmates in enhancing predator avoidance. In Chapter 3, I evaluate the effects of social connectivity on acute antipredator responses, antipredator vigilance, and responses to signals related to various levels of predator-related threat. I first assessed how social connectivity affects the rate at which adult females exhibit acute antipredator responses (such as diving down in trees, climbing up trees, or alarm calling) and the proportion of responses that are major (lasting >30 s), statistically controlling for age, the presence of an infant, and 2-month “seasons”. I predicted that more socially connected individuals would exhibit less frequent acute antipredator responses because they would be better-informed about risk and therefore would exhibit fewer false alarms. I For the same reasons, I also predicted that they would exhibit more major (vs. minor) responses because false alarms are more likely to involve shorter responses (Cords 1987). Contrary to predictions, however, more closely connected individuals exhibited higher rates of acute antipredator responses, which might reflect their enhanced ability to learn about danger from surrounding groupmates, allowing them to detect more potential threats. There was no evidence that social connectivity was associated with the proportion of responses that lasted >30 s. I also found that the rate of acute antipredator responses and the proportion of responses that lasted >30 s varied with season. I then conducted 90-s focal vigilance follows, to assess how long females exhibit antipredator vigilance after controlling for other social and microhabitat factors (e.g., surrounding vegetation density), which can influence conspecific monitoring and exposure to potential predators. I predicted that more well-connected individuals would exhibit lower levels of antipredator vigilance in the absence of any imminent threats and after controlling for other social and spatial factors. More closely connected individuals who were in the spatial center of their social group did spend less time vigilant, but social connectivity was not associated with vigilance times when subjects were at the group’s edge, where exposure to predators and thus predation risk should be highest and antipredator vigilance should generally be higher. In the spatial center of the group, more closely connected individuals should be in a better position to observe their social partners’ antipredator behavior. Microhabitat also influenced antipredator vigilance in multiple ways, which highlights the spatial variation of perceived predation risk in a complex environment. Lastly, I conducted a playback experiment where I examined responses to signals from conspecifics and heterospecifics that are associated with different levels of threat. I predicted that more poorly connected individuals would respond strongly to all signals that might be associated with predators because they must identify personally whether danger is real, whereas more well-connected individuals would have more differentiated responses because they should be near social partners more frequently and can rely on their partners’ antipredator reactions to assess risk levels. However, although subjects did respond more to direct cues of the predator’s presence (its own calls) than to indirect cues of its presence (alarm calls by conspecifics and heterospecifics), there was no evidence that social connectivity affected responses to playbacks. As expected, stimulus type did affect responses—calls from predators (vs. alarm calls or social calls from non-predators) elicited increased looking responses from subjects, which suggests that stimuli that directly signal predator presence will elicit antipredator behavior regardless of the listener’s social connectivity. Overall, social connectivity seems to play a limited role in blue monkeys’ antipredator strategy but there was some evidence that more well-connected individuals were less vigilant when surrounded by groupmates. The ability to distinguish alarm calls by individual callers has not been well-studied, but animals might benefit from making such distinctions if callers vary in how reliably they signal danger. For decades, researchers have tested whether animals can discriminate callers using the habituation-dishabituation paradigm. After habituating subjects by repeatedly presenting calls of one individual, A, they examine whether subjects dishabituate when they hear the calls of a different individual, B (test stimulus). In Chapter 4, I first review studies that used this paradigm to evaluate whether animals discriminate between conspecific callers and then report on two playback experiments which tested whether wild blue monkeys are capable of such discrimination. My review revealed much methodological variation, particularly in the habituation phase and criteria, statistical analysis, and controls. In experiments, I contrasted two methods of habituation, either presenting a fixed number of stimuli (set after pilot observations) or evaluating responses during the series before progressing to the test. Afterwards, I conducted Wilcoxon signed-rank tests to assess habituation statistically. In the first experiment where I played back a fixed number and rate of calls, it was statistically unclear whether subjects habituated to caller A, despite preliminary observations and similar studies that suggested that the experimental design would be appropriate. Because there was not strong evidence that subjects habituated, I did not evaluate statistically whether subjects differentiated between callers in the full dataset. However, in the second experiment where I assessed habituation during the trial, subjects did habituate to caller A and there was weak support that they dishabituated to caller B, which suggests that caller discrimination may occur. From my experiences, I propose an improved design for studies using the habituation-dishabituation paradigm. Lastly, I explore the mechanisms that drive phenotypic variation in social tendencies (and in turn, social connectivity) in adult females. For natural selection to occur, there must be variation in traits, differentiated fitness benefits based on phenotypes, and heredity or a genetic basis underlying phenotypic variation. The previous chapters highlight the variation in and some of the benefits of social connectivity. In Chapter 5, I conducted an exploratory analysis to examine what factors account for phenotypic variance. Using animal models, I found that both environmental and additive genetic variance accounted for some of the phenotypic variance seen in traits associated with social tendencies (using social connectivity as a proxy). Variance in the social environment (i.e., environmental variance) played a large role in shaping observed phenotypic variation in social connectivity. However, all six of the social network measures examined were weakly heritable, which suggests that there is also a genetic basis for behavioral variation, allowing selection to occur. This dissertation emphasizes the importance of examining both antipredator behavior and sociality using multiple experiments, observations, and measures, while also considering the importance of study species and habitat complexity. The relationship between antipredator behavior and social connectivity is not straightforward and can vary greatly between study systems. Although many of my predictions were not supported, I did find evidence that blue monkeys are receptive to heterospecifics, vary their acute antipredator responses and vigilance based on social relationships with conspecifics, adjust their antipredator vigilance according to spatial positioning, and potentially discriminate between alarm callers. The findings presented here expand our knowledge of how animals learn about predation risk by being attentive to conspecifics and heterospecifics.

Captive rearing may elicit environmental or genetically-based changes to salmonid antipredator behaviour, which may reduce its survival when released into the wild. While this subject has received considerable attention, there has been little research using fish reared for a short period of time (2 generations or less of captive breeding). In addition, few studies have tested wild-caught and hatchery-reared fish originating from the same population and none have done so under natural conditions. Hence, I conducted a semi-natural field study comparing the antipredator behaviour of wild-caught, F1 (offspring of wild-caught adults) with that of F2 (second generation) hatchery-reared juvenile Atlantic salmon (from the same source population) to standardized predation cues. Wild-caught salmon exhibited strong antipredator responses to the predation threat, while F1 and F2 salmon showed weaker responses. Interestingly, F1 salmon showed stronger responses than F2 salmon. The observation that wild-caught and F2 salmon were consistently different supports the hypothesis that even one full generation of hatchery rearing may be sufficient to select for maladaptive responses to predators under natural conditions. The observation that F1 salmon were intermediate to wild-caught and F2 salmon suggests that individual experience may also play a significant role on the observed reduced antipredator response. Given the current decline of many salmonid populations across North America and the controversy regarding the effectiveness of hatchery programs for conservation use, the results of this study suggest that minimizing hatchery time may reduce the behavioural differences between wild and hatchery-reared fishes.

Pollution can have significant effects on the parasite communities and behaviour of freshwater fish. This study compares the helminth communities and predator avoidance behaviour of johnny darters ( Etheostoma nigrum ) collected from two reference localities and three polluted localities in the St. Lawrence River in southwestern Quebec, Canada. Both reference localities and one locality impacted with industrial and agricultural contaminants were located upstream of Montreal; two sites impacted with municipal sewage and urban effluent were located downstream of the city. Overall, darters were infected with 24 species of helminths, 16 of which were larval stages. Fish from the upstream polluted locality (industrial and agricultural) had a higher mean species richness than the two reference localities, which had higher richness than the two downstream localities (sewage). Fish from the upstream and reference localities had higher total parasite numbers than the two downstream localities. A non-parametric, permutational multivariate ANOVA (PERMANOVA) using Bray-Curtis dissimilarities between communities of individual fish revealed that the parasite communities differed by locality, pollution status of locality and type of pollution (upstream versus downstream). A capture time experiment and a flight distance experiment were performed, to test the effects of parasitism and pollution on susceptibility to predation. A PERMANOVA demonstrated that abundance of a brain-encysting parasite, Ornithodiplostomum sp. and locality explained capture time, but failed to detect a relationship between pollution status and antipredator behaviour. Fish with high intensity infections of the brain encysting parasite, Ornithodiplostomum sp., were more difficult to capture, reflecting increased activity of infected individuals. Abundances of Ornithodiplsotomum sp. metacercariae were greater at reference localities than at impacted ones, possibly reflecting sensitivity to pollution of transmission stages or snail hosts of this parasite. Pollution may have an indirect effect on johnny darter antipredator behaviour, by decreasing abundance of a behaviour-modifying parasite at polluted localities.

All organisms must obtain energy to survive, grow and reproduce. For species in the middle of food chains, such as juvenile coral reef fishes, energy acquisition can be particularly risky because individuals are often more vulnerable to predators while foraging. Thus, prey are under continuous pressure to optimize trade-offs between the benefits of antipredator behaviour and foraging behaviour. In addition, environmental conditions can also further cause shifts on how prey balance the costs and benefits of foraging in the light of predation risk. In particular, temperature and food availability might be expected to affect antipredator behaviour of animals through the profound impact they can have on the animal's physiology. However, the drivers and different pathways linking these environmental factors to changes in behaviour of prey animals when facing predation risk remain poorly investigated. The aim of this dissertation was to investigate the different pathways by which the thermal and feeding history of prey fish can impact antipredator behaviour. The series of laboratory-based studies use juvenile coral reef fishes (Pomacentridae) as model taxa. The importance of a prey's feeding history has commonly been highlighted as a decisive factor in determining how prey respond to predation risk, with hungry prey accepting higher risk of predation while foraging to avoid risk of starvation. Surprisingly, while rising temperature can also impose higher energy demands for ectotherms such as fishes, no attempt has been made to test whether temperature interacts with food availability to further affect antipredator responses in prey. I explored this research question in Chapter 2. My data indicated that temperature in isolation does not influence the propensity to take risk under predation threat in well-fed fish. However, prey animals reared in condition of restrained food availability appeared to take more risks under predation threat with increasing temperature. As such, the results show that poorly and well-fed fish at 27 °C still displayed a detectable antipredator response to predation threat. However, at 30 °C (a thermal regime equivalent to the regional maximum summer temperature), poorly-fed fish, not well-fed foraged at a high rate even under the threat of predation. Interestingly, in Chapter 5 I found, based on level of energy reserves in the liver, supporting evidence that such risk-prone behaviour is very likely to be caused by a temperature-mediated increase in metabolic rate and the need for food to fuel the associated higher energy demands. A rise in energy demands can lead prey to favor foraging at the expense of increasing exposure to predation threat. However, it can be expected that there will be an offset in the extent to which such risk-prone behaviour may happen with increasing sources of sensory information on predation threat. My experiment, in Chapter 3 is the first study to address this possibility. Although the observed behavioural patterns were not completely in line with the initial prediction, the results strongly suggest that additional sensory information on predation can lead to a further enhancement of the response, which is dependent on the prey's feeding history. Poorly and moderately-fed fish responded to a single predator cue, but further enhanced the intensity of their response to multiple predator cues. In contrast, well-fed fish displayed a fully-developed antipredator responses to any threat cue regardless of the nature of the sensory source or number of senses that informed the threat. The high vigilance of well-fed individuals is best explained by the asset-protection principle, which predicts that the more an individual stands to lose (i.e., high body reserves and larger body size), the more cautiously it should behave. While higher-asset individuals may be more cautious, higher assets in the form of higher condition can in certain context-specific circumstances also lead to increased risk-taking behaviour in prey. In particular, it may be expected that as prey grow they will reduce their level of vigilance to small gape-limited predators as an adaptive mechanism to avoid losing foraging opportunities. It has been further proposed that predator-related information acquired by prey would become outdated and lose its relevancy more quickly in prey animals under high growth rate, since they outgrow their predators sooner than slow-growing individuals. In Chapter 4, I empirically tested this prediction by rearing predator-conditioned prey fish under different temperature mediated growth trajectories (27 °C vs. 30 °C) for 14 days and assessed weekly whether prey still responded to the initially acquired predator information. Although with time after the initial conditioning event all fish gradually decreased the intensity of their response to the learned predator cue, there were no significant differences in the decline of the response among the different growth trajectories. The temperature-mediated growth trajectories may have been too subtle to find detectable differences in behavioural patterns. However, these findings support the existence of an adaptive mechanism causing a decline in the informational value of a learned predator cue over time. This mechanism should give prey the ability to not persevere with maladaptive behaviour towards outdated or irrelevant information. Temperature and food availability can also be expected to influence a prey's behavioural decision through alteration of the quality and/or quantity of the available predation-related cues to which they will be exposed. Several studies have highlighted that chemical alarm cues obtained from a poorly-fed donor prey are less effective in eliciting an alarm response in conspecifics than those obtained from fish with a good feeding history. The experiment in Chapter 5 is the first study to test how food availability can, concurrently with temperature, affect the properties alarm cues produced by a donor prey. The results indicate that the alarm cues produced by donor prey triggered a stronger antipredator response in conspecifics as rearing temperature increased from 27 °C up to 30 °C, regardless of the feeding history or body condition of the donors. However, at 32 °C, alarm cues from poorly-fed donor fish do not elicit an antipredator response as effectively in conspecifics compared to those produced by well-fed fish. These results clearly show that food supply and the thermal environment in which an organism lives can impact the effectiveness of the produced alarm cues to trigger antipredator responses in conspecifics. This dissertation embodies a number of studies that have empirically identified, quantified and examined a series of pathways by which food availability and temperature may affect cost-benefit trade-offs between foraging and predator avoidance. Trends in the data were best explained by the animals' physiology, growth patterns and energy budget, and by the underlying impact of these on threat-sensitive and state-dependent behavioural mechanisms. While the current work assessed the individual effects of these pathways, it is clear that in the wild, such pathways will simultaneously occur to further lead to counterbalancing effects on a particular behavioural pattern. The resulting change in the intensity of the antipredator response can be expected to have rapid, widespread and diverse consequences ecological consequences. While further work is required, the current body of work demonstrates that small ecologically-relevant changes in temperature and food supply can independently and interactively determine the strength of predator-prey interaction within tropical aquatic ecosystems.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Wisconsin--Madison, 1988.
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Since neonates are often the age-class most susceptible to predation, there should be strong selective pressure on prey for the early development of successful antipredator behaviour. The ability to assess predation risk as early as the embryonic stages may increase an individual’s survival, as it would allow young individuals to be better adapted to current predation risk, since present conditions are often a good short-term indicator of future conditions. I exposed embryonic cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) to the odour of a predator and tested both the responses of the embryos to this stimulus, and the latent effects of both long (approximately 3 weeks)- and short (a few days)- exposure on the behaviour of newly-hatched juveniles, in particular the efficiency of cryptic behaviour on uniform and sandy substrates. Exposure to novel odours, whether they were predators or non-predators, increased the ventilation rate of embryos. This may be adaptive, because it helps an individual survive first encounters with unknown potential dangers before they have opportunity to collect information about a novel stimulus. Long-term exposure to predator odour increased the camouflage efficiencies of juveniles on uniform substrates. On sandy substrate, the exposure did not affect camouflage, but increased the extent of sand digging behaviour. Juveniles were also larger in size at hatching when exposed to predators compared to those that were not. These results were not seen in individuals with only short-term exposure to predator. Short-term exposure also had no effect on camouflage efficiencies on uniform or sandy substrates, or on sand digging behaviour. The results of my thesis indicate that high predation risk during embryonic development induces behavioural and morphological changes in camouflage expression and body size in cuttlefish hatchlings. The behavioural plasticity may provide survival benefits for newly hatched individuals, but may come at a cost in terms of body size. Such behavioural and morphological plasticity may have an impact on predator-prey dynamics and organization of communities.

Amphibian decline is a major concern worldwide, and a lack of basic ecological and life history information for many species significantly limits our ability to evaluate the degree and possible causes of such declines, and to develop effective conservation strategies for threatened and endangered species. Not only is there a shortage of adequate long-term datasets necessary for robust analyses of population variability, but the elusive nature and obscure microhabitats of many species make it difficult to collect even the most basic natural history data. In a series of observational and experimental studies, I employed both traditional and novel ecological methodologies to examine environmental correlates of temporal population variability, foraging ecology and anti-predator behavior in endangered Barton Springs Salamander (Eurycea sosorum) from Austin (Travis County), Texas. Though headwater springs are typically thought of as habitats with relatively stable environmental conditions, I discovered that E. sosorum population abundance was strongly influenced by periodic extremes of rainfall that affect cycles in spring flow rates, water temperature, and other physico-chemical variables. I also found that population dynamics in E. sosorum are highly consistent with those expected for organisms with a storage effect life-history strategy, in which a few long-lived females capable of high fecundity and prolonged survival in subterranean habitat during adverse environmental conditions may be sufficient for population persistence. In addition, juveniles may use subterranean habitat as a thermal refuge. Using stable isotope analyses and macroinvertebrate prey censuses, I determined that at the population level, adult E. sosorum exhibits high electivity for planarian flatworms (Dugesia sp.). This would not have been detectable using traditional methods of dietary analysis such as stomach or fecal content analysis because Dugesia are soft-bodied animals. Additionally, stable isotope analyses revealed that adult E. sosorum exhibits inter-individual diet variation and is capable of diet switching. Finally, I discovered that anti-predator behavior in E. sosorum is influenced more strongly by visual and bioelectric cues from potential predators, but not olfactory cues. This is the first known demonstration of anti-predatory response mediated only by bioelectric stimuli in an amphibian, and one of very few to observe this phenomenon among aquatic vertebrates.
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The contagious nature of the black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) jump-yip display may provide information to signalers and receivers regarding the vigilance of neighbours. Videotaping jump-yip bouts and the behaviour of both bout initiators and respondents within those bouts provided evidence that: 1) individuals became vigilant immediately following jump-yip production, but exhibited minimal changes in their immediate post-jump-yip behaviour with changes in the characteristics of the preceding bout, 2) bout initiators spent more time actively foraging and exhibited vigilance behaviours less frequently with greater levels of response in the preceding jump-yip bout, 3) respondents spent more time actively foraging and less time vigilant following bouts with greater response. These results suggest that black-tailed prairie dogs base behavioural decisions at least in part on the characteristics of their jump-yip bouts and thus the jump yip display may provide information about the vigilance of group members.
October 2007

In previous studies with stuffed dummies, we found interesting difference in nest defence of Red-Backed Shrike (Lanius collurio) against two similar nest predators: Jay (Garrulus glandarius) and Magpie (Pica pica). Jay was attacked very intensively, whereas Magpie almost wasn´t hited and Shrikes seemed to keep in cover. Here, I describe the antipredation behavior of the Red Backed Shrike against another stuffed corvids presented closely to Shrikes nests: Jay (Garrulus glandarius), Common Nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes), Rook (Corvus frugilegus), Crow (Corvus corone) and Raven (Corvus corax). I found Jay and Nutcracker to be attacked by Shrikes very strongly, whereas Rook, Crow and Raven were attacked rarely (Shrikes only flied around them or sit at a distance, watching the dummy, sometimes accompanied with alarm-calls). Shrikes response is affected mainly by kind of predator, by age of youngs and by quality of concealment of nest. More - www.mn.ic.cz

My study was aimed to describe the antipredator behaviour of Barred Warbler against five avian mounted dummies differing in the level of threat they represent for the Barred Warbler: Eurasian Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), Eurasian Jay (Garrulus glandarius), Black-billed Magpie (Pica pica), Red-backed Shrike (Lanius collurio), and Domastic Pigeon (Columba livia f. domestica) using the experiments carried in the vicinity of the nests with fledglings of Barred Warbler. The next goal of my study was to discover the relationship between the Barred Warbler and the Red-backed Shrike nesting together.

We have examined wild palearctic and nearctic parids in their ability to recognize and assess a threat level of sympatric and allopatric predators. The study was conducted in Prague, Czech republic, on great tits (Parus major) and blue tits (Parus caeruleus) during the winter of 2013, and the following year in the city of Calgary, Canada, on black-capped chickadees (Poecile atricapillus). Three species of falcons (merlin (Falco columbarius), common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) and american kestrel (Falco sparverius)), were chosen, two of which were sympatric and one was allopatric to the studied parid species in each area. We have also tested their reaction to nest predators magpies (eurasian magpie (Pica pica), black-billed magpie (Pica hudsonia)). Using two ground feeders in the winter time, we gave parids a choice between a feeder with either one of the three dummies of falcons, or a magpie, and a feeder with a dummy of either a hawk (the most dangerous predator of small birds) or a dove (a harmless bird of the same size as falcons). As a control we have only used sympatric species: eurasian sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), Cooper's hawk (Acipiter cooperii), eurasian collared dove (Streptopelia decaocto) and mourning dove (Zenaida macroura). Results from the city of Calgary did not produce any...

An increasing amount of attention is devoted to studying the impact of non-native animal species on native species. Among other causes of ecosystem degradation, such as climate change, polution and habitat conversion, biological invasion is considered as one of the main causes of the decrease in biological diversity all over the world. In order to detect possible predation event, tadpoles use not only visual and mechanical stimuli, but also chemical one. The tadpoles respond to the certain chemicals to be a part of predator's secretions. In aquatic systems, chemical cues are a major source of information through which animals are able to assess the current state of their environment to gain information about local predation risk. Prey use chemicals released by predators to mediate a range of behavioural, morphological and life-history antipredator defences. Tadpoles swim significatnly less and also on a less direct trajectory in the presence of chemical cues released by a turtle Trachemys scripta. This article is focused on the influence of mentioned constraints on the dynamics and the time dynamics of the larval growth of Rana temporaria. The influence was judged by the impact on the tadpole's development. We anticipated a behavioral response to the predator, which would lead to various growth reactions during larval growth, the resulting body size after metamorphosis, but also in the development time of larval stage. The results indicate that tadpoles of Rana temporaria changed behaviour in the presence of Trachemys scripta. Tadpoles in the permanent presence of the turtle grew faster, metamorphosed earlier and the resulting size after metamorphosis was smaller than of the tadpoles who developed without presence of the predator. Mentioned reactions may affect the survival and fitness of a metamorphosed individual.

Alarm calls are one of the essential components of antipredator behaviour in birds. In this study I recorded and analysed alarm responses of the barred warbler (Sylvia nisoria) to different mounts of avian predators and nonpredators. The information about danger is encoded through graded structure in its unspecific alarm call type.

Meerkat (Suricata suricatta) is a mongoose species from South Africa. Insects are the primary food sources of their diet. Meerkat lives in groups of 2?30 individuals with a developed social structure. The group consists of a dominant pair and a different number of helpers of both sexes, which are involved in various forms of cooperation, for example care for cubs, guard service and maintaince of burrow. Meerkats are at risk of predation by mammalian predators, avian predators and snakes. One meerkat always seems to be a sentry and stands guard to keep the gang safe. When the guard senses danger they give a warning bark and the other members run for cover into their burrow. This study was done from June to September 2011 in zoo in Jihlava on a group of meerkats, which consisted of 13 individuals. There was used the method of direct observation by a scanning behaviour (behaviour sampling). Observation was specialized on sentinel behaviour. The main aim of this work was evaluate the results of observation and then compare this results with behaviour in the wild. By monitoring was demonstrably found, that dominant individuals contributed to guarding more frequently and the longest time and the juveniles contributed at least. There wasn´t set order in guarding. The most often was individually guarding or guarding in a group of 2 or 3 individuals.

Responses of tadpoles Bombina variegata (likely unexperienced with predator) to pulses of risk and safety were tested and compared with results of a bachelor thesis previously done on tadpoles Bufo bufo (species likely experienced with predator) to confirm the risk allocation hypothesis. Differences of overall activity of both species were not significant. Differences in activity between Bufo bufo and Bombina variegata tadpoles held in continual risk conditions were observed. Such behavior possibilities are discussed.