Artículos de revistas:

1

Schwab, Birgit, Ulrike Folkers, Hilmar Ilgenfritz y Martin Hülskamp. "Trichome morphogenesis in Arabidopsis". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 355, n.º 1399 (29 de julio de 2000): 879–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2000.0623.

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Trichomes (plant hairs) in Arabidopsis thaliana are large non–secreting epidermal cells with a characteristic three–dimensional architecture. Because trichomes are easily accessible to a combination of genetic, cell biological and molecular methods they have become an ideal model system to study various aspects of plant cell morphogenesis. In this review we will summarize recent progress in the understanding of trichome morphogenesis.

2

Bennett, Sally R. M., John Alvarez, Gerd Bossinger y David R. Smyth. "Morphogenesis in pinoid mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana". Plant Journal 8, n.º 4 (octubre de 1995): 505–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-313x.1995.8040505.x.

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3

Imoto, Ayame, Mizuki Yamada, Takumi Sakamoto, Airi Okuyama, Takashi Ishida, Shinichiro Sawa y Mitsuhiro Aida. "A ClearSee-Based Clearing Protocol for 3D Visualization of Arabidopsis thaliana Embryos". Plants 10, n.º 2 (20 de enero de 2021): 190. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants10020190.

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Tissue clearing methods combined with confocal microscopy have been widely used for studying developmental biology. In plants, ClearSee is a reliable clearing method that is applicable to a wide range of tissues and is suitable for gene expression analysis using fluorescent reporters, but its application to the Arabidopsis thaliana embryo, a model system to study morphogenesis and pattern formation, has not been described in the original literature. Here, we describe a ClearSee-based clearing protocol which is suitable for obtaining 3D images of Arabidopsis thaliana embryos. The method consists of embryo dissection, fixation, washing, clearing, and cell wall staining and enables high-quality 3D imaging of embryo morphology and expression of fluorescent reporters with the cellular resolution. Our protocol provides a reliable method that is applicable to the analysis of morphogenesis and gene expression patterns in Arabidopsis thaliana embryos.

4

Akberdin, I. R., E. A. Ozonov, V. V. Mironova, D. N. Gorpinchenko, N. A. Omelyanchuk, V. A. Likhoshvai y N. A. Kolchanov. "A cellular automaton model of morphogenesis in Arabidopsis thaliana". Biophysics 51, S1 (febrero de 2006): 91–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s0006350906070189.

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5

Berná, Genoveva, Pedro Robles y José Luis Micol. "A Mutational Analysis of Leaf Morphogenesis in Arabidopsis thaliana". Genetics 152, n.º 2 (1 de junio de 1999): 729–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/152.2.729.

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Abstract As a contribution to a better understanding of the developmental processes that are specific to plants, we have begun a genetic analysis of leaf ontogeny in the model system Arabidopsis thaliana by performing a large-scale screening for mutants with abnormal leaves. After screening 46,159 M2 individuals, arising from 5770 M1 parental seeds exposed to EMS, we isolated 1926 M2 putative leaf mutants, 853 of which yielded viable M3 inbred progeny. Mutant phenotypes were transmitted with complete penetrance and small variations in expressivity in 255 lines. Most of them were inherited as recessive monogenic traits, belonging to 94 complementation groups, which suggests that we did not reach saturation of the genome. We discuss the nature of the processes presumably perturbed in the phenotypic classes defined among our mutants.

6

Haughn, George W., Elizabeth A. Schultz y Jose M. Martinez-Zapater. "The regulation of flowering in Arabidopsis thaliana: meristems, morphogenesis, and mutants". Canadian Journal of Botany 73, n.º 7 (1 de julio de 1995): 959–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/b95-105.

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In the last decade, the study of mutants defective in floral development has contributed significantly to our understanding of floral evocation and morphogenesis. Genes in Arabidopsis thaliana and Antirrhinum majus that play key roles in (i) the transition from the vegetative to reproductive phase, (ii) the activation of floral development in specific shoots, and (iii) the unique arrangement of floral organs have been identified genetically and in many cases cloned. Many of the genes appear to encode transcription factors that act to select specific developmental programs of division and differentiation for groups of primordial cells. Other genes may be involved in detecting environmental conditions and transducing the signal to the developing meristems. Key questions remaining include how the regulatory proteins are produced in specific temporal and spatial patterns, interact with each other and initiate specific morphological programs. Although current research on floral morphogenesis has been limited to only a few species there is growing evidence that the basic processes are common to all flowering plants.Thus the information and tools currently being generated should be useful for studying a wide variety of flowering species. It seems reasonable to predict that within the next decade, we should have a fairly complete understanding of the basic mechanisms underlying floral morphogenesis and its evolution among the angiosperms. Key words: Arabidopsis thaliana, floral morphogenesis, molecular genetics.

7

Smyth, DR. "Arabidopsis thaliana: a Model Plant for Studying the Molecular Basis of Morphogenesis". Functional Plant Biology 17, n.º 3 (1990): 323. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/pp9900323.

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Morphogenesis in higher plants is likely to be controlled by the serial activation of genes. These genes could be identified if the structure which they normally control is specifically disrupted when they are in mutant form. By cloning and characterising the products of such genes we could gain an understanding of the genetic control of morphogenesis. This report makes a case for following this strategy using Arabidopsis thaliana as a model species. This species is easily grown, has a short, 6-week life cycle and convenient genetics. Mutations affecting embryogenesis, trichome structure, the inflorescence and floral organs are already known. Because Arabidopsis has a tiny genome (70 000 kbp), cloning of genes known only by mutant phenotype is practicable by chromosome walking and DNA tagging. The role of their products in cellular and developmental decisions could then be investigated. Genes controlling morphogenesis are likely to be conserved across higher plants. Once they have been cloned from a model species their isolation from other species by DNA hybridisation is relatively simple. Generalisations about the origin, action and evolution of such genes would then be possible. Also artificial manipulation of morphogenesis may be achievable.

8

Yang, Yanqiu, Weihong Huang, Endian Wu, Chentao Lin, Binqing Chen y Deshu Lin. "Cortical Microtubule Organization during Petal Morphogenesis in Arabidopsis". International Journal of Molecular Sciences 20, n.º 19 (3 de octubre de 2019): 4913. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms20194913.

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Cortical microtubules guide the direction and deposition of cellulose microfibrils to build the cell wall, which in turn influences cell expansion and plant morphogenesis. In the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana (Arabidopsis), petal is a relatively simple organ that contains distinct epidermal cells, such as specialized conical cells in the adaxial epidermis and relatively flat cells with several lobes in the abaxial epidermis. In the past two decades, the Arabidopsis petal has become a model experimental system for studying cell expansion and organ morphogenesis, because petals are dispensable for plant growth and reproduction. Recent advances have expanded the role of microtubule organization in modulating petal anisotropic shape formation and conical cell shaping during petal morphogenesis. Here, we summarize recent studies showing that in Arabidopsis, several genes, such as SPIKE1, Rho of plant (ROP) GTPases, and IPGA1, play critical roles in microtubule organization and cell expansion in the abaxial epidermis during petal morphogenesis. Moreover, we summarize the live-confocal imaging studies of Arabidopsis conical cells in the adaxial epidermis, which have emerged as a new cellular model. We discuss the microtubule organization pattern during conical cell shaping. Finally, we propose future directions regarding the study of petal morphogenesis and conical cell shaping.

9

Wang, Xiao-juan. "Effects of di-butyl phthalate on in vitro morphogenesis of Arabidopsis thaliana". Functional Plant Biology 30, n.º 8 (2003): 909. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/fp03005.

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Di-butyl phthalate (DBP) is one of the common environmental contaminants found both in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. However, little is known about its effects on plant morphogenesis. We report here a study examining the effects of DBP on morphogenesis of Arabidopsis thaliana. When stems and laminae of Arabidopsis were cultured on Murashige and Skoog medium supplemented with 6-benzyl aminopurine (6-BA, 2 mg L–1) and naphthalene acetic acid (NAA, 0.2 mg L–1), both produced callus and some shoots. However, the presence of 1�mg�L–1 DBP in the above medium inhibited formation of callus by stems and laminae, and eventually led to the death of the callus, indicating that DBP inhibited the de-differentiation and differentiation of Arabidopsis stem and laminae explants. Transmission electronic microscopy showed that DBP caused membrane and organelle disruption, which might explain the failure of cell division in treated tissues.

10

Dubrovsky, Joseph G., Thomas L. Rost, Adán Colón-Carmona y Peter Doerner. "Early primordium morphogenesis during lateral root initiation in Arabidopsis thaliana". Planta 214, n.º 1 (noviembre de 2001): 30–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s004250100598.

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11

Baskin, TI, AS Betzner, R. Hoggart, A. Cork y RE Williamson. "Root Morphology Mutants in Arabidopsis thaliana". Functional Plant Biology 19, n.º 4 (1992): 427. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/pp9920427.

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We have begun a mutational analysis of root morphogenesis in Arabidopsis thaliana. We report here the initial genetic and physiological characterisation of six mutations that affect root growth and development. Three of them (rsw1, rsw2, rsw3) cause extensive radial swelling of the root apex. These mutations are recessive at different loci and show temperature-sensitive expression, such that the roots appear wild type when grown at 18�C but express the mutant phenotype when transferred to 31�C. Following transfer to the restrictive temperature, these three mutations have different kinetic and morphological patterns of radial swelling, and grow at different rates with continued time at high temperature. We believe that these mutations represent three different loci active in the wild type in regulating the shape of the root. We have also characterised two mutations that affect only the root epidermis, causing many epidermal cells to bulge (reb1-1, reb1-2). The two mutations are recessive and are alleles. However, rebl-1 is constitutive whereas reb1-2 is temperature sensitive, only expressing at 33�C. Reb1-2 also causes a deviation from the normal straight growth of the root such that the affected roots grow with sharp bends or meanders. The final mutant reported here is a stunted plant (stp1), in which the root growth rate is approximately 25% of the wild type rate. Moreover, root growth steadily accelerates over 5 days following germination in the wild type but remains constant in stp1, which grows at a constant rate over the same interval.

12

Schneitz, K., M. Hulskamp, S. D. Kopczak y R. E. Pruitt. "Dissection of sexual organ ontogenesis: a genetic analysis of ovule development in Arabidopsis thaliana". Development 124, n.º 7 (1 de abril de 1997): 1367–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.124.7.1367.

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Understanding organogenesis remains a major challenge in biology. Specification, initiation, pattern formation and cellular morphogenesis, have to be integrated to generate the final three-dimensional architecture of a multicellular organ. To tackle this problem we have chosen the ovules of the flowering plant Arabidopsis thaliana as a model system. In a first step towards a functional analysis of ovule development, we performed a large-scale genetic screen and isolated a number of sterile mutants with aberrant ovule development, We provide indirect genetic evidence for the existence of proximal-distal pattern formation in the Arabidopsis ovule primordium. The analysis of the mutants has identified genes that act at an intermediate regulatory level and control initiation of morphogenesis in response to proximal-distal patterning. A second group of genes functions at a subordinate control level and regulates general cellular processes of morphogenesis. A large group of male and female sterile mutants shows defects restricted to early or late gametogenesis. In addition, we propose that the mature ovule obtains its overall curved shape by at least three different processes that act in only one domain of the ovule.

13

Mendoza, L., D. Thieffry y E. R. Alvarez-Buylla. "Genetic control of flower morphogenesis in Arabidopsis thaliana: a logical analysis". Bioinformatics 15, n.º 7 (1 de julio de 1999): 593–606. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/15.7.593.

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14

Omelyanchuk, N. A., V. V. Mironova, E. M. Zalevsky, I. S. Shamov, A. S. Poplavsky, N. L. Podkolodny, D. K. Ponomaryov et al. "A systems approach to morphogenesis in Arabidopsis thaliana: I. AGNS database". Biophysics 51, S1 (febrero de 2006): 75–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s0006350906070165.

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15

Mathur, Jaideep. "Trichome cell morphogenesis in Arabidopsis: a continuum of cellular decisionsThis review is one of a selection of papers published in the Special Issue on Plant Cell Biology." Canadian Journal of Botany 84, n.º 4 (abril de 2006): 604–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/b06-019.

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In keeping with the myriad functions carried out by plants, their component cells display an amazing diversity of shapes and sizes. How is a precise cell form achieved? In recent years, the single-celled, branched, aerial epidermal trichome of Arabidopsis thaliana L. (Heynh) has emerged as a model cell for understanding the cell biological and molecular basis underlying the development of cell shape in plants. Here, I critique the recent information gleaned from dissecting trichome cell morphogenesis in Arabidopsis and identify areas and questions that can be further addressed using this unique cell type.

16

Dolan, L., K. Janmaat, V. Willemsen, P. Linstead, S. Poethig, K. Roberts y B. Scheres. "Cellular organisation of the Arabidopsis thaliana root". Development 119, n.º 1 (1 de septiembre de 1993): 71–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.119.1.71.

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The anatomy of the developing root of Arabidopsis is described using conventional histological techniques, scanning and transmission electron microscopy. The root meristem is derived from cells of the hypophysis and adjacent cells of the embryo proper. The postembryonic organization of the root is apparent in the mature embryo and is maintained in the growing primary root after germination. Cell number and location is relatively invariant in the primary root, with 8 cortical and endodermal cell files but more variable numbers of pericycle and epidermal cells. The organisation of cells in lateral roots is similar to that of the primary root but with more variability in the numbers of cell files in each layer. [3H]thymidine labeling of actively growing roots indicates that a quiescent centre of four central cells (derived from the hypophysis) is located between the root cap columella and the stele. This plate of four cells is surrounded by three groups of cells in, proximal, distal and lateral positions. The labeling patterns of these cells suggest that they are the initials for the files of cells that comprise the root. They give rise to four sets of cell files: the stele, the cortex and endodermis, the epidermis and lateral root-cap and the columella. A model of meristem activity is proposed based on these data. This description of Arabidopsis root structure underpins future work on the developmental genetics of root morphogenesis.

17

Komaki, M. K., K. Okada, E. Nishino y Y. Shimura. "Isolation and characterization of novel mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana defective in flower development". Development 104, n.º 2 (1 de octubre de 1988): 195–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.104.2.195.

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We have isolated a number of mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana, a member of the mustard family, that have defects in flower development and morphogenesis. Of these, five mutants have been extensively characterized. Two mutants (Fl-40, Fl- 48) lacking petals show homeotic conversion of sepals to carpels. One mutant (Fl-54) displays highly variable phenotypes, including several types of homeotic variations, loss or distorted positions of the floral organs as well as abnormal structures on the inflorescence. Two other mutants (Fl-82, Fl-89) show aberrant structures in the pistils. Genetic analyses have revealed that these mutations are single and recessive, except for one mutant whose mutational loci still remain to be determined. These mutants may prove useful for the analysis of the genetic control of flower development and morphogenesis in the higher plant.

18

Benfey, P. N., P. J. Linstead, K. Roberts, J. W. Schiefelbein, M. T. Hauser y R. A. Aeschbacher. "Root development in Arabidopsis: four mutants with dramatically altered root morphogenesis". Development 119, n.º 1 (1 de septiembre de 1993): 57–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.119.1.57.

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A genetic analysis of root development in Arabidopsis thaliana has identified mutants that have abnormal morphogenesis. Four of these root morphogenesis mutants show dramatic alterations in post-embryonic root development. The short-root mutation results in a change from indeterminate to determinate root growth and the loss of internal root cell layers. The cobra and lion's tail mutations cause abnormal root cell expansion which is conditional upon the rate of root growth. Expansion is greatest in the epidermal cells in cobra and in the stele cells in lion's tail. The sabre mutation causes abnormal cell expansion that is greatest in the root cortex cell layer and is independent of the root growth rate. The tissue-specific effects of these mutations were characterized with monoclonal antibodies and a transgenic marker line. Genetic combinations of the four mutants have provided insight into the regulation of growth and cell shape during Arabidopsis root development.

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Niu, De y Yuehui He. "LEAFY COTYLEDONs: old genes with new roles beyond seed development". F1000Research 8 (27 de diciembre de 2019): 2144. http://dx.doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.21180.1.

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Seed development is a complex process and consists of two phases: embryo morphogenesis and seed maturation. LEAFY COTYLEDON (LEC) transcription factors, first discovered in Arabidopsis thaliana several decades ago, are master regulators of seed development. Here, we first summarize molecular genetic mechanisms underlying the control of embryogenesis and seed maturation by LECs and then provide a brief review of recent findings in the role of LECs in embryonic resetting of the parental ‘memory of winter cold’ in Arabidopsis. In addition, we discuss various chromatin-based mechanisms underlying developmental silencing of LEC genes throughout the post-embryonic development to terminate the embryonic developmental program.

20

Franzmann, L., D. A. Patton y D. W. Meinke. "In vitro morphogenesis of arrested embryos from lethal mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana". Theoretical and Applied Genetics 77, n.º 5 (mayo de 1989): 609–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00261231.

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21

Christophe, Angélique, Véronique Letort, Irène Hummel, Paul-Henry Cournède, Philippe de Reffye y Jérémie Lecœur. "A model-based analysis of the dynamics of carbon balance at the whole-plant level in Arabidopsis thaliana". Functional Plant Biology 35, n.º 11 (2008): 1147. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/fp08099.

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Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. is used as a model plant in many research projects. However, few models simulate its growth at the whole-plant scale. The present study describes the first model of Arabidopsis growth integrating organogenesis, morphogenesis and carbon-partitioning processes for aerial and subterranean parts of the plant throughout its development. The objective was to analyse competition among sinks as they emerge from patterns of plant structural development. The model was adapted from the GreenLab model and was used to estimate organ sink strengths by optimisation against biomass measurements. Dry biomass production was calculated by a radiation use efficiency-based approach. Organogenesis processes were parameterised based on experimental data. The potential of this model for growth analysis was assessed using the Columbia ecotype, which was grown in standard environmental conditions. Three phases were observed in the overall time course of trophic competition within the plant. In the vegetative phase, no competition was observed. In the reproductive phase, competition increased with a strong increase when lateral inflorescences developed. Roots and internodes and structures bearing siliques were strong sinks and had a similar impact on competition. The application of the GreenLab model to the growth analysis of A. thaliana provides new insights into source–sink relationships as functions of phenology and morphogenesis.

22

Fischer, U., Y. Ikeda y M. Grebe. "Planar polarity of root hair positioning in Arabidopsis". Biochemical Society Transactions 35, n.º 1 (22 de enero de 2007): 149–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bst0350149.

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The co-ordinated polarity of cells within the plane of a single tissue layer (planar polarity) is intensively studied in animal epithelia but has only recently been systematically analysed in plants. The polar positioning of hairs in the root epidermis of Arabidopsis thaliana provides an easily accessible system for the functional dissection of a plant-specific planar polarity. Recently, mutants originally isolated in genetic screens for defects in root hair morphogenesis and changes in the sensitivity to or the production of the plant hormones auxin and ethylene have identified players that contribute to polar root hair placement. Here, we summarize and discuss recent progress in research on polar root hair positioning from studies in Arabidopsis.

23

Hu, Ziwei, Tingting Liu y Jiashu Cao. "Functional Similarity and Difference among Bra-MIR319 Family in Plant Development". Genes 10, n.º 12 (21 de noviembre de 2019): 952. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes10120952.

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miR319 was the first plant miRNA discovered via forward genetic mutation screening. In this study, we found that miR319 family members had similar sequences but different expression patterns in Brassica campestris and Arabidopsis thaliana. RT-PCR analysis revealed that Bra-MIR319a and Bra-MIR319c had similar expression patterns and were widely expressed in plant development, whereas Bra-MIR319b could only be detected in stems. The overexpression of each Bra-MIR319 family member in Arabidopsis could inhibit cell division and function in leaf and petal morphogenesis. Bra-miR319a formed a new regulatory relationship after whole genome triplication, and Bra-MIR319a overexpressing in Arabidopsis led to the degradation of pollen content and affected the formation of intine, thereby causing pollen abortion. Our results suggest that Bra-MIR319 family members have functional similarity and difference in plant development.

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Abe, Tatsuya, Siripong Thitamadee y Takashi Hashimoto. "Microtubule Defects and Cell Morphogenesis in the lefty1lefty2 Tubulin Mutant of Arabidopsis thaliana". Plant and Cell Physiology 45, n.º 2 (15 de febrero de 2004): 211–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pcp/pch026.

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25

Kaloudas, Dimitrios y Robert Penchovsky. "Arabidopsis Homologues to the LRAT a Possible Substrate for New Plant-Based Anti-Cancer Drug Development". International Journal of Biomedical and Clinical Engineering 7, n.º 1 (enero de 2018): 40–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/ijbce.2018010103.

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This article describes how an NC gene family has been identified in the genome of the Arabidopsis thaliana (Arabidopsis) by homology to the human Lecithin Retinal Acyl Transferase (LRAT) and the picornavirus 2A protein. The Arabidopsis proteins contain two motifs identified in a vast variety of organisms, an H-Box and an NC. Among related proteins are the C. elegans EGL-26, a regulator protein of cell morphogenesis in the vulva region, and human proteins that might be related to cell proliferation or development. Human homologues include HRAS-like tumour suppressors, the Tazarotene-induced gene 3 (TIG3), and a deSumoylating Isopeptidase (PNAS-4) that induces apoptosis in lung cancer cells. Preservation of the two motifs observed in the Arabidopsis proteins in homology to tumour suppressors, and the conservation of residues important for the function of the LRAT amongst the Arabidopsis homologues can be indicative not only of the importance of these domains for the function of the plant proteins but can also reveal a new candidate group for the design of plant-based tumour-targeting drug development.

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Nakai, Yumi, Gorou Horiguchi, Kosei Iwabuchi, Akiko Harada, Masato Nakai, Ikuko Hara-Nishimura y Takato Yano. "tRNA Wobble Modification Affects Leaf Cell Development in Arabidopsis thaliana". Plant and Cell Physiology 60, n.º 9 (10 de mayo de 2019): 2026–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pcp/pcz064.

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Abstract The tRNA modification at the wobble position of Lys, Glu and Gln (wobbleU* modification) is responsible for the fine-tuning of protein translation efficiency and translation rate. This modification influences organism function in accordance with growth and environmental changes. However, the effects of wobbleU* modification at the cellular, tissue, or individual level have not yet been elucidated. In this study, we show that sulfur modification of wobbleU* of the tRNAs affects leaf development in Arabidopsis thaliana. The sulfur modification was impaired in the two wobbleU*-modification mutants: the URM1-like protein-defective mutant and the Elongator complex-defective mutants. Analyses of the mutant phenotypes revealed that the deficiency in the wobbleU* modification increased the airspaces in the leaves and the leaf size without affecting the number and the area of palisade mesophyll cells. On the other hand, both mutants exhibited increased number of leaf epidermal pavement cells but with reduced cell size. The deficiency in the wobbleU* modification also delayed the initiation of the endoreduplication processes of mesophyll cells. The phenotype of ASYMMETRIC LEAVES2-defective mutant was enhanced in the Elongator-defective mutants, while it was unchanged in the URM1-like protein-defective mutant. Collectively, the findings of this study suggest that the tRNA wobbleU* modification plays an important role in leaf morphogenesis by balancing the development between epidermal and mesophyll tissues.

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Merendino, Livia, Florence Courtois, Björn Grübler, Olivier Bastien, Vera Straetmanns, Fabien Chevalier, Silva Lerbs-Mache, Claire Lurin y Thomas Pfannschmidt. "Retrograde signals from mitochondria reprogramme skoto-morphogenesis in Arabidopsis thaliana via alternative oxidase 1a". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 375, n.º 1801 (4 de mayo de 2020): 20190567. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0567.

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The early steps in germination and development of angiosperm seedlings often occur in the dark, inducing a special developmental programme called skoto-morphogenesis. Under these conditions photosynthesis cannot work and all energetic requirements must be fulfilled by mitochondrial metabolization of storage energies. Here, we report the physiological impact of mitochondrial dysfunctions on the skoto-morphogenic programme by using the Arabidopsis rpoTmp mutant. This mutant is defective in the T7-phage-type organellar RNA polymerase shared by plastids and mitochondria. Lack of this enzyme causes a mitochondrial dysfunction resulting in a strongly reduced mitochondrial respiratory chain and a compensatory upregulation of the alternative-oxidase (AOX)-dependent respiration. Surprisingly, the mutant exhibits a triple-response-like phenotype with a twisted apical hook and a shortened hypocotyl. Highly similar phenotypes were detected in other respiration mutants ( rug3 and atphb3) and in WT seedlings treated with the respiration inhibitor KCN. Further genetic and molecular data suggest that the observed skoto-morphogenic alterations are specifically dependent on the activity of the AOX1a enzyme. Microarray analyses indicated that a retrograde signal from mitochondria activates the ANAC017-dependent pathway which controls the activation of AOX1A transcription. In sum, our analysis identifies AOX as a functional link that couples the formation of a triple-response-like phenotype to mitochondrial dysfunction. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Retrograde signalling from endosymbiotic organelles'.

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Truernit, Elisabeth y Jim Haseloff. "Arabidopsis thaliana outer ovule integument morphogenesis: Ectopic expression of KNAT1 reveals a compensation mechanism". BMC Plant Biology 8, n.º 1 (2008): 35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2229-8-35.

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29

Gerald, J. N. F., P. S. Hui y F. Berger. "Polycomb group-dependent imprinting of the actin regulator AtFH5 regulates morphogenesis in Arabidopsis thaliana". Development 136, n.º 20 (25 de septiembre de 2009): 3399–404. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.036921.

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30

Nanjo, Tokihiko, Masatomo Kobayashi, Yoshu Yoshiba, Yukika Sanada, Keishiro Wada, Hirokazu Tsukaya, Yoshitaka Kakubari, Kazuko Yamaguchi-Shinozaki y Kazuo Shinozaki. "Biological functions of proline in morphogenesis and osmotolerance revealed in antisense transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana". Plant Journal 18, n.º 2 (abril de 1999): 185–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-313x.1999.00438.x.

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31

Folkers, U., J. Berger y M. Hulskamp. "Cell morphogenesis of trichomes in Arabidopsis: differential control of primary and secondary branching by branch initiation regulators and cell growth". Development 124, n.º 19 (1 de octubre de 1997): 3779–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.124.19.3779.

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Cell morphogenesis, i.e. the acquisition of a particular cell shape, can be examined genetically in the three-branched trichomes that differentiate from single epidermal cells on the leaves of Arabidopsis thaliana. In normal development, the growing trichome cell undergoes two successive branching events, resulting in a proximal side stem and a distal main stem which subsequently splits in two branches. Using new and previously described trichome mutants, we have analyzed the branching pattern in single and double mutants affecting branch number or cell size in order to determine underlying mechanisms. Our results suggest that primary branching is genetically distinct from subsequent branching events and that the latter, secondary events are initiated in response to positive and negative regulators of branching as well as subject to control by cell growth. We propose a model of how trichome cell morphogenesis is regulated during normal development.

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Mathur, J., P. Spielhofer, B. Kost y N. Chua. "The actin cytoskeleton is required to elaborate and maintain spatial patterning during trichome cell morphogenesis in Arabidopsis thaliana". Development 126, n.º 24 (15 de diciembre de 1999): 5559–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.126.24.5559.

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Arabidopsis thaliana trichomes provide an attractive model system to dissect molecular processes involved in the generation of shape and form in single cell morphogenesis in plants. We have used transgenic Arabidopsis plants carrying a GFP-talin chimeric gene to analyze the role of the actin cytoskeleton in trichome cell morphogenesis. We found that during trichome cell development the actin microfilaments assumed an increasing degree of complexity from fine filaments to thick, longitudinally stretched cables. Disruption of the F-actin cytoskeleton by actin antagonists produced distorted but branched trichomes which phenocopied trichomes of mutants belonging to the ‘distorted’ class. Subsequent analysis of the actin cytoskeleton in trichomes of the distorted mutants, alien, crooked, distorted1, gnarled, klunker and wurm uncovered actin organization defects in each case. Treatments of wild-type seedlings with microtubule-interacting drugs elicited a radically different trichome phenotype characterized by isotropic growth and a severe inhibition of branch formation; these trichomes did not show defects in actin cytoskeleton organization. A normal actin cytoskeleton was also observed in trichomes of the zwichel mutant which have reduced branching. ZWICHEL, which was previously shown to encode a kinesin-like protein is thought to be involved in microtubule-linked processes. Based on our results we propose that microtubules establish the spatial patterning of trichome branches whilst actin microfilaments elaborate and maintain the overall trichome pattern during development.

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Hashimoto, Kayo, Shunsuke Miyashima, Kumi Sato-Nara, Toshihiro Yamada y Keiji Nakajima. "Functionally Diversified Members of the MIR165/6 Gene Family Regulate Ovule Morphogenesis in Arabidopsis thaliana". Plant and Cell Physiology 59, n.º 5 (16 de febrero de 2018): 1017–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pcp/pcy042.

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Yang, Yang, Charles T. Anderson y Jiashu Cao. "Polygalacturonase45 cleaves pectin and links cell proliferation and morphogenesis to leaf curvature in Arabidopsis thaliana". Plant Journal 106, n.º 6 (junio de 2021): 1493–508. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tpj.15308.

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35

Baldotto, Marihus Altoé, Rafael Carvalho Muniz, Lílian Estrela Borges Baldotto y Leonardo Barros Dobbss. "Root growth of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. treated with humic acids isolated from typical soils of Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil". Revista Ceres 58, n.º 4 (agosto de 2011): 504–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0034-737x2011000400015.

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Humic substances isolated from soil organic matter had been used as stimulators of plant metabolism. Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. with only five chromosomes, short cycle and size, is an important model to evaluate the physiological effects of these substances, which are qualitatively and quantitatively influenced by morphogenesis, mineralogy and chemistry of soils. The objective of this study was to evaluate the ambience effects on bioactivity of humic acids. A and B horizons of four typical soils of the North Fluminense were sampled. After isolation and purification, humic acids were applied to plants in increasing concentrations. The number and length of lateral roots and main root length were evaluated and, subsequently, the concentrations of maximum stimulation were determined by dose-response curves and regression equations. The results showed that more stable humic acids isolated from soil in less advanced stages of weathering, high activity clay and high base saturation resulted in better physiological stimulants for Arabidopsis.

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Chenu, Karine, Nicolas Franck, Jean Dauzat, Jean-François Barczi, Hervé Rey y Jérémie Lecoeur. "Integrated responses of rosette organogenesis, morphogenesis and architecture to reduced incident light in Arabidopsis thaliana results in higher efficiency of light interception". Functional Plant Biology 32, n.º 12 (2005): 1123. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/fp05091.

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Plants have a high phenotypic plasticity in response to light. We investigated changes in plant architecture in response to decreased incident light levels in Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh, focusing on organogenesis and morphogenesis, and on consequences for the efficiency of light interception of the rosette. A. thaliana ecotype Columbia plants were grown under various levels of incident photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), with blue light (BL) intensity proportional to incident PAR intensity and with a high and stable red to far-red light ratio. We estimated the PAR absorbed by the plant, using data from precise characterisation of the light environment and 3-dimensional simulations of virtual plants generated with AMAPsim software. Decreases in incident PAR modified rosette architecture; leaf area decreased, leaf blades tended to be more circular and petioles were longer and thinner. However, the efficiency of light interception by the rosette was slightly higher in plants subjected to lower PAR intensities, despite the reduction in leaf area. Decreased incident PAR delayed leaf initiation and slowed down relative leaf expansion rate, but increased the duration of leaf expansion. The leaf initiation rate and the relative expansion rate during the first third of leaf development were related to the amount of PAR absorbed. The duration of leaf expansion was related to PAR intensity. The relationships identified could be used to analyse the phenotypic plasticity of various genotypes of Arabidopsis. Overall, decreases in incident PAR result in an increase in the efficiency of light interception.

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Bibikova, T. N., T. Jacob, I. Dahse y S. Gilroy. "Localized changes in apoplastic and cytoplasmic pH are associated with root hair development in Arabidopsis thaliana". Development 125, n.º 15 (1 de agosto de 1998): 2925–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.125.15.2925.

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Morphogenesis in plants is characterized by highly regulated cell enlargement. However, the mechanisms controlling and localizing regions of growth remain essentially unknown. Root hair formation involves the induction of a localized cell expansion in the lateral wall of a root epidermal cell. This expanded region then enters a second phase of localized growth called tip growth. Root hair formation therefore provides a model in which to study the cellular events involved in regulating localized growth in plants. Confocal ratio imaging of the pH of the cell wall revealed an acidification at the root hair initiation site. This acidification was present from the first morphological indications of localized growth, but not before, and was maintained to the point where the process of root hair initiation ceased and tip growth began. Preventing the wall acidification with pH buffers arrested the initiation process but growth resumed when the wall was returned to an acidic pH. Cytoplasmic pH was found to be elevated from approximately 7.3 to 7. 7 at the initiation site, and this elevation coincided with the acidification of the wall. Preventing the localized increase in cytoplasmic pH with 10 mM butyrate however did not inhibit either the wall acidification or the initiation process. In contrast, there was no detectable gradient in pH associated with the apex of tip growing root hairs, but both elevated apoplastic pH and butyrate treatment irreversibly inhibited the tip growth process. Thus the processes of tip growth and initiation of root hairs show differences in their pH requirements. These results highlight the role of localized control of apoplastic pH in the control of cell architecture and morphogenesis in plants.

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Vu, H. T., U. N. Ondar y O. P. Soldatova. "Expression of new mutant alleles of AS1 and AS2 genes controlling leaf morphogenesis in Arabidopsis thaliana". Russian Journal of Developmental Biology 39, n.º 1 (enero de 2008): 6–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s1062360408010037.

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Ha, Chan Man, Ji Hyung Jun, Hong Gil Nam y Jennifer C. Fletcher. "BLADE-ON-PETIOLE1 Encodes a BTB/POZ Domain Protein Required for Leaf Morphogenesis in Arabidopsis thaliana". Plant and Cell Physiology 45, n.º 10 (15 de octubre de 2004): 1361–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pcp/pch201.

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40

Luo, Jie, Ji-Chu Chen y Yu-Ju Zhao. "Brassinosteroid-induced de-etiolation of Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings resembles the long-term effects of cytokinins". Functional Plant Biology 25, n.º 6 (1998): 719. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/pp98010.

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Cytokinins can cause de-etiolation of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. seedlings growing in the dark. Brassinosteroids (BRs) have been considered to regulate negatively the de-etiolation in dark-grown Arabidopsis seedlings. We show here that epi-brassinolide (epi-BL) can partially produce the phenotype of de-etiolation as caused by treatment with cytokinins in the dark, including the development of leaves and epicotyls in the wild-type and the BR-deficient mutant det2. But BRs cannot inhibit hypocotyl elongation, nor restore all the inhibition caused by cytokinins and light. We have found that there are distinct short term and long term phases of induction of de-etiolation by cytokinins. The short-term effect is probably coupled to ethylene in the inhibition of the hypocotyl elongation; the long-term effect causes morphogenesis of leaves and epicotyls. BRs can only regulate de-etiolation in the long term. We propose that the inhibition of hypocotyl elongation of det2 in darkness is caused by the absence of BR-dependent elongation rather than the inhibition caused by the expression of genes for photomorphogenesis. We propose that BRs resemble cytokinins in regulating de-etiolation as positive regulators, and that the inhibition of hypocotyl elongation and the development of leaves and epicotyls in de-etiolation are independent processes.

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Walker, J. D., D. G. Oppenheimer, J. Concienne y J. C. Larkin. "SIAMESE, a gene controlling the endoreduplication cell cycle in Arabidopsis thaliana trichomes". Development 127, n.º 18 (15 de septiembre de 2000): 3931–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.127.18.3931.

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Cell differentiation is generally tightly coordinated with the cell cycle, typically resulting in a nondividing cell with a unique differentiated morphology. The unicellular trichomes of Arabidopsis are a well-established model for the study of plant cell differentiation. Here, we describe a new genetic locus, SIAMESE (SIM), required for coordinating cell division and cell differentiation during the development of Arabidopsis trichomes (epidermal hairs). A recessive mutation in the sim locus on chromosome 5 results in clusters of adjacent trichomes that appeared to be morphologically identical ‘twins’. Upon closer inspection, the sim mutant was found to produce multicellular trichomes in contrast to the unicellular trichomes produced by wild-type (WT) plants. Mutant trichomes consisting of up to 15 cells have been observed. Scanning electron microscopy of developing sim trichomes suggests that the cell divisions occur very early in the development of mutant trichomes. WT trichome nuclei continue to replicate their DNA after mitosis and cytokinesis have ceased, and as a consequence have a DNA content much greater than 2C. This phenomenon is known as endoreduplication. Individual nuclei of sim trichomes have a reduced level of endoreduplication relative to WT trichome nuclei. Endoreduplication is also reduced in dark-grown sim hypocotyls relative to WT, but not in light-grown hypocotyls. Double mutants of sim with either of two other mutants affecting endoreduplication, triptychon (try) and glabra3 (gl3) are consistent with a function for SIM in endoreduplication. SIM may function as a repressor of mitosis in the endoreduplication cell cycle. Additionally, the relatively normal morphology of multicellular sim trichomes indicates that trichome morphogenesis can occur relatively normally even when the trichome precursor cell continues to divide. The sim mutant phenotype also has implications for the evolution of multicellular trichomes.

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NOVOSELOVA, EKATERINA S., VICTORIA V. MIRONOVA, NADYA A. OMELYANCHUK, FEDOR V. KAZANTSEV y VITALY A. LIKHOSHVAI. "MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF AUXIN TRANSPORT IN PROTOXYLEM AND PROTOPHLOEM OF ARABIDOPSIS THALIANA ROOT TIPS". Journal of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology 11, n.º 01 (febrero de 2013): 1340010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0219720013400106.

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Phytohormone auxin is the main regulator of plant growth and development. Nonuniform auxin distribution in plant tissue sets positional information, which determines morphogenesis. Auxin is transported in tissue by means of diffusion and active transport through the cell membrane. There is a number of auxin carriers performing its influx into a cell (AUX\LAX family) or efflux from a cell (PIN, PGP families). The paper presents mathematical models for auxin transport in vascular tissues of Arabidopsis thaliana L.root tip, namely protophloem and protoxylem. Tissue specificity of auxin active transport was considered in these models. There is PIN-mediated auxin efflux in both protoxylem and protophloem, but AUX1-mediated influx exists only in protophloem. Optimal values of parameters were adjusted for model solutions to fit the experimentally observed auxin distributions in the root tip. Based on simulation results we predicted that shoot-derived auxin flow to protophloem is lower than one to protoxylem, and the efficiency of PIN-mediated auxin transport in protophloem is higher than in protoxylem. In summary, our simulation showed that despite the same auxin distribution pattern, provascular tissues in the root tip differ in dynamics of auxin transport.

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Zhang, Jun, Jinshan Ella Lin, Chinchu Harris, Fernanda Campos Mastrotti Pereira, Fan Wu, Joshua J. Blakeslee y Wendy Ann Peer. "DAO1 catalyzes temporal and tissue-specific oxidative inactivation of auxin in Arabidopsis thaliana". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113, n.º 39 (20 de septiembre de 2016): 11010–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1604769113.

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Tight homeostatic regulation of the phytohormone auxin [indole-3-acetic acid (IAA)] is essential to plant growth. Auxin biosynthetic pathways and the processes that inactivate auxin by conjugation to amino acids and sugars have been thoroughly characterized. However, the enzyme that catalyzes oxidation of IAA to its primary catabolite 2-oxindole-3-acetic acid (oxIAA) remains uncharacterized. Here, we show that DIOXYGENASE FOR AUXIN OXIDATION 1 (DAO1) catalyzes formation of oxIAA in vitro and in vivo and that this mechanism regulates auxin homeostasis and plant growth. Null dao1-1 mutants contain 95% less oxIAA compared with wild type, and complementation of dao1 restores wild-type oxIAA levels, indicating that DAO1 is the primary IAA oxidase in seedlings. Furthermore, dao1 loss of function plants have altered morphology, including larger cotyledons, increased lateral root density, delayed sepal opening, elongated pistils, and reduced fertility in the primary inflorescence stem. These phenotypes are tightly correlated with DAO1 spatiotemporal expression patterns as shown by DAO1pro:β-glucuronidase (GUS) activity and DAO1pro:YFP-DAO1 signals, and transformation with DAO1pro:YFP-DAO1 complemented the mutant phenotypes. The dominant dao1-2D mutant has increased oxIAA levels and decreased stature with shorter leaves and inflorescence stems, thus supporting DAO1 IAA oxidase function in vivo. A second isoform, DAO2, is very weakly expressed in seedling root apices. Together, these data confirm that IAA oxidation by DAO1 is the principal auxin catabolic process in Arabidopsis and that localized IAA oxidation plays a role in plant morphogenesis.

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Pérez-Pérez, José Manuel, José Serrano-Cartagena y José Luis Micol. "Genetic Analysis of Natural Variations in the Architecture ofArabidopsis thalianaVegetative Leaves". Genetics 162, n.º 2 (1 de octubre de 2002): 893–915. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/162.2.893.

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AbstractTo ascertain whether intraspecific variability might be a source of information as regards the genetic controls underlying plant leaf morphogenesis, we analyzed variations in the architecture of vegetative leaves in a large sample of Arabidopsis thaliana natural races. A total of 188 accessions from the Arabidopsis Information Service collection were grown and qualitatively classified into 14 phenotypic classes, which were defined according to petiole length, marginal configuration, and overall lamina shape. Accessions displaying extreme and opposite variations in the above-mentioned leaf architectural traits were crossed and their F2 progeny was found to be not classifiable into discrete phenotypic classes. Furthermore, the leaf trait-based classification was not correlated with estimates on the genetic distances between the accessions being crossed, calculated after determining variations in repeat number at 22 microsatellite loci. Since these results suggested that intraspecific variability in A. thaliana leaf morphology arises from an accumulation of mutations at quantitative trait loci (QTL), we studied a mapping population of recombinant inbred lines (RILs) derived from a Landsberg erecta-0 × Columbia-4 cross. A total of 100 RILs were grown and the third and seventh leaves of 15 individuals from each RIL were collected and morphometrically analyzed. We identified a total of 16 and 13 QTL harboring naturally occurring alleles that contribute to natural variations in the architecture of juvenile and adult leaves, respectively. Our QTL mapping results confirmed the multifactorial nature of the observed natural variations in leaf architecture.

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Engelhorn, Julia, Robert Blanvillain, Christian Kröner, Hugues Parrinello, Marine Rohmer, David Posé, Felix Ott, Markus Schmid y Cristel Carles. "Dynamics of H3K4me3 Chromatin Marks Prevails over H3K27me3 for Gene Regulation during Flower Morphogenesis in Arabidopsis thaliana". Epigenomes 1, n.º 2 (29 de junio de 2017): 8. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/epigenomes1020008.

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46

Raya-González, Javier, Crisanto Velázquez-Becerra, Salvador Barrera-Ortiz, José López-Bucio y Eduardo Valencia-Cantero. "N,N-dimethyl hexadecylamine and related amines regulate root morphogenesis via jasmonic acid signaling in Arabidopsis thaliana". Protoplasma 254, n.º 3 (30 de septiembre de 2016): 1399–410. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00709-016-1031-6.

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47

Wu, S., W. R. Scheible, D. Schindelasch, H. Van Den Daele, L. De Veylder y T. I. Baskin. "A conditional mutation in Arabidopsis thaliana separase induces chromosome non-disjunction, aberrant morphogenesis and cyclin B1;1 stability". Development 137, n.º 6 (11 de febrero de 2010): 953–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.041939.

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48

Nikolaev, S. V., S. I. Fadeev, A. V. Penenko, V. V. Lavrekha, V. V. Mironova, N. A. Omelyanchuk, E. D. Mjolsness y N. A. Kolchanov. "A systems approach to morphogenesis in Arabidopsis thaliana: II. Modeling the regulation of shoot apical meristem structure". Biophysics 51, S1 (febrero de 2006): 83–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s0006350906070177.

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HAMILTON, John M. U., David J. SIMPSON, Stefan C. HYMAN, Bongani K. NDIMBA y Antoni R. SLABAS. "Ara12 subtilisin-like protease from Arabidopsis thaliana: purification, substrate specificity and tissue localization". Biochemical Journal 370, n.º 1 (15 de febrero de 2003): 57–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bj20021125.

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A C-terminal portion of Ara12 subtilisin-like protease (residues 542—757) was expressed in Escherichia coli cells as a fusion protein bound to maltose binding protein. Polyclonal antisera raised against the expressed protein were used to examine the tissue specificity and subcellular localization of Ara12. The protease was found predominantly in the silique and stem of plants, but was hardly detectable in leaf and not seen in root tissue. The distribution observed using immunological techniques is different from that seen by an RNA analysis study, which demonstrated similar mRNA abundance in the stem and leaves. Using immunogold labelling, Ara12 was shown to have an extracellular localization and was found in the intercellular spaces in stem tissue. Ara12 protease was purified to homogeneity from Arabidopsis thaliana cell suspension cultures by anion exchange and hydrophobic interaction chromatography. Proteolytic activity of Ara12 was inhibited by a number of serine protease inhibitors, but was almost unaffected by inhibitors of other catalytic classes of proteases. Optimal proteolytic activity was displayed under acidic conditions (pH5.0). Ara12 activity was relatively thermostable and was stimulated in the presence of Ca2+ ions. Substrate specificity studies were conducted using a series of internally quenched fluorogenic peptide substrates. At the P1 position of substrates, hydrophobic residues, such as Phe and Ala, were preferred to Arg, whilst at the P1′ position, Asp, Leu and Ala were most favoured. Possible functions of Ara12 are discussed in the light of the involvement of a number of plant subtilisin-like proteases in morphogenesis.

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Telfer, A. y R. S. Poethig. "HASTY: a gene that regulates the timing of shoot maturation in Arabidopsis thaliana". Development 125, n.º 10 (15 de mayo de 1998): 1889–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.125.10.1889.

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In Arabidopsis thaliana, leaves produced at different stages of shoot development can be distinguished by the distribution of trichomes on the abaxial and adaxial surfaces. Leaves produced early in the development of the rosette (juvenile leaves) have trichomes on their adaxial, but not their abaxial surface, whereas leaves produced later in rosette development (adult leaves) have trichomes on both surfaces. In order to identify genes that regulate the transition between these developmental phases we screened for mutations that accelerate the production of leaves with abaxial trichomes. 9 alleles of the HASTY gene were recovered in this screen. In addition to accelerating the appearance of adult leaves these mutations also accelerate the loss of adaxial trichomes (a trait typical of bracts), reduce the total number of leaves produced by the shoot, and have a number of other effects on shoot morphology. The basis for this phenotype was examined by testing the interaction between hasty and genes that affect flowering time (35S::LEAFY, 35S::APETALA1, terminal flower1), gibberellin production (ga1-3) or perception (gai), and floral morphogenesis (leafy, apetala1, agamous). We found that hasty increased the reproductive competence of the shoot, and that its does not require gibberellin or a gibberellin response for its effect on vegetative or reproductive development. The phenotype of hasty is not suppressed by leafy, apetala1 and agamous, demonstrating that this phenotype does not result from the inappropriate expression of these genes. We suggest that HASTY promotes a juvenile pattern of vegetative development and inhibits flowering by reducing the competence of the shoot to respond to LEAFY and APETALA1.

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