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Artículos de revistas sobre el tema "Arctic expeditions, 1830"

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Publicado: 27 de julio de 2024

Última modificación: 31 de julio de 2025

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1

Stone, Philip. "Robert McCormick and the circumstances of his Arctic fossil collection, 1852–1853." Archives of Natural History 47, no. 2 (2020): 286–301. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/anh.2020.0655.

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The Royal Navy surgeon Robert McCormick (1800–1890) took part in three mid-nineteenth century British Polar expeditions, two to the Arctic and one to the Antarctic. Of the two Arctic voyages, the first was to Spitsbergen (in today's Svalbard) in 1827; the second from 1852 to 1853, was one of the expeditions dispatched to search for the missing ships commanded by Sir John Franklin that had set out in 1845 to navigate a “Northwest Passage” through the islands of the Canadian Arctic. The Svalbard expedition was formative in developing McCormick's interest in the Polar regions, with the likely hig

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2

Schmidt, Anne Lisbeth. "The SkinBase Project: Providing 3D Virtual Access to Indigenous Skin Clothing Collections from the Circumpolar Area." Études Inuit Studies 40, no. 2 (2019): 191–205. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/1055438ar.

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In 2014, the National Museum of Denmark (NMD), in conjunction with the Greenland National Museum and Archives (Nunatta Katersugaasivia Allagaateqarfialu [NKA]), as well as the Museum of Cultural History, Oslo, launched the website Skin Clothing Online. The site presents the NMD’s total collection of 2,170 historic skin clothing items, dating from circa 1830 to 1950, from the circumpolar area. The clothing can be studied in minute detail due to high-resolution photos; 100 complete suits were photographed from all sides. Furthermore, 107 items of clothing were measured by means of 3D technology,

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3

Kjær, Kjell-G. "The Arctic ships Axel Thorsen and Skjøn Walborg." Polar Record 43, no. 3 (2007): 217–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0032247407006195.

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ABSTRACTThe two gun schooners Axel Thorsen and Skjøn Walborg were launched in 1810 and initially served as patrol ships with the task of protecting merchant vessels leaving Archangel from British attacks during the Napoleonic wars. Following the peace of 1815, the Norwegian authorities interpreted Russian activities in Finnmark, northern Norway, with considerable suspicion and, in 1816, Axel Thorsen was sent north to remove the Russian settlers from the area and to demolish their buildings. In 1817 and 1818, Skjøn Walborg replaced Axel Thorsen on the same mission. The two vessels also carried

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4

Stone, Philip. "Robert McCormick's geological collections from Antarctica and the Southern Ocean, 1839–1843." Archives of Natural History 47, no. 1 (2020): 147–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/anh.2020.0628.

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Robert McCormick (1800–1890) took part in three mid-nineteenth-century British Polar expeditions, two to the Arctic and one to the Antarctic. The latter, from 1839 to 1843 and led by James Clark Ross, is the best known. McCormick served as senior surgeon on HMS Erebus and was responsible for the collection of zoological and geological specimens. Despite the novelty and potential scientific importance of these early geological collections from Antarctica and remote islands in the Southern Ocean, they received surprisingly little attention at the time. Ross deposited an official collection with

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5

Harland, W. Brian. "Part 1: Chapter 2 Outline History of Geological Research." Geological Society, London, Memoirs 17, no. 1 (1997): 16–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/gsl.mem.1997.017.01.02.

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Useful records of observations perhaps began in 1596 with Barents' voyage and resulting chart. The many expeditions until the middle of the eighteenth century were primarily for whaling with minor additions to the charts. In 1758 A. R. Martin led a Swedish voyage and in 1773 C. J. Phipps commanded a British naval expedition, the first of several, to seek a northeast passage to the Pacific. They penetrated no further than Spitsbergen and made useful observations. At that time and for many years the British Admiralty was concerned with extensive Arctic exploration. The elaborate nature of these

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6

Tammiksaar, Erki. "The contributions of Karl Ernst von Baer to the investigation of the physical geography of the Arctic in the 1830s–40s." Polar Record 38, no. 205 (2002): 121–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0032247400017514.

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AbstractAlthough more widely known as the founder of modern embryology, Karl Ernst von Baer played a special role in the investigation of the physical geography of the Russian Empire in the nineteenth century. Baer not only conducted his own scientific research in the Arctic, he was also a key supporter and organiser of other Russian expeditions to the far north. Baer carried out the first investigations of the physical geography, flora, and fauna of Novaya Zemlya, and it was due to his work that the first precise data on the climate of the Russian Arctic appeared in the scientific literature

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7

Brohan, P., C. Ward, G. Willetts, C. Wilkinson, R. Allan, and D. Wheeler. "Arctic marine climate of the early nineteenth century." Climate of the Past 6, no. 3 (2010): 315–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cp-6-315-2010.

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Abstract. The climate of the early nineteenth century is likely to have been significantly cooler than that of today, as it was a period of low solar activity (the Dalton minimum) and followed a series of large volcanic eruptions. Proxy reconstructions of the temperature of the period do not agree well on the size of the temperature change, so other observational records from the period are particularly valuable. Weather observations have been extracted from the reports of the noted whaling captain William Scoresby Jr., and from the records of a series of Royal Navy expeditions to the Arctic,

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8

Brohan, P., C. Ward, G. Willetts, C. Wilkinson, R. Allan, and D. Wheeler. "Arctic marine climate of the early nineteenth century." Climate of the Past Discussions 6, no. 1 (2010): 35–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cpd-6-35-2010.

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Abstract. The climate of the early nineteenth century is likely to have been significantly cooler than that of today, as it was a period of low solar activity (the Dalton minimum) and followed a series of large volcanic eruptions. Proxy reconstructions of the temperature of the period do not agree well on the size of the temperature change, so other observational records from the period are particularly valuable. Weather observations have been extracted from the reports of the noted whaling captain William Scoresby Jr., and from the records of a series of Royal Navy expeditions to the Arctic,

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9

Beloglazova, Svetlana B. "To the History of the Discovery and Study of the New Siberian Islands: Expedition of M.M. Gedenstrom 1809-1810." Russia: Society, Politics, History, no. 4(13) (January 29, 2025): 26–41. https://doi.org/10.56654/ropi-2024-4(13)-26-41.

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This article is devoted to a little-studied aspect of the history of Russian exploration of the North - one of the first Arctic expeditions of Russians at the beginning of the 19th century. The appeal to the historical experience of the discovery and study of the New Siberian Islands archipelago is determined by the growing interest in it on the part of world powers in connection with the development of coastal shelf resources that began here and the resumption of work on the Northern Sea Route. In Russian historiography the name M.M. Gedenshtrom for a long time remained a figure of silence in

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10

Niemi, Seija A. "An Environmentally Literate Explorer." Sibirica 17, no. 2 (2018): 13–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/sib.2018.170203.

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Nils Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld (1832–1901), a Finnish Swedish scientist and explorer, made three expeditions to the North Asian coast between 1875 and 1879. He completed ten expeditions to the Arctic region between 1858 and 1883. The unifying goal of the North Asian expeditions was to open a trade route between Europe and Siberia. As a scientist, Nordenskiöld also studied the flora, fauna, geology, geography, hydrology, meteorology, ethnology, and history, and produced charts of this unfamiliar territory. This article argues that Nordenskiöld used his skills of environmental literacy when he com

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11

Väre, Henry. "Finnish botanists and mycologists in the Arctic." Arctic Science 3, no. 3 (2017): 525–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/as-2016-0051.

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Finnish botanists and mycologists have studied Arctic areas and timberline regions since the beginning of the 18th century. Most expeditions to the Kola Peninsula were made between 1800 and 1917 and until 1945 to Lapponia petsamoënsis on the western rim of the Kola Peninsula. Since those years, these areas have been part of the Soviet Union or Russia. Svalbard and Newfoundland and Labrador have been studied repeatedly as well, Svalbard since the 1860s and Newfoundland and Labrador since the 1930s. This article focuses on Finnish collections. These are deposited in the herbaria of Helsinki, Tur

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12

Devlin, C. Leah. "William Scoresby as an Arctic physical oceanographer." Archives of Natural History 46, no. 1 (2019): 33–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/anh.2019.0551.

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Encouraged by naturalists Robert Jameson and Joseph Banks, whaler William Scoresby became an expert on the natural and physical processes at work in the European Arctic. Original letters between Scoresby and these naturalists, housed in the archive of the Whitby Literary and Philosophical Society (Yorkshire, England), document in the language of the times his biological observations and experiments in physical oceanography. Scoresby's researches resulted in An Account of the Arctic Regions, with a History and Description of the Northern Whale-fishery in 1820, which became a seminal work in Arc

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13

Credland, Arthur G. "George Rexworthy De Wilde (1832/3–1906): a forgotten pioneer of Arctic photography." Polar Record 51, no. 6 (2015): 672–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0032247415000017.

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ABSTRACTAn account of G.R. De Wilde's contribution to Arctic photography is presented. His images from Sir Allen Young's 1875 voyage in Pandora are the earliest to be published from a British expedition, albeit in a volume that was privately printed.

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14

Chernova, N. V., V. A. Spiridonov, V. L. Syomin, and M. V. Gavrilo. "Notes on the fishes of the Severnaya Zemlya archipelago and the spawning area of polar cod Boreogadus saida (Gadidae)." Proceedings of the Zoological Institute RAS 325, no. 2 (2021): 248–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.31610/trudyzin/2021.325.2.248.

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Data on the fishes of the high-latitude Severnaya Zemlya archipelago (the North Land) is presented. The archipelago is located in the Arctic on the border between the Kara Sea and the Laptev Sea. The ichthyofauna of the archipelago has not been studied; therefore, even small collections are of interest. Fish samples were obtained during the expedition “Open Ocean: Arctic Archipelagos – 2019: Severnaya Zemlya”. In addition, the samples from this area in the collections of the Zoological Institute (ZIN) were studied, which have been received from polar expeditions to the Kara and Laptev seas dur

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15

O’Dochartaigh, Eavan. "Arctic Visible." Digital Humanities in the Nordic and Baltic Countries Publications 3, no. 2 (2021): 179–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.5617/dhnbpub.11245.

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This paper describes progress of the ongoing postdoctoral project ARCVIS. The project is funded by a two-year individual fellowship from Marie Skłodowska-Curie actions (2019-2021). ARCVIS gathers, maps, and disseminates representations of Indigenous peoples in the western Arctic (Greenland, Canada, Alaska) between 1800 and 1880. The material is comprised of watercolours, pencil sketches, photographs, and prints, such as lithographs, woodcuts, and engravings. The visual material is scattered in archives around the world and this project’s aim is to gather that material together and display it g

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16

Hua, Qingfeng, Guanbao Li, Qingjie Zhou, et al. "Sediment Waves on the Western Slope of the Chukchi Rise (Arctic Ocean) and Their Implications for the Paleoenvironment." Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 10, no. 11 (2022): 1586. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmse10111586.

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Based on multibeam bathymetric data and high-resolution shallow sub-bottom profiles acquired during China’s 10th Arctic Scientific Expedition Cruise in 2019, a sediment wave field was found on the western slope of the Chukchi Rise, in the Arctic Ocean. This sediment wave field developed on the lower slope with water depths of between 1200 m and 1800 m and stretched 15 km in the downslope direction. It comprised several parallel sediment waves, with wavelengths ranging from 700 m to 3400 m and wave heights from 12 m to 70 m. In the vertical direction, well-stratified deposits, tens of meters th

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17

Davis, Richard C. "Fact and fancy in history and biography: the case of Greenstockings." Polar Record 37, no. 200 (2001): 5–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s003224740002670x.

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AbstractGreenstockings was the name that the members of Sir John Franklin's first Arctic Land Expedition gave to a young Dene woman during their winter residence at Fort Enterprise in 1820–21. All the officers' journals remark on her physical beauty, a reputed beauty that subsequently put her at the centre of numerous rumours and accounts. Historians know little about her other than her physical attractiveness and her age, although Greenstockings might have borne a child to one of Franklin's officers, and male jealousy over her might have put the expedition at serious risk. In spite of the pau

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18

Love, Eleanor, and Grant R. Bigg. "Estimating summer sea ice extent in the Weddell Sea during the early 19th century." Climate of the Past 19, no. 10 (2023): 1905–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cp-19-1905-2023.

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Abstract. Over the past 3 decades, discordant trends in sea ice extent have been observed between the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Arctic sea ice extent has been characterised by a rapid decline, whereas Antarctic sea ice extent, while highly variable interannually, has tended to increase. Climate models have so far failed to capture these trends. Coupled with the limited pre-1970 sea ice dataset, this poses a significant challenge to quantifying the mechanisms responsible for driving such trends. However, historical records from early Antarctic expeditions contain a wealth of information reg

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19

Tammiksaar, Erki. "Ferdinand von Wrangell: white spots on the northeast coast of Siberia disappear." Polar Record 37, no. 201 (2001): 151–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0032247400026978.

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AbstractFerdinand von Wrangell (1796–1870) was one of the most successful explorers of the Russian Arctic. After participating in V.M. Golovnin's circumnavigation in 1817–19, he was appointed the commander of the Kolyma group of the northeast Siberian expedition of 1820–24. Wrangell later became a hugely significant figure in the Russian Empire, serving as governor-general in Alaska, director of the Russian-American Company, and the head of the hydrographic department of the Russian Admiralty, before being made a baron and promoted to admiral. Later still he was the minister of the naval depar

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20

Froggatt, Peter, and Brian M. Walker. "From precocious fame to mature obscurity: David Walker (1837–1917) MD, LRCSI, surgeon and naturalist to the Fox Arctic Expedition of 1857–59." Journal of Medical Biography 20, no. 4 (2012): 148–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1258/jmb.2012.012059.

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The Belfast-born David Walker was the 19-year-old surgeon and naturalist on the epic Fox Arctic Expedition (1857–59) that established the fate of Sir John Franklin's unsuccessful (1845) search for the North-West Passage. On return the crew were fêted as heroes and decorated, and shared in a £5000 government bounty: Walker was also received by the Queen and (in Ireland) by the Lord Lieutenant, was honoured by the principal British and Irish natural history societies and his portrait was exhibited in the National Portrait Gallery, London. This paper describes his adventurous life, including the

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21

Dokuchaev, Aleksandr Ya, Yuliya A. Vaks, Konstantin V. Lobanov, Filipp V. Kulakov, and Mikhail V. Chicherov. "The First Scientific Expeditions to the Bering Strait and to the Russian Colonies in America." Arctic and North, no. 48 (September 27, 2022): 209–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.37482/issn2221-2698.2022.48.209.

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Based on the geographical atlases of the 16th century, the German scientist G. Leibniz proposed to Peter I a project aimed at discovering a strait between Asia and America, studying the Earth’s magnetic field, cartographic and other research in Russia. In December 1724, Peter I signed a decree on equipping the expedition, which was called the First Kamchatka Expedition (1725–1730). In 1732, the expedition of I. Fedorov and M.S. Gvozdev through the Bering Strait approached the northwestern coast of America in the area of Cape Gvozdev (now — Cape Prince of Wales). At the same time, members of th

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22

SÆTHER, OLEG A. "The chironomids (Diptera, Chironomidae) described by Lundstr m (1915) from arctic Siberia, with a redescription of Derotanypus sibiricus (Kruglova & Chernovskii)." Zootaxa 595, no. 1 (2004): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.595.1.1.

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The chironomid material described by Lundstr m (1915) from the Russian polar expedition in the years 1900 1903 is analysed. Derotanypus limbatus (Lundstr m, 1915) (as Ablabesmyia) is a senior synonym of Ablabesmyia quadrinotata Lundstr m, 1915; Orthocladius pubitarsis sensu Lundstr m, not Zetterstedt, 1838, is identical to Psectrocladius (Psectrocladius) sokolovae Zelentsov & Makarchenko, 1988; Orthocladius cinereipennis sensu Lundstr m, 1915, is a junior synonym of Heterotrissocladius subpilosus (Kieffer 1911); Orthocladius alpicola sensu Lundstr m, not Zetterstedt, 1850, is identical to

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23

Vaskanova, Nadezhda A., and Ananii G. Ivanov. "MATERIALS OF FIELD RESEARCH ON FAMILY AND MARRIAGE RELATIONS OF THE MEADOW AND MOUNTAIN MARI." Vestnik Chuvashskogo universiteta, no. 3 (September 29, 2023): 29–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.47026/1810-1909-2023-3-29-35.

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Comprehensive studying the topic of family and marriage is one of the relevant and important trends in ethnology. Some aspects of the family and marriage problems of the Mari people have not yet been fully investigated and require further scientific development.  The purpose of the study is to analyze family and marriage relations among the meadow and the mountain Mari in the 1950s and 1970s on the basis of field materials collected by the authors during ethnographic expeditions in Gornomariysky, Zvenigovsky and Morkinsky districts of the Republic of Mari El in 2018, 2019, 2021 and

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24

Nikonov, S. A. "SKIPPER-GRUMANLANER FILAT VOZHEVOLNY: STAGES OF BIOGRAPHY IN THE CONTEXT OF RUSSIAN DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARCHIPELAGOS AND ISLANDS OF THE ARCTIC IN THE LAST QUARTER OF THE XVIII – EARLY XIX CENTURY." Izvestiya of Samara Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences. History Sciences 4, no. 3 (2022): 5–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.37313/2658-4816-2022-4-3-5-12.

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The author examines the biography of the skipper Filat Vozhevolny, the son of Semen, who was engaged in fishing in the archipelagos of Spitsbergen (Grumant) and Novaya Zemlya in the late XVIII – early XIX centuries. The study of the biographies of individual fisherman-hunters makes it possible to understand the peculiarities of the organization of fishing, to identify personal and professional qualities, without which it was impossible to participate in long and dangerous expeditions to the polar archipelagos. Filat Vozhevolny went fishing from Onega and Arkhangelsk merchants, Vygoretsky old B

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25

Makhmudov, Albert R. "THE BASHKIRS-GAINA PEOPLE IN THE MATERIALS OF THE 1965 EXPEDITION OF UFA ETHNOGRAPHERS." Vestnik Chuvashskogo universiteta, no. 1 (March 25, 2024): 60–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.47026/1810-1909-2024-1-60-66.

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The relevance of the study is determined by the disputes that have arisen in the society in recent decades on the issue – who the Gaina people are, why their ethnic culture differs significantly from other Bashkir groups. The answers to these questions are provided by the field materials of the expedition carried out by the Bashkir branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences in Perm region in 1965 with the participation of prominent ethnographers R.G. Kuzeev, N.V. Bikbulatov and S.N. Shitova. The purpose of the study is to identify information characterizing the originality of the ethnic history an

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26

Novak, I. P. "Nominal Morphology of the Tver Karelian Translation of “Gospel of Mark”." Vestnik NSU. Series: History and Philology 21, no. 9 (2022): 9–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.25205/1818-7919-2022-21-9-9-20.

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The article presents the results of an analysis of the nominal inflectional system of a two-centuries-old account of the Tver Karelian written language – the Gospel of Mark "Маркешта Святой Іôванӷели" translated into the Kozlovo subdialect of the Karelian language in 1820. This study is of high relevance due to the absence of papers describing the morphological system features of the language of this account, which is a key element in the study of the Karelian language history and dialectology. As part of the work, the materials from the translated text were compared to the data gathered durin

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27

Догадушкин, Денис Михайлович. "HOW SEMANTIC CHANGES CAN REVEAL THE ORIGINS OF THE STAVROPOL DIALECT OF ESTONIAN LANGUAGE." Tomsk Journal of Linguistics and Anthropology, no. 4(38) (January 12, 2023): 41–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.23951/2307-6119-2022-4-41-47.

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В с. Подгорное, расположенном в Андроповском районе Ставропольского края, образованном в 1815 г., по сей день живут 70 потомков эстонских переселенцев, которые говорят на своем языке в быту. С целью комплексного описания диалекта были проведены несколько экспедиций в с. Подгорное, сделаны записи сказок, песен, рассказов от пяти носителей языка, был записан словарь, содержащий 1 869 лексем. Данный словарь представлен в открытом доступе на платформе Лингводок (Словарь эстонского языка говора с. Подгорное, 2022). В настоящей статье, которая является первой частью этой работы, проведен анализ сема

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28

Pylypchuk, Oleh, Oleh Strelko, and Yuliia Berdnychenko. "PREFACE." History of science and technology 11, no. 2 (2021): 271–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.32703/2415-7422-2021-11-2-271-273.

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The issue of the journal opens with an article dedicated to the formation of metrology as government regulated activity in France. The article has discussed the historical process of development of metrological activity in France. It was revealed that the history of metrology is considered as an auxiliary historical and ethnographic discipline from a social and philosophical point of view as the evolution of scientific approaches to the definition of individual units of physical quantities and branches of metrology. However, in the scientific literature, the little attention is paid to the pro

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29

Schmidt, Anne L., Luise Ø. Brandt, Mikkel-Holger S. Sinding, Jesper Stenderup, and Filipe G. Viera. "Species Identification of Inuit Skin and Fur Clothing: Analyses of DNA, Hair Microscopy, and Macroscopical Identification." ARCTIC 76, no. 4 (2024). http://dx.doi.org/10.14430/arctic78938.

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From approximately 1830 to 1940, through various expeditions to Siberia, Arctic North America, and Greenland, and through donations, the National Museum of Denmark acquired its collection of historical Inuit skin clothing. Unfortunately, original provenance information has been lost for 14% of the garments. In order to document the extensive collection, this study investigates three methods for species identification of animal skin: microscopy of hair, macroscopic identification, and DNA validation. Thus, the present study has two aims: first, to optimise and test hair microscopy for species i

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30

Halliday, Geoffrey. "An altitudinal study of the flora of the inland mountains of South-East Greenland." Meddelelser om Grønland. Bioscience 61 (January 1, 2019). http://dx.doi.org/10.7146/mogbiosci.v61.142628.

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This paper aims to bring together information from a variety of sources on the vascular flora of the botanically little-known-mountains and nunataks of south-east Greenland between Ammassalik and the Blosseville Kyst (66°-69° N). The paper is based on an analysis of a collection of mainly vascular plants from 111 individual sites of known altitude in the inland mountains between Ammassalik and Kialiip Tasiilaa (Tasilaq) in the south, and around Kangersertuaq (Kangerlussuaq) in the north. The collections were made by 17 predominantly climbing expeditions, with little or no botanical experience,

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31

Stephenson, Wendy. "Narrative of the Arctic Land Expedition to the Mouth of the Great Fish River in the Years 1833, 1834 and 1835, by George Back." ARCTIC 53, no. 2 (2000). http://dx.doi.org/10.14430/arctic888.

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32

Rosenberg, Allegra. "“A romance based on information”: The curious case of Clements Markham’s Franklin Expedition novel." Polar Record 60 (2024). http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0032247424000081.

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Abstract Sir Clements Markham (1830-1916), secretary of the Royal Geographical Society for many decades, is best known for his role in shaping the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration and especially the career of his protege Robert Falcon Scott. His unpublished work of Franklin Expedition fiction, a 350-page handwritten manuscript held in the collection of the RGS, is an understudied artefact which has much to say about Markham’s life, work, and ideology. A work of fact-based history, yet also a fantasy on themes of chivalry, his 1899 novel James Fitzjames…, while occasionally mined for biograp

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33

Lukin, Karina. "Between field observations, notes and knowledge." Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen, no. 67 (December 8, 2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.33339/fuf.110835.

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This article discusses M. A. Castrén’s (1803‒1852) ethnographic notes and lectures on Samoyed peoples as part of the development of ethnography and Arctic research in the early 19th-century Russian Empire. Castrén produced several types of texts based on his two Russian expeditions, including travel narratives, letters, linguistic transcriptions and ethnographic notes. In addition, he gave lectures about the peoples he studied. The article describes the types of data Castrén collected, the way he organized it and subsequently presented to academic audiences. The academic and societal backgroun

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