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1

Dionisio, Francisco, Ivan Matic, Miroslav Radman, Olivia R. Rodrigues, and François Taddei. "Plasmids Spread Very Fast in Heterogeneous Bacterial Communities." Genetics 162, no. 4 (2002): 1525–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/162.4.1525.

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Abstract Conjugative plasmids can mediate gene transfer between bacterial taxa in diverse environments. The ability to donate the F-type conjugative plasmid R1 greatly varies among enteric bacteria due to the interaction of the system that represses sex-pili formations (products of finOP) of plasmids already harbored by a bacterial strain with those of the R1 plasmid. The presence of efficient donors in heterogeneous bacterial populations can accelerate plasmid transfer and can spread by several orders of magnitude. Such donors allow millions of other bacteria to acquire the plasmid in a matte
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2

Vollmer, Amy Cheng. "Bacterial Genetics." Developmental Cell 6, no. 5 (2004): 617–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1534-5807(04)00136-4.

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3

Breeuwer, J. A., and J. H. Werren. "Cytoplasmic incompatibility and bacterial density in Nasonia vitripennis." Genetics 135, no. 2 (1993): 565–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/135.2.565.

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Abstract Cytoplasmically (maternally) inherited bacteria that cause reproductive incompatibility between strains are widespread among insects. In the parasitoid wasp Nasonia, incompatibility results in improper condensation and fragmentation of the paternal chromosomes in fertilized eggs. Some form of genome imprinting may be involved. Because of haplodiploidy, incompatibility results in conversion of (diploid) female eggs into (haploid) males. Experiments show that bacterial density is correlated with compatibility differences between male and female Nasonia. Males from strains with high bact
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4

Kussell, Edo, Roy Kishony, Nathalie Q. Balaban, and Stanislas Leibler. "Bacterial Persistence." Genetics 169, no. 4 (2005): 1807–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1534/genetics.104.035352.

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5

Macario, Alberto J. L., and Everly Conway de Macario. "The Archaeal Molecular Chaperone Machine: Peculiarities and Paradoxes." Genetics 152, no. 4 (1999): 1277–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/152.4.1277.

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Abstract A major finding within the field of archaea and molecular chaperones has been the demonstration that, while some species have the stress (heat-shock) gene hsp70(dnaK), others do not. This gene encodes Hsp70(DnaK), an essential molecular chaperone in bacteria and eukaryotes. Due to the physiological importance and the high degree of conservation of this protein, its absence in archaeal organisms has raised intriguing questions pertaining to the evolution of the chaperone machine as a whole and that of its components in particular, namely, Hsp70(DnaK), Hsp40(DnaJ), and GrpE. Another arc
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6

Malami, Muhammad Aishatu, Olusegun Timothy God-Giveth, Onare Opeyemi Mary, et al. "Microbial Genetics and Metagenomics of Bacterial Pneumonia Related to Their Antibiotics Resistance: An Insightful Review." Journal of Advances in Microbiology 25, no. 3 (2025): 93–106. https://doi.org/10.9734/jamb/2025/v25i3911.

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Bacterial pneumonia (BP) is an infection caused by the presence of one or more bacteria that mostly affect the lower respiratory tract and cause lung complications. The global prevalence of BP’s AR is approximately 400 million, with a higher incidence in children at or below the age of 5 years and adults aged 65. This prevalence is further compounded in low and middle-income countries, where access to antibiotics is limited. Understanding the role of genetics in studying persistent antibiotic resistance (AR) by BP causative agents and their predictions is of the essence. There has been limited
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7

Bergstrom, Carl T., Marc Lipsitch, and Bruce R. Levin. "Natural Selection, Infectious Transfer and the Existence Conditions for Bacterial Plasmids." Genetics 155, no. 4 (2000): 1505–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/155.4.1505.

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Abstract Despite the near-ubiquity of plasmids in bacterial populations and the profound contribution of infectious gene transfer to the adaptation and evolution of bacteria, the mechanisms responsible for the maintenance of plasmids in bacterial populations are poorly understood. In this article, we address the question of how plasmids manage to persist over evolutionary time. Empirical studies suggest that plasmids are not infectiously transmitted at a rate high enough to be maintained as genetic parasites. In part i, we present a general mathematical proof that if this is the case, then pla
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8

Lawrence, J. G., H. Ochman, and D. L. Hartl. "The evolution of insertion sequences within enteric bacteria." Genetics 131, no. 1 (1992): 9–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/131.1.9.

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Abstract To identify mechanisms that influence the evolution of bacterial transposons, DNA sequence variation was evaluated among homologs of insertion sequences IS1, IS3 and IS30 from natural strains of Escherichia coli and related enteric bacteria. The nucleotide sequences within each class of IS were highly conserved among E. coli strains, over 99.7% similar to a consensus sequence. When compared to the range of nucleotide divergence among chromosomal genes, these data indicate high turnover and rapid movement of the transposons among clonal lineages of E. coli. In addition, length polymorp
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9

Townsend, Jeffrey P., Kaare M. Nielsen, Daniel S. Fisher, and Daniel L. Hartl. "Horizontal Acquisition of Divergent Chromosomal DNA in Bacteria: Effects of Mutator Phenotypes." Genetics 164, no. 1 (2003): 13–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/164.1.13.

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Abstract We examine the potential beneficial effects of the expanded access to environmental DNA offered by mutators on the adaptive potential of bacterial populations. Using parameters from published studies of recombination in E. coli, we find that the presence of mutators has the potential to greatly enhance bacterial population adaptation when compared to populations without mutators. In one specific example, for which three specific amino acid substitutions are required for adaptation to occur in a 300-amino-acid protein, we found a 3500-fold increase in the rate of adaptation. The probab
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10

Mahan, M. J., and J. R. Roth. "Reciprocality of recombination events that rearrange the chromosome." Genetics 120, no. 1 (1988): 23–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/120.1.23.

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Abstract We describe a genetic system for studying the reciprocality of chromosomal recombination; all substrates and recombination functions involved are provided exclusively by the bacterial chromosome. The genetic system allows the recovery of both recombinant products from a single recombination event. The system was used to demonstrate the full reciprocality of three different types of recombination events: (1) intrachromosomal recombination between direct repeats, causing deletions; (2) intrachromosomal recombination between inverse homologies, causing inversion of a segment of the bacte
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11

Dahlberg, Cecilia, and Lin Chao. "Amelioration of the Cost of Conjugative Plasmid Carriage in Eschericha coli K12." Genetics 165, no. 4 (2003): 1641–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/165.4.1641.

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Abstract Although plasmids can provide beneficial functions to their host bacteria, they might confer a physiological or energetic cost. This study examines how natural selection may reduce the cost of carrying conjugative plasmids with drug-resistance markers in the absence of antibiotic selection. We studied two plasmids, R1 and RP4, both of which carry multiple drug resistance genes and were shown to impose an initial fitness cost on Escherichia coli. To determine if and how the cost could be reduced, we subjected plasmid-containing bacteria to 1100 generations of evolution in batch culture
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12

Mushegian, Arcady R., and Eugene V. Koonin. "Sequence Analysis of Ewkaryotic Developmental Proteins: Ancient and Novel Domains." Genetics 144, no. 2 (1996): 817–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/144.2.817.

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Abstract Most of the genes involved in the development of multicellular eukaryotes encode large, multidomain proteins. To decipher the major trends in the evolution of these proteins and make functional predictions for uncharacterized domains, we applied a strategy of sequence database search that includes construction of specialized data sets and iterative subsequence masking. This computational approach allowed us to detect previously unnoticed but potentially important sequence similarities. Developmental gene products are enriched in predicted nonglobular regions as compared to unbiased se
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13

Perrot-Minnot, Marie-Jeanne, Li Rong Guo, and John H. Werren. "Single and Double Infections with Wolbachia in the Parasitic Wasp Nasonia vitripennis Effects on Compatibility." Genetics 143, no. 2 (1996): 961–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/143.2.961.

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Abstract Wolbachia are cytoplasmically inherited bacteria responsible for reproductive incompatibility in a wide range of insects. There has been little exploration, however, of within species Wolbachia polymorphisms and their effects on compatibility. Here we show that some strains of the parasitic wasp Nasonia vitripennis are infected with two distinct bacterial strains (A and B) whereas others are singly infected (A or B). Double and single infections are confirmed by both PCR amplification and Southern analysis of genomic DNA. Furthermore, it is shown that prolonged larval diapause (the ov
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14

Betley, M. J., V. L. Miller, and J. J. Mekalanos. "Genetics of Bacterial Enterotoxins." Annual Review of Microbiology 40, no. 1 (1986): 577–605. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.mi.40.100186.003045.

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15

Tucker, Stephanie, and James Bliska. "Genetics of bacterial virulence." Trends in Microbiology 3, no. 1 (1995): 35–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0966-842x(00)88867-8.

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16

Ingham, E. "Genetics of bacterial virulence." Biochemical Education 24, no. 2 (1996): 126–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0307-4412(96)88976-x.

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17

Beckwith, Jon. "Genetics of bacterial diversity." Trends in Genetics 5 (1989): 348. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-9525(89)90141-8.

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18

Danchin, A. "Genetics of bacterial diversity." Biochimie 74, no. 6 (1992): 594. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0300-9084(92)90173-c.

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19

Meighen, E. A. "Genetics of Bacterial Bioluminescence." Annual Review of Genetics 28, no. 1 (1994): 117–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ge.28.120194.001001.

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20

Kurmasheva, Naziia, Vyacheslav Vorobiev, Margarita Sharipova, Tatyana Efremova, and Ayslu Mardanova. "The Potential Virulence Factors ofProvidencia stuartii: Motility, Adherence, and Invasion." BioMed Research International 2018 (2018): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/3589135.

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Providencia stuartiiis the most commonProvidenciaspecies capable of causing human infections. CurrentlyP. stuartiiis involved in high incidence of urinary tract infections in catheterized patients. The ability of bacteria to swarm on semisolid (viscous) surfaces and adhere to and invade host cells determines the specificity of the disease pathogenesis and its therapy. In the present study we demonstrated morphological changes ofP. stuartiiNK cells during migration on the viscous medium and discussed adhesive and invasive properties utilizing the HeLa-M cell line as a host model. To visualize t
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21

Johnston, Mark. "Joshua Lederberg on Bacterial Recombination." Genetics 203, no. 2 (2016): 613–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1534/genetics.116.190637.

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22

De Maio, Nicola, and Daniel J. Wilson. "The Bacterial Sequential Markov Coalescent." Genetics 206, no. 1 (2017): 333–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1534/genetics.116.198796.

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23

Turner, Paul E. "Phenotypic Plasticity in Bacterial Plasmids." Genetics 167, no. 1 (2004): 9–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1534/genetics.167.1.9.

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24

Virolle, Chloé, Kelly Goldlust, Sarah Djermoun, Sarah Bigot, and Christian Lesterlin. "Plasmid Transfer by Conjugation in Gram-Negative Bacteria: From the Cellular to the Community Level." Genes 11, no. 11 (2020): 1239. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes11111239.

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Bacterial conjugation, also referred to as bacterial sex, is a major horizontal gene transfer mechanism through which DNA is transferred from a donor to a recipient bacterium by direct contact. Conjugation is universally conserved among bacteria and occurs in a wide range of environments (soil, plant surfaces, water, sewage, biofilms, and host-associated bacterial communities). Within these habitats, conjugation drives the rapid evolution and adaptation of bacterial strains by mediating the propagation of various metabolic properties, including symbiotic lifestyle, virulence, biofilm formation
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25

Gregg, K., G. Allen, and C. Beard. "Genetic manipulation of rumen bacteria: from potential to reality." Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 47, no. 2 (1996): 247. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ar9960247.

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The development of techniques for manipulating the molecular genetics of bacteria led naturally to suggestions for using this technology to alter rumen function. Despite early difficulties, methods are now available to insert new genetic material into several rumen bacterial species, including Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens, Prevotella ruminicola, and Ruminococcus albus. One strain of B. fibrisolvens has been modified to detoxify a naturally occurring poison that causes major losses of livestock in Australia, Africa, and Central America. The stability of that modified organism has been demonstrated
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26

Duncan, Margaret J. "Genomics of Oral Bacteria." Critical Reviews in Oral Biology & Medicine 14, no. 3 (2003): 175–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/154411130301400303.

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Advances in bacterial genetics came with the discovery of the genetic code, followed by the development of recombinant DNA technologies. Now the field is undergoing a new revolution because of investigators’ ability to sequence and assemble complete bacterial genomes. Over 200 genome projects have been completed or are in progress, and the oral microbiology research community has benefited through projects for oral bacteria and their non-oral-pathogen relatives. This review describes features of several oral bacterial genomes, and emphasizes the themes of species relationships, comparative gen
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27

da Silva, Herculano, Tatiane M. P. Oliveira, and Maria Anice M. Sallum. "Bacterial Community Diversity and Bacterial Interaction Network in Eight Mosquito Species." Genes 13, no. 11 (2022): 2052. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes13112052.

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Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) are found widely throughout the world. Several species can transmit pathogens to humans and other vertebrates. Mosquitoes harbor great amounts of bacteria, fungi, and viruses. The bacterial composition of the microbiota of these invertebrates is associated with several factors, such as larval habitat, environment, and species. Yet little is known about bacterial interaction networks in mosquitoes. This study investigates the bacterial communities of eight species of Culicidae collected in Vale do Ribeira (Southeastern São Paulo State) and verifies the bacterial
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28

Sprent, J. I., J. C. Fry, and M. J. Davy. "Bacterial Genetics in Natural Environments." Journal of Applied Ecology 29, no. 1 (1992): 261. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2404368.

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29

Berry, D. R. "Bacterial genetics in natural environments." Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 19, no. 1 (1991): 93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0305-1978(91)90118-j.

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30

Kieft, Thomas L. "Bacterial genetics in natural environments." Trends in Genetics 7, no. 7 (1991): 236–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-9525(91)90373-x.

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31

Solioz, Marc, and Denise Bienz. "Bacterial genetics by electric shock." Trends in Biochemical Sciences 15, no. 5 (1990): 175–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0968-0004(90)90154-4.

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32

Symonds, N. "The emergence of bacterial genetics." Trends in Biochemical Sciences 16 (January 1991): 199–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0968-0004(91)90079-b.

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33

Krügel, H. "The Emergence of Bacterial Genetics." Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 342, no. 2 (1992): 239. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-0728(92)85055-8.

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34

Krügel, H. "The Emergence of Bacterial Genetics." Bioelectrochemistry and Bioenergetics 27, no. 2 (1992): 239. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0302-4598(92)87048-y.

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35

Silverman, Sanford J. "Experimental techniques in bacterial genetics." Analytical Biochemistry 192, no. 1 (1991): 254. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0003-2697(91)90219-j.

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36

Haubold, Bernhard, Michael Travisano, Paul B. Rainey, and Richard R. Hudson. "Detecting Linkage Disequilibrium in Bacterial Populations." Genetics 150, no. 4 (1998): 1341–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/150.4.1341.

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Abstract The distribution of the number of pairwise differences calculated from comparisons between n haploid genomes has frequently been used as a starting point for testing the hypothesis of linkage equilibrium. For this purpose the variance of the pairwise differences, VD, is used as a test statistic to evaluate the null hypothesis that all loci are in linkage equilibrium. The problem is to determine the critical value of the distribution of VD. This critical value can be estimated either by Monte Carlo simulation or by assuming that VD is distributed normally and calculating a one-tailed 9
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37

Bertels, Frederic, Chaitanya S. Gokhale, and Arne Traulsen. "Discovering Complete Quasispecies in Bacterial Genomes." Genetics 206, no. 4 (2017): 2149–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1534/genetics.117.201160.

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38

Accoti, Anastasia, Laura C. Multini, Babakar Diouf, et al. "The influence of the larval microbiome on susceptibility to Zika virus is mosquito genotype-dependent." PLOS Pathogens 19, no. 10 (2023): e1011727. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1011727.

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The microbiome of the mosquito Aedes aegypti is largely determined by the environment and influences mosquito susceptibility for arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses). Larval interactions with different bacteria can have carry-over effects on adult Ae. aegypti replication of arboviruses, but little is known about the role that mosquito host genetics play in determining how larval-bacterial interactions shape Ae aegypti susceptibility to arboviruses. To address this question, we isolated single bacterial isolates and complex microbiomes from Ae. aegypti larvae from various field sites in Senega
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39

Giordano, R., S. L. O'Neill, and H. M. Robertson. "Wolbachia infections and the expression of cytoplasmic incompatibility in Drosophila sechellia and D. mauritiana." Genetics 140, no. 4 (1995): 1307–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/140.4.1307.

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Abstract Various stocks of Drosophila mauritiana and D. sechellia were found to be infected with Wolbachia, a Rickettsia-like bacterium that is known to cause cytoplasmic incompatibility and other reproductive abnormalities in arthropods. Testing for the expression of cytoplasmic incompatibility in these two species showed partial incompatibility in D. sechellia but no expression of incompatibility in D. mauritiana. To determine whether absence of cytoplasmic incompatibility in D. mauritiana was due to either the bacterial or host genome, we transferred bacteria from D. mauritiana into an unin
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40

Lederberg, J. "Replica plating and indirect selection of bacterial mutants: isolation of preadaptive mutants in bacteria by sib selection." Genetics 121, no. 3 (1989): 395–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/121.3.395.

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41

Arber. "Self-Organization of the Biological Evolution." Genes 10, no. 11 (2019): 854. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes10110854.

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We report here experiments carried out with nonpathogenic Escherichia coli bacterial strains and their phages. This research yielded interesting insights into their activities, occasionally producing genetic variants of different types. In order to not interfere with the genetic stability of the parental strains involved, we found that the bacteria are genetically equipped to only rarely produce a genetic variant, which may occur by a number of different approaches. On the one hand, the genes of relevance for the production of specific genetic variants are relatively rarely expressed. On the o
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42

Vasse, Marie, and Sébastien Wielgoss. "Bacteriophages of Myxococcus xanthus, a Social Bacterium." Viruses 10, no. 7 (2018): 374. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v10070374.

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Bacteriophages have been used as molecular tools in fundamental biology investigations for decades. Beyond this, however, they play a crucial role in the eco-evolutionary dynamics of bacterial communities through their demographic impact and the source of genetic information they represent. The increasing interest in describing ecological and evolutionary aspects of bacteria–phage interactions has led to major insights into their fundamental characteristics, including arms race dynamics and acquired bacterial immunity. Here, we review knowledge on the phages of the myxobacteria with a major fo
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43

Ilicic, Doris, Danny Ionescu, Jason Woodhouse, and Hans-Peter Grossart. "Temperature-Related Short-Term Succession Events of Bacterial Phylotypes in Potter Cove, Antarctica." Genes 14, no. 5 (2023): 1051. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes14051051.

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In recent years, our understanding of the roles of bacterial communities in the Antarctic Ocean has substantially improved. It became evident that Antarctic marine bacteria are metabolically versatile, and even closely related strains may differ in their functionality and, therefore, affect the ecosystem differently. Nevertheless, most studies have been focused on entire bacterial communities, with little attention given to individual taxonomic groups. Antarctic waters are strongly influenced by climate change; thus, it is crucial to understand how changes in environmental conditions, such as
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44

Draghi, Jeremy A., and Paul E. Turner. "DNA secretion and gene-level selection in bacteria." Microbiology 152, no. 9 (2006): 2683–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/mic.0.29013-0.

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Natural genetic transformation can facilitate gene transfer in many genera of bacteria and requires the presence of extracellular DNA. Although cell lysis can contribute to this extracellular DNA pool, several studies have suggested that the secretion of DNA from living bacteria may also provide genetic material for transformation. This paper reviews the evidence for specific secretion of DNA from intact bacteria into the extracellular environment and examines this behaviour from a population-genetics perspective. A mathematical model demonstrates that the joint action of DNA secretion and tra
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45

Anderson, Eric C., and Paul A. Scheet. "Improving the Estimation of Bacterial Allele Frequencies." Genetics 158, no. 3 (2001): 1383–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/158.3.1383.

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46

Feinstein, Sheldon I., and K. Brooks Low. "HYPER-RECOMBINING RECIPIENT STRAINS IN BACTERIAL CONJUGATION." Genetics 113, no. 1 (1986): 13–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/113.1.13.

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ABSTRACT Using a direct enrichment and screening procedure, mutants of Escherichia coli have been isolated in which recombination frequencies for several intragenic Hfr × F- crosses are significantly higher (twofold to sixfold) than in the parental strains. These hyper-recombination mutations comprised five new mutS - and one new mutL - allele. Together with other known mut - alleles, they were analyzed for effects on intragenic recombination using several types of crosses. Hyper-recombination was found for mutS -, mutL -, mutH (=mutR)- and mutU (=uvrD)-, with the largest effects seen for cert
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47

Achaz, Guillaume, Eric Coissac, Pierre Netter, and Eduardo P. C. Rocha. "Associations Between Inverted Repeats and the Structural Evolution of Bacterial Genomes." Genetics 164, no. 4 (2003): 1279–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/164.4.1279.

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Abstract The stability of the structure of bacterial genomes is challenged by recombination events. Since major rearrangements (i.e., inversions) are thought to frequently operate by homologous recombination between inverted repeats, we analyzed the presence and distribution of such repeats in bacterial genomes and their relation to the conservation of chromosomal structure. First, we show that there is a strong underrepresentation of inverted repeats, relative to direct repeats, in most chromosomes, especially among the ones regarded as most stable. Second, we show that the avoidance of repea
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48

Spratt, Brian G., and Martin C. J. Maiden. "Bacterial population genetics, evolution and epidemiology." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 354, no. 1384 (1999): 701–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1999.0423.

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Asexual bacterial populations inevitably consist of an assemblage of distinct clonal lineages. However, bacterial populations are not entirely asexual since recombinational exchanges occur, mobilizing small genome segments among lineages and species. The relative contribution of recombination, as opposed to de novo mutation, in the generation of new bacterial genotypes varies among bacterial populations and, as this contribution increases, the clonality of a given population decreases. In consequence, a spectrum of possible population structures exists, with few bacterial species occupying the
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49

Muhammadi and Nuzhat Ahmed. "Genetics of Bacterial Alginate: Alginate Genes Distribution, Organization and Biosynthesis in Bacteria." Current Genomics 8, no. 3 (2007): 191–202. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/138920207780833810.

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50

Redfield, Rosemary J., Matthew R. Schrag, and Antony M. Dean. "The Evolution of Bacterial Transformation: Sex With Poor Relations." Genetics 146, no. 1 (1997): 27–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/146.1.27.

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Bacteria are the only organisms known to actively take up DNA and recombine it into their genomes. While such natural transformation systems may provide many of the same benefits that sexual reproduction provides eukaryotes, there are important differences that critically alter the consequences, especially when recombination's main benefit is reducing the mutation load. Here, analytical and numerical methods are used to study the selection of transformation genes in populations undergoing deleterious mutation. Selection for transformability depends on the shape of the fitness function against
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