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1
Morgan, William Edmund. "A fully implicit stochastic model for hydraulic fracturing based on the discontinuous deformation analysis." Diss., Georgia Institute of Technology, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/1853/53073.
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In recent years, hydraulic fracturing has led to a dramatic increase in the worldwide production of natural gas. In a typical hydraulic fracturing treatment, millions of gallons of water, sand and chemicals are injected into a reservoir to generate fractures in the reservoir that serve as pathways for fluid flow. Recent research has shown that both the effectiveness of fracturing treatments and the productivity of fractured reservoirs can be heavily influenced by the presence of pre-existing natural fracture networks. This work presents a fully implicit hydro-mechanical algorithm for modeling hydraulic fracturing in complex fracture networks using the two-dimensional discontinuous deformation analysis (DDA). Building upon previous studies coupling the DDA to fracture network flow, this work emphasizes various improvements made to stabilize the existing algorithms and facilitate their convergence. Additional emphasis is placed on validation of the model and on extending the model to the stochastic characterization of hydraulic fracturing in naturally fractured systems.
To validate the coupled algorithm, the model was tested against two analytical solutions for hydraulic fracturing, one for the growth of a fixed-length fracture subject to constant fluid pressure, and the other for the growth of a viscosity-storage dominated fracture subject to a constant rate of fluid injection. Additionally, the model was used to reproduce the results of a hydraulic fracturing experiment performed using high-viscosity fracturing fluid in a homogeneous medium. Very good agreement was displayed in all cases, suggesting that the algorithm is suitable for simulating hydraulic fracturing in homogeneous media.
Next, this work explores the relationship between the maximum tensile stress and Mohr-Coulomb fracture criteria used in the DDA and the critical stress intensity factor criteria from linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM). The relationship between the criteria is derived, and the ability of the model to capture the relationship is examined for both Mode I and Mode II fracturing. The model was then used to simulate the LEFM solution for a toughness-storage dominated bi-wing hydraulic fracture. Good agreement was found between the numerical and theoretical results, suggesting that the simpler maximum tensile stress criteria can serve as an acceptable substitute for the more rigorous LEFM criteria in studies of hydraulic fracturing.
Finally, this work presents a method for modeling hydraulic fracturing in reservoirs characterized by pre-existing fracture networks. The ability of the algorithm to correctly model the interaction mechanism of intersecting fractures is demonstrated through comparison with experimental results, and the method is extended to the stochastic analysis of hydraulic fracturing in probabilistically characterized reservoirs. Ultimately, the method is applied to a case study of hydraulic fracturing in the Marcellus Shale, and the sensitivity of fracture propagation to variations in rock and fluid parameters is analyzed.
2
Papachristos, Efthymios. "A 3D hydro-mechanical discrete element model for hydraulic fracturing in naturally fractured rock." Thesis, Université Grenoble Alpes (ComUE), 2017. http://www.theses.fr/2017GREAI016/document.
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La fracturation hydraulique est au cœur d'un certain nombre de phénomènes naturels et induits et est cruciale pour un développement durable de la production de ressources énergétiques. Compte tenu de son rôle crucial, ce phénomène a été pris en compte au cours des trois dernières décennies par le monde académique. Néanmoins, un certain nombre d'aspects très importants de ce processus ont été systématiquement négligés par la communauté. Deux des plus remarquables sont l'incapacité de la grande majorité des modèles existants à aborder la propagation des fractures hydrauliques dans les massifs rocheux fracturés où l'injection de fluide peut à la fois conduire à la fracturation de la roche intacte et à la réactivation de fractures préexistantes. Un autre aspect essentiel de ce processus est qu'il est intrinsèquement tridimensionnel, ce qui est souvent négligé par les modèles actuellement disponibles. Pour aborder ce problème essentiel, un modèle hydro-mécanique couplé basé sur la méthode des éléments discrets a été développé. La masse rocheuse est ici représentée par un ensemble d'éléments discrets interagissant à travers des lois de contact cohésifs qui peuvent se casser pour former des fissures à l'intérieur du milieu simulé. Ces fissures peuvent se coalescer pour former des fractures. Une méthode de volume fini est utilisée pour simuler l'écoulement de fluide entre les éléments discrets. L'écoulement est calculé en fonction de la déformation de l'espace poreux dans le milieu intact et de l'ouverture des fissures dans les fractures. De plus, les fractures naturelles sont modélisées explicitement de sorte qu'elles peuvent présentées des comportements mécanique et hydraulique différents de ceux de la matrice rocheuse intacte. La simulation des processus de fracturation hydraulique dans un milieu initialement intact en considérant plusieurs points d'injection plus ou moins espacés a permis de mettre en évidence l'évolution spatio-temporelle des fractures hydrauliques et de quantifier l'impact des différentes stratégies d'injection sur des indices représentatifs du volume fracturé, de l'intensité et de la densité des fractures ou encore sur la pression de fluide au niveau du puits. De plus, l'injection dans une fente de perforation non alignée sur le plan de contrainte minimum a génère des fractures hydrauliques non planaires percolantes si la connectivité est faible, ce qui peut être gênant pour la mise en place du proppant. En outre, des interactions fortes prennent place entre des fractures hydrauliques étroitement espacées ont été mises en évidence grâce au le suivi de la orientation de contrainte principale locale et ont révélé l'importance des effets d'ombre de contrainte. Des solutions sont proposées pour optimiser les traitements multiples à partir d'un puits de forage non parfaitement aligné. Enfin, l'interaction entre une seule fracture hydraulique et une seule fracture naturelle de propriétés et d'orientations variables a été étudiée à l'aide du modèle proposé. L'évolution de la fracture hydraulique et la réponse globale de l'échantillon ont été enregistrées d'une manière comparable aux données expérimentales existantes pour établir un pont entre les résultats expérimentaux et numériques. Les fractures naturelles persistantes semblent être des barrières pour la fracture hydraulique si leur conductance est élevée par apport a celle de la matrice ou si leur raideur est faible par rapport a la rigidité du milieu environnant. D'autre part, une faible rigidité dans les discontinuités non persistantes pourrait provoquer une bifurcation de la fracture hydraulique principale. De plus, des angles d'approche élevés et des contraintes différentielles fortes semblent favoriser le croisement de la fracture naturelle alors que des angles faibles engendrent plutôt un glissement ou une dilatation par cisaillement de la partie du plan qui n'est pas affectée par la perturbation de la contrainte<br>Hydraulic fracturing is at the core of a number of naturally occurring and induced phenomena and crucial for a sustainable development of energy resource production. Given its crucial role this process has been given increasing attention in the last three decades from the academic world. Nonetheless a number of very significant aspects of this process have been systematically overlooked by the community. Two of the most notable ones are the inability of the vast majority of existing models to tackle at once the propagation of hydraulic fractures in realistic, fractured rocks-masses where hydraulic fracturing is a competing dipole mechanism between fracturing of the intact rock and re-activation of exiting fracture networks. Another essential aspect of this process is that it is intrinsically three-dimensional which is neglected by most models. To tackle this vital problem taking into account these pivotal aspects, a fully coupled hydro-mechanical model based on the discrete element method has been developed. The rock mass is here represented by a set of discrete elements interacting through elastic-brittle bonds that can break to form cracks inside the simulated medium. Theses cracks can coalesce to form fractures. A finite volume scheme is used to simulate the fluid flow in between these discrete elements. The flow is computed as a function of the pore space deformation in the intact medium and of the cracks' aperture in the fractures. Furthermore, the natural fractures are modelled explicitly and present mechanical and hydraulic properties different from the rock matrix. Employing this model in an intact numerical specimen, single fluid injection and multiple closely spaced sequential injections, enabled the description the full spatio-temporal evolution of HF propagation and its impact on quantitative indexes used in description of hydraulic fracturing treatments, such as fractured volume, fracture intensity and down-the-hole pressure for different control parameters and in-situ stress-fields. Moreover, injections from perforation slots which are not well aligned to the minimum stress plane showed possible creation of percolating non-planar hydraulic fractures of low connectivity, which can be troublesome for proppant placement. Also, strong interactions between closely spaced HF were highlighted by tracking the local principal stress rotation around the injection zones, emphasizing the importance of stress shadow effects. Optimization solutions are proposed for multiple treatments from a non-perfectly aligned wellbore. Finally, interaction between a single hydraulic fracture and a single natural fracture of varying properties and orientations was studied using the proposed model. The evolution of the hydraulic fracture and the global response of the specimen were recorded in a way comparable to existing experimental data to bridge the experimental and numerical findings. Persistent natural fractures appeared to be barriers for the hydraulic fracture if their conductance is high compared to the matrix conductivity or if their stiffness is significantly low compared to the rock matrix rigidity. Low stiffness in non-persistent defects might also cause a bifurcation of the main hydraulic fracture due to the local stress field perturbation around the defect and ahead of the hydraulic fracture tip. Furthermore, high approach angles and differential stresses seemed to favour crossing of the natural fracture while low angles enable shear slippage or dilation on the part of the plane which is not affected by the local stress perturbation
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Wong, John Kam-wing. "Three-dimensional multi-scale hydraulic fracturing simulation in heterogeneous material using Dual Lattice Model." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2018. https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/270542.
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Hydraulic fracturing is a multi-physics multi-scale problem related to natural processes such as the formation of dikes. It also has wide engineering applications such as extraction of unconventional resources, enhanced geothermal energy and carbon capture and storage. Current simulators are highly simplified because of the assumption of homogeneous reservoir. Unconventional reservoirs are heterogeneous owing to the presence of natural fracture network. Because of high computational effort, three-dimensional multi-scale simulations are uncommon, in particular, modelling material as a heterogeneous medium. Lattice Element Method (LEM) is therefore proposed for multi-scale simulation of heterogeneous material. In LEM, material is discretised into cells and their interactions are modelled by lattices, hence a three-dimensional model is simplified to a network of one-dimensional lattice. Normal, shear and rotational springs are used to define the constitutive laws of a lattice. LEM enables desktop computers for simulation of a lattice model that consists of millions of lattices. From simulations, normal springs govern the macroscopic bulk deformation while shear springs govern the macroscopic distortion. There is fluctuation of stresses even under uniform loading which is one of the characteristics of a lattice model. The magnitude increases with the stiffness ratio of shear spring to normal spring. Fracturing process can be modelled by LEM by introducing a microscopic tensile strength and a microscopic shear strength to the lattice properties. The strength parameters can be related to fracture toughness with the length scales of cells. From simulations, the relationships between model parameters and macroscopic parameters that are measurable in experiments are identified. From the simulations of uni-axial tension tests, both the spring stiffness ratio and the applied heterogeneity govern the fracturing process. The heterogeneity increases the ductility at the expense of the reduction on the macroscopic strengths. Different stages of fracturing are identified which are characterised by the model heterogeneity. Heterogeneous models go through the stages of the spatially distributed microscrack formation, the growth of multiple fracture clusters to the dominant fracture propagation. For homogeneous models, one of the microcracks rapidly propagates and becomes a dominant fracture with the absence of intermediate stages. From the uni-axial compression test simulations, the peak compressive stress is reached at the onset of the microscopic shear crack formation. Ductility is governed by the stiffness reduction ratio of a lattice in closed fractured stage to its unfractured stage. A novel Dual Lattice Model (DLM) is proposed for hydraulic fracture simulation by coupling a solid lattice model with a fluid lattice model. From DLM simulations of hydraulic fracturing of the classical penny shape crack problem under hydrostatic condition, the heterogeneities from both the fracture asperity and the applied heterogeneity increase the apparent fracture toughness. A semi-analytical solution is derived to consider the effect of fluid viscosity in the elastic deformation regime. Two asymptotes are identified that gives steep pressure gradients near the injection point and near the fracture tip which are also identified in the DLM simulations. Simulations also show three evolving regimes on energy dissipation/transfer mechanisms: the viscosity dominant, the elastic deformation dominant and the mixture of elastic deformation and toughness.
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Van, Der Merwe Carel Wagener. "A peridynamic model for sleeved hydraulic fracture." Thesis, Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/95993.
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Thesis (MEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2014.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Current numerical methods in the eld of hydraulic fracturing are based mainly on
continuum methods, such as the Finite Element Method (FEM) and the Boundary Element
Method (BEM). These methods are governed by Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics
(LEFM) criteria, which su er from the inherent
aw of a non-physical stress representation
at the fracture tip. In response to this, a non-local method is proposed, namely
the peridynamic theory, to model sleeved hydraulic fracture. A 2D implicit quasi-static
ordinary state based peridynamic formulation is implemented on various benchmark
problems, to verify the ability to capture constitutive behaviour in a linear elastic solid,
as well as, the quanti cation of adverse e ects on the accuracy of the displacement solution,
due to the nature of the non-local theory. Benchmark tests consist of a plate in
tension, where convergence to the classical displacement solution, non-uniform re nement
and varying cell sizes are tested, as well as, a thick walled cylinder with internal
pressure, where three di erent loading techniques are tested. The most accurate loading
technique is applied to the sleeved fracture model, in order to simulate fracture initiation
and propagation. This model is then veri ed and validated by using the Rummel &
Winter hydraulic fracturing model and experimental results, respectively. Displacement
error minimisation methods are implemented and as a result, the displacement solutions
for a plate in tension converges to the analytical solution, while the thick walled cylinder
solutions su er from inaccuracies due to an applied load on an irregularly discretized
region. The fracture initiation test captures the fracture tip behaviour of the Rummel
& Winter model and the fracture propagation test show good correlation with experimental
results. This research shows that the peridynamic approach to sleeved hydraulic
fracture can yield a realistic representation of fracture initiation and propagation, however,
further research is needed in the area of a pressure load application on a solid using
the peridynamic approach.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Huidige numeriese metodes in die veld van hidrouliese breking is hoofsaaklik gebaseer
op kontinuum metodes, soos die Eindige Element Metode (EEM) en die Rand Element
Metode (REM). Hierdie metodes word beheer deur Linie^ere Elastiese Breukmeganika
(LEB) kriteria, wat ly aan die inherente gebrek van 'n nie- siese voorstelling van die
spanning by die fraktuur punt. Om hierdie probleme aan te spreek, word 'n nie-lokale
metode voorgestel, naamlik die peridinamiese teorie, om gehulsde hidrouliese breking
te modelleer. 'n 2D implisiete kwasi-statiese ordin^ere toestand gebaseerde peridinamika
formulering word ge mplimenteer op verskeie norm probleme, om te veri eer of dit oor
die vermo e beskik om die konstitutiewe gedrag van 'n linie^ere elastiese soliede materiaal
te modeleer, asook die kwanti sering van nadelige e ekte op die verplasings oplossing as
gevolg van die natuur van die nie-lokale teorie. Normtoetse bestaan uit 'n plaat in trek
spanning, waar konvergensie na die klassieke verplasings oplossing, nie-uniforme verfyning
en vari^eerende sel groottes getoets word, asook 'n dikwandige silinder onder interne
druk, waar drie verskillende belasting aanwendingstegnieke getoets word. Die mees akkurate
belasting aanwendingstegniek word dan gebruik in die gehulsde hidrouliese breking
model, om fraktuur aanvangs en uitbreiding na te boots. Die model word dan geveri-
eer deur die Rummel & Winter hidrouliese breking model en eksperimentele resultate,
onderskeidelik. Fout minimering metodes word toegepas en as 'n resultaat, konvergeer
die verplasing oplossing vir die plaat na die analitiese oplossing, terwyl die oplossing
van die dikwandige silinder onakuraathede toon as gevolg van 'n toegepaste belasting
op 'n onre elmatig gediskretiseerde gebied. Die modellering van die fraktuur inisi ering
by die fraktuur punt, stem goed ooreen met die Rummel en Winter voorspelling en die
fraktuur uitbreiding stem goed ooreen met eksperimentele resultate. Hierdie navorsing
toon dat die peridinamiese benadering tot gehulsde hidrouliese breking wel die fraktuur
inisi ering en uitbreiding realisties kan modelleer, maar nog navorsing word wel benodig
in die area waar 'n druk belasting op 'n peridinamiese soliede model toegepas word.
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Shrestha, Aashish. "Modeling Impact of Hydraulic Fracturing and Climate Change on Stream Low Flows: A Case Study of Muskingum Watershed in Eastern Ohio." Youngstown State University / OhioLINK, 2014. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ysu1420797464.
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Luo, Chenyi [Verfasser], and Wolfgang [Akademischer Betreuer] Ehlers. "A phase-field model embedded in the theory of porous media with application to hydraulic fracturing / Chenyi Luo ; Betreuer: Wolfgang Ehlers." Stuttgart : Universitätsbibliothek der Universität Stuttgart, 2019. http://d-nb.info/1184884099/34.
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Nadeem, Muhammad. "Reservoir screening criteria for deep slurry injection." Thesis, University of Waterloo, 2005. http://hdl.handle.net/10012/1254.
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Deep slurry injection is a process of solid waste disposal that involves grinding the solid waste to a relatively fine-grained consistency, mixing the ground waste with water and/or other liquids to form slurry, and disposing of the slurry by pumping it down a well at a high enough pressure that fractures are created within the target formation.
This thesis describes the site assessment criteria involved in selecting a suitable target reservoir for deep slurry injection. The main goals of this study are the follows: <ul> <li>Identify the geological parameters important for a prospective injection site</li> <li>Recognize the role of each parameter</li> <li>Determine the relationships among different parameters</li> <li>Design and develop a model which can assemble all the parameters into a semi-quantitative evaluation process that could allow site ranking and elimination of sites that are not suitable</li> <li>Evaluate the model against several real slurry injection cases and several prospective cases where slurry injection may take place in future</li> </ul> The quantitative and qualitative parameters that are recognized as important for making a decision regarding a target reservoir for deep slurry injection operations are permeability, porosity, depth, areal extent, thickness, mechanical strength, and compressibility of a reservoir; thickness and flow properties of the cap rock; geographical distance between an injection well and a waste source or collection centre; and, regional and detailed structural and tectonic setup of an area. Additional factors affecting the security level of a site include the details of the lithostratigraphic column overlying the target reservoir and the presence of overlying fracture blunting horizons. Each parameter is discussed in detail to determine its role in site assessment and also its relationship with other parameters. A geological assessment model is developed and is divided into two components; a decision tree and a numerical calculation system. The decision tree deals with the most critical parameters, those that render a site unsuitable or suitable, but of unspecified quality. The numerical calculation gives a score to a prospective injection site based on the rank numbers and weighting factors for the various parameters. The score for a particular site shows its favourability for the injection operation, and allows a direct comparison with other available sites. Three categories have been defined for this purpose, i. e. average, below average, and above average. A score range of 85 to 99 of 125 places a site in the ?average? category; a site will be unsuitable for injection if it belongs to the ?below average? category, i. e. if the total score is less than 85, and the best sites will generally have scores that are in the ?above average? category, with a score of 100 or higher. One may assume that for sites that fall in the ?average? category there will have to be more detailed tests and assessments. The geological assessment model is evaluated using original geological data from North America and Indonesia for sites that already have undergone deep slurry injection operations and also for some possible prospective sites. The results obtained from the model are satisfactory as they are in agreement with the empirical observations. Areas for future work consist of the writing of a computer program for the geological model, and further evaluation of the model using original data from more areas representing more diverse geology from around the world.
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Bouteca, Maurice. "Fracturation hydraulique calcul de propagation d'une fracture induite dans un massif rocheux /." Grenoble 2 : ANRT, 1987. http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb37603363t.
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Tanne, Erwan. "Variational phase-field models from brittle to ductile fracture : nucleation and propagation." Thesis, Université Paris-Saclay (ComUE), 2017. http://www.theses.fr/2017SACLX088/document.
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Les simulations numériques des fissures fragiles par les modèles d’endommagement à gradient deviennent main- tenant très répandues. Les résultats théoriques et numériques montrent que dans le cadre de l’existence d’une pre-fissure la propagation suit le critère de Griffith. Alors que pour le problème à une dimension la nucléation de la fissure se fait à la contrainte critique, cette dernière propriété dimensionne le paramètre de longueur interne.Dans ce travail, on s’attarde sur le phénomène de nucléation de fissures pour les géométries communément rencontrées et qui ne présentent pas de solutions analytiques. On montre que pour une entaille en U- et V- l’initiation de la fissure varie continument entre la solution prédite par la contrainte critique et celle par la ténacité du matériau. Une série de vérifications et de validations sur diffèrent matériaux est réalisée pour les deux géométries considérées. On s’intéresse ensuite à un défaut elliptique dans un domaine infini ou très élancé pour illustrer la capacité du modèle à prendre en compte les effets d’échelles des matériaux et des structures.Dans un deuxième temps, ce modèle est étendu à la fracturation hydraulique. Une première phase de vérification du modèle est effectuée en stimulant une pré-fissure seule par l’injection d’une quantité donnée de fluide. Ensuite on étudie la simulation d’un réseau parallèle de fissures. Les résultats obtenus montrent qu’il a qu’une seule fissure qui se propage et que ce type de configuration minimise mieux l’énergie la propagation d’un réseau de fractures. Le dernier exemple se concentre sur la stabilité des fissures dans le cadre d’une expérience d’éclatement à pression imposée pour l’industrie pétrolière. Cette expérience d’éclatement de la roche est réalisée en laboratoire afin de simuler les conditions de confinement retrouvées lors des forages.La dernière partie de ce travail se concentre sur la rupture ductile en couplant le modèle à champ de phase avec les modèles de plasticité parfaite. Grâce à l’approche variationnelle du problème on décrit l’implantation numérique retenue pour le calcul parallèle. Les simulations réalisées montrent que pour une géométrie légèrement entaillée la phénoménologie des fissures ductiles comme par exemple la nucléation et la propagation sont en concordances avec ceux reportées dans la littérature<br>Phase-field models, sometimes referred to as gradient damage, are widely used methods for the numerical simulation of crack propagation in brittle materials. Theoretical results and numerical evidences show that they can predict the propagation of a pre-existing crack according to Griffith’s criterion. For a one- dimensional problem, it has been shown that they can predict nucleation upon a critical stress, provided that the regularization parameter is identified with the material’s internal characteristic length.In this work, we draw on numerical simulations to study crack nucleation in commonly encountered geometries for which closed-form solutions are not available. We use U- and V-notches to show that the nucleation load varies smoothly from the one predicted by a strength criterion to the one of a toughness criterion when the strength of the stress concentration or singularity varies. We present validation and verification of numerical simulations for both types of geometries. We consider the problem of an elliptic cavity in an infinite or elongated domain to show that variational phase field models properly account for structural and material size effects.In a second movement, this model is extended to hydraulic fracturing. We present a validation of the model by simulating a single fracture in a large domain subject to a control amount of fluid. Then we study an infinite network of pressurized parallel cracks. Results show that the stimulation of a single fracture is the best energy minimizer compared to multi-fracking case. The last example focuses on fracturing stability regimes using linear elastic fracture mechanics for pressure driven fractures in an experimental geometry used in petroleum industry which replicates a situation encountered downhole with a borehole called burst experiment.The last part of this work focuses on ductile fracture by coupling phase-field models with perfect plasticity. Based on the variational structure of the problem we give a numerical implementation of the coupled model for parallel computing. Simulation results of a mild notch specimens are in agreement with the phenomenology of ductile fracture such that nucleation and propagation commonly reported in the literature
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Friehauf, Kyle Eugene. "Simulation and design of energized hydraulic fractures." 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/2152/6644.
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Hydraulic fracturing is essential for producing gas and oil at an economic rate from low permeability sands. Most fracturing treatments use water and polymers with a gelling agent as a fracturing fluid. The water is held in the small pore spaces by capillary pressure and is not recovered when drawdown pressures are low. The un-recovered water leaves a water saturated zone around the fracture face that stops the flow of gas into the fracture. This is a particularly acute problem in low permeability formations where capillary pressures are high. Depletion (lower reservoir pressures) causes a limitation on the drawdown pressure that can be applied. A hydraulic fracturing process can be energized by the addition of a compressible, sometimes soluble, gas phase into the treatment fluid. When the well is produced, the energized fluid expands and gas comes out of solution. Energizing the fluid creates high gas saturation in the invaded zone, thereby facilitating gas flowback. A new compositional hydraulic fracturing model has been created (EFRAC). This is the first model to include changes in composition, temperature, and phase behavior of the fluid inside the fracture. An equation of state is used to evaluate the phase behavior of the fluid. These compositional effects are coupled with the fluid rheology, proppant transport, and mechanics of fracture growth to create a general model for fracture creation when energized fluids are used. In addition to the fracture propagation model, we have also introduced another new model for hydraulically fractured well productivity. This is the first and only model that takes into account both finite fracture conductivity and damage in the invaded zone in a simple analytical way. EFRAC was successfully used to simulate several fracture treatments in a gas field in South Texas. Based on production estimates, energized fluids may be required when drawdown pressures are smaller than the capillary forces in the formation. For this field, the minimum CO2 gas quality (volume % of gas) recommended is 30% for moderate differences between fracture and reservoir pressures (2900 psi reservoir, 5300 psi fracture). The minimum quality is reduced to 20% when the difference between pressures is larger, resulting in additional gas expansion in the invaded zone. Inlet fluid temperature, flowrate, and base viscosity did not have a large impact on fracture production. Finally, every stage of the fracturing treatment should be energized with a gas component to ensure high gas saturation in the invaded zone. A second, more general, sensitivity study was conducted. Simulations show that CO2 outperforms N2 as a fluid component because it has higher solubility in water at fracturing temperatures and pressures. In fact, all gas components with higher solubility in water will increase the fluid’s ability to reduce damage in the invaded zone. Adding methanol to the fracturing solution can increase the solubility of CO2. N2 should only be used if the gas leaks-off either during the creation of the fracture or during closure, resulting in gas going into the invaded zone. Experimental data is needed to determine if the gas phase leaks-off during the creation of the fracture. Simulations show that the bubbles in a fluid traveling across the face of a porous medium are not likely to attach to the surface of the rock, the filter cake, or penetrate far into the porous medium. In summary, this research has created the first compositional fracturing simulator, a useful tool to aid in energized fracture design. We have made several important and original conclusions about the best practices when using energized fluids in tight gas sands. The models and tools presented here may be used in the future to predict behavior of any multi-phase or multi-component fracturing fluid system.<br>text
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Ribeiro, Lionel Herve Noel. "Development of a three-dimensional compositional hydraulic fracturing simulator for energized fluids." 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/2152/22805.
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Current practices in energized treatments, using gases and foams, remain rudimentary in comparison to other fracturing fluid technologies. None of the available 3D fracturing models for incompressible water-based fluids have been able to capture the thermal and compositional effects that are important when using energized fluids, as their constitutive equations assume single-phase, single-component, incompressible fluid flow. These models introduce a bias in fluid selection because they do not accurately capture the unique behavior of energized fluids. The lack of modeling tools specifically suited for these fluids has hindered their design and field implementation. This work uses a fully compositional 3D fracturing model to answer some of the questions surrounding the design of energized treatments. The new model is capable of handling any multi-component mixture of fluids and chemicals. Changes in fluid density, composition, and temperature are predicted using an energy balance equation and an equation of state. A wellbore model, which relates the surface and bottomhole conditions, determines the pumping requirements. Fracture performance is assessed by a fractured well productivity model that accounts for damage in the invaded zone and finite fracture conductivity. The combination of the fracture, productivity, and wellbore models forms a standalone simulator that is suitable for designing and optimizing energized treatments. The simulator offers a wide range of capabilities, making it suitable for many different applications ranging from hydraulic fracturing to long-term injections for enhanced oil recovery, well clean-up, or carbon sequestration purposes. The model is applicable to any well configuration: vertical, deviated, or horizontal. The resolution of the full 3D elasticity problem enables us to propagate the fracture across multiple layers, where height growth is controlled by the vertical distribution of the minimum horizontal stress. We conducted several sensitivity studies to compare the fracture propagation, productivity, and pumping requirements of various fluid candidates in different reservoirs. The results show that good proppant placement and high fracture conductivities can be achieved with foams and gelled fluid formulations. Foams provide a wide range of viscosities without using excessive amounts of gelling agents. They also provide superior fluid-loss control, as the filter-cake is supplemented by the presence of gas bubbles that reduce liquid-flow into the porous medium. CO₂, LPG, and N₂ expand significantly (by 15% or more) as the reservoir heats the fluid inside the fracture. These fluids show virtually no damage in the invaded zone, which is a significant improvement upon water-based fluids in reservoirs that are prone to water blocking. These results, however, are contingent on an accurate fluid characterization supported by experimental data; therefore, our work advocates for complementary experimental studies on fluid rheology, proppant transport, and fluid leak-off. A comprehensive sensitivity study over a wide range of reservoir conditions identified five key reservoir parameters for fluid selection: relative permeability curve, initial gas saturation, reservoir pressure, changes to rock mechanical properties, and water-sensitivity. Because energized fluids provide similar rheology and leak-off behaviors as water-based fluids, the primary design question it to evaluate the extent of the damaged zone against costs, fluid availability, and/or safety hazards. If the fluid-induced damage is acceptable, water-based fluids constitute a simple and attractive solution; otherwise, energized fluids are recommended. Notably, energized fluids are well-suited for reservoirs that are depleted, under-saturated, and/or water-sensitive. These fluids are also favorable in areas with a limited water supply. As water resources become constrained in many areas, reducing the water footprint and the environmental impact is of paramount concern, thereby making the use of energized treatments particularly attractive to replace or subsidize water in the fracturing process.<br>text
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Dahi, Taleghani Arash. "Analysis of hydraulic fracture propagation in fractured reservoirs : an improved model for the interaction between induced and natural fractures." 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/2152/18381.
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Large volumes of natural gas exist in tight fissured reservoirs. Hydraulic fracturing is one of the main stimulating techniques to enhance recovery from these fractured reservoirs. Although hydraulic fracturing has been used for decades for the stimulation of tight gas reservoirs, a thorough understanding of the interaction between induced hydraulic fractures and natural fractures is still lacking. Recent examples of hydraulic fracture diagnostic data suggest complex, multi-stranded hydraulic fracture geometry is a common occurrence. The interaction between pre-existing natural fractures and the advancing hydraulic fracture is a key condition leading to complex fracture patterns. Large populations of natural fractures that exist in formations such as the Barnett shale are sealed by precipitated cements which could be quartz, calcite, etc. Even though there is no porosity in the sealed fractures, they may still serve as weak paths for fracture initiation and/or for diverting the path of the growing hydraulic fractures. Performing hydraulic fracture design calculations under these complex conditions requires modeling of fracture intersections and tracking fluid fronts in the network of reactivated fissures. In this dissertation, the effect of the cohesiveness of the sealed natural fractures and the intact rock toughness in hydraulic fracturing are studied. Accordingly, the role of the pre-existing fracture geometry is also investigated. The results provide some explanations for significant differences in hydraulic fracturing in naturally fractured reservoirs from non-fractured reservoirs. For the purpose of this research, an extended finite element method (XFEM) code is developed to simulate fracture propagation, initiation and intersection. The motivation behind applying XFEM are the desire to avoid remeshing in each step of the fracture propagation, being able to consider arbitrary varying geometry of natural fractures and the insensitivity of fracture propagation to mesh geometry. New modifications are introduced into XFEM to improve stress intensity factor calculations, including fracture intersection criteria into the model and improving accuracy of the solution in near crack tip regions. The presented coupled fluid flow-fracture mechanics simulations extend available modeling efforts and provide a unified framework for evaluating fracture design parameters and their consequences. Results demonstrate that fracture pattern complexity is strongly controlled by the magnitude of in situ stress anisotropy, the rock toughness, the natural fracture cement strength, and the approach angle of the hydraulic fracture to the natural fracture. Previous studies (mostly based on frictional fault stability analysis) have concentrated on predicting the onset of natural fracture failure. However, the use of fracture mechanics and XFEM makes it possible to evaluate the progression of fracture growth over time as fluid is diverted into the natural fractures. Analysis shows that the growing hydraulic fracture may exert enough tensile and/or shear stresses on cemented natural fractures that they may be opened or slip in advance of hydraulic fracture tip arrival, while under some conditions, natural fractures will be unaffected by the hydraulic fracture. A threshold is defined for the fracture energy of cements where, for cases below this threshold, hydraulic fractures divert into the natural fractures. The value of this threshold is calculated for different fracture set orientations. Finally, detailed pressure profile and aperture distributions at the intersection between fracture segments show the potential for difficulty in proppant transport under complex fracture propagation conditions. Whether a hydraulic fracture crosses or is arrested by a pre-existing natural fracture is controlled by shear strength and potential slippage at the fracture intersections, as well as potential debonding of sealed cracks in the near-tip region of a propagating hydraulic fracture. We introduce a new more general criterion for fracture propagation at the intersections. We present a complex hydraulic fracture pattern propagation model based on the Extended Finite Element Method as a design tool that can be used to optimize treatment parameters under complex propagation conditions.<br>text
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Moinfar, Ali 1984. "Development of an efficient embedded discrete fracture model for 3D compositional reservoir simulation in fractured reservoirs." 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/2152/21393.
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Naturally fractured reservoirs (NFRs) hold a significant amount of the world's hydrocarbon reserves. Compared to conventional reservoirs, NFRs exhibit a higher degree of heterogeneity and complexity created by fractures. The importance of fractures in production of oil and gas is not limited to naturally fractured reservoirs. The economic exploitation of unconventional reservoirs, which is increasingly a major source of short- and long-term energy in the United States, hinges in part on effective stimulation of low-permeability rock through multi-stage hydraulic fracturing of horizontal wells. Accurate modeling and simulation of fractured media is still challenging owing to permeability anisotropies and contrasts. Non-physical abstractions inherent in conventional dual porosity and dual permeability models make these methods inadequate for solving different fluid-flow problems in fractured reservoirs. Also, recent approaches for discrete fracture modeling may require large computational times and hence the oil industry has not widely used such approaches, even though they give more accurate representations of fractured reservoirs than dual continuum models.
We developed an embedded discrete fracture model (EDFM) for an in-house fully-implicit compositional reservoir simulator. EDFM borrows the dual-medium concept from conventional dual continuum models and also incorporates the effect of each fracture explicitly. In contrast to dual continuum models, fractures have arbitrary orientations and can be oblique or vertical, honoring the complexity and heterogeneity of a typical fractured reservoir. EDFM employs a structured grid to remediate challenges associated with unstructured gridding required for other discrete fracture models. Also, the EDFM approach can be easily incorporated in existing finite difference reservoir simulators. The accuracy of the EDFM approach was confirmed by comparing the results with analytical solutions and fine-grid, explicit-fracture simulations. Comparison of our results using the EDFM approach with fine-grid simulations showed that accurate results can be achieved using moderate grid refinements. This was further verified in a mesh sensitivity study that the EDFM approach with moderate grid refinement can obtain a converged solution. Hence, EDFM offers a computationally-efficient approach for simulating fluid flow in NFRs. Furthermore, several case studies presented in this study demonstrate the applicability, robustness, and efficiency of the EDFM approach for modeling fluid flow in fractured porous media.
Another advantage of EDFM is its extensibility for various applications by incorporating different physics in the model. In order to examine the effect of pressure-dependent fracture properties on production, we incorporated the dynamic behavior of fractures into EDFM by employing empirical fracture deformation models. Our simulations showed that fracture deformation, caused by effective stress changes, substantially affects pressure depletion and hydrocarbon recovery. Based on the examples presented in this study, implementation of fracture geomechanical effects in EDFM did not degrade the computational performance of EDFM.
Many unconventional reservoirs comprise well-developed natural fracture networks with multiple orientations and complex hydraulic fracture patterns suggested by microseismic data. We developed a coupled dual continuum and discrete fracture model to efficiently simulate production from these reservoirs. Large-scale hydraulic fractures were modeled explicitly using the EDFM approach and numerous small-scale natural fractures were modeled using a dual continuum approach. The transport parameters for dual continuum modeling of numerous natural fractures were derived by upscaling the EDFM equations. Comparison of the results using the coupled model with that of using the EDFM approach to represent all natural and hydraulic fractures explicitly showed that reasonably accurate results can be obtained at much lower computational cost by using the coupled approach with moderate grid refinements.<br>text
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Min, Kyoung. "Numerical Modeling of Hydraulic Fracture Propagation Using Thermo-hydro-mechanical Analysis with Brittle Damage Model by Finite Element Method." Thesis, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/1969.1/150961.
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Better understanding and control of crack growth direction during hydraulic fracturing are essential for enhancing productivity of geothermal and petroleum reservoirs. Structural analysis of fracture propagation and impact on fluid flow is a challenging issue because of the complexity of rock properties and physical aspects of rock failure and fracture growth. Realistic interpretation of the complex interactions between rock deformation, fluid flow, heat transfer, and fracture propagation induced by fluid injection is important for fracture network design. In this work, numerical models are developed to simulate rock failure and hydraulic fracture propagation. The influences of rock deformation, fluid flow, and heat transfer on fracturing processes are studied using a coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) analysis.
The models are used to simulate microscopic and macroscopic fracture behaviors of laboratory-scale uniaxial and triaxial experiments on rock using an elastic/brittle damage model considering a stochastic heterogeneity distribution. The constitutive modeling by the energy release rate-based damage evolution allows characterizing brittle rock failure and strength degradation. This approach is then used to simulate the sequential process of heterogeneous rock failures from the initiation of microcracks to the growth of macrocracks. The hydraulic fracturing path, especially for fractures emanating from inclined wellbores and closed natural fractures, often involves mixed mode fracture propagation. Especially, when the fracture is inclined in a 3D stress field, the propagation cannot be modeled using 2D fracture models. Hence, 2D/3D mixed-modes fracture growth from an initially embedded circular crack is studied using the damage mechanics approach implemented in a finite element method.
As a practical problem, hydraulic fracturing stimulation often involves fluid pressure change caused by injected fracturing fluid, fluid leakoff, and fracture propagation with brittle rock behavior and stress heterogeneities. In this dissertation, hydraulic fracture propagation is simulated using a coupled fluid flow/diffusion and rock deformation analysis. Later THM analysis is also carried out. The hydraulic forces in extended fractures are solved using a lubrication equation. Using a new moving-boundary element partition methodology (EPM), fracture propagation through heterogeneous media is predicted simply and efficiently. The method allows coupling fluid flow and rock deformation, and fracture propagation using the lubrication equation to solve for the fluid pressure through newly propagating crack paths.
Using the proposed model, the 2D/3D hydraulic fracturing simulations are performed to investigate the role of material and rock heterogeneity. Furthermore, in geothermal and petroleum reservoir design, engineers can take advantage of thermal fracturing that occurs when heat transfers between injected flow and the rock matrix to create reservoir permeability. These thermal stresses are calculated using coupled THM analysis and their influence on crack propagation during reservoir stimulation are investigated using damage mechanics and thermal loading algorithms for newly fractured surfaces.
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Staněk, František. "Zdrojové mechanismy mikroseismických jevů indukovaných hydraulickým štěpením." Doctoral thesis, 2018. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-388682.
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Understanding economic success of unconventional production from shales requires an explanation of the relationship between induced seismicity and hydraulic fracturing. This thesis deals with observing and analyzing synthetic and real microseismic monitoring data acquired during hydraulic fracturing. The thesis is based on observation and analyses of source mechanisms of induced microseismic events that have recently become regularly inverted and interpreted in the oil and gas industry. The results of analyses are interpreted with the geomechanical model of the relationship between hydraulic fracturing and induced seismicity. The study of source mechanisms starts with detailed analyses of spatial distribution of full moment tensor inversion stability. It was mapped based on synthetically computed condition numbers in the vicinity of different monitoring arrays including dense arrays at the surface and sparse arrays with sensors in the boreholes. Stability of inversion was tested under several conditions, mainly dependency on size and geometry of monitoring array and level of noise in the data. In this part of the thesis it is shown that dense surface arrays may provide very stable inversion of source mechanisms which may be interpreted. The study shows that an increasing percentage of non-shear...
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Singh, Gurpreet 1984. "Coupled flow and geomechanics modeling for fractured poroelastic reservoirs." Thesis, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/2152/28473.
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Tight gas and shale oil play an important role in energy security and in meeting an increasing energy demand. Hydraulic fracturing is a widely used technology for recovering these resources. The design and evaluation of hydraulic fracture operation is critical for efficient production from tight gas and shale plays. The efficiency of fracturing jobs depends on the interaction between hydraulic (induced) and naturally occurring discrete fractures. In this work, a coupled reservoir-fracture flow model is described which accounts for varying reservoir geometries and complexities including non-planar fractures. Different flow models such as Darcy flow and Reynold's lubrication equation for fractures and reservoir, respectively are utilized to capture flow physics accurately. Furthermore, the geomechanics effects have been included by considering a multiphase Biot's model. An accurate modeling of solid deformations necessitates a better estimation of fluid pressure inside the fracture. The fractures and reservoir are modeled explicitly allowing accurate representation of contrasting physical descriptions associated with each of the two. The approach presented here is in contrast with existing averaging approaches such as dual and discrete-dual porosity models where the effects of fractures are averaged out. A fracture connected to an injection well shows significant width variations as compared to natural fractures where these changes are negligible. The capillary pressure contrast between the fracture and the reservoir is accounted for by utilizing different capillary pressure curves for the two features. Additionally, a quantitative assessment of hydraulic fracturing jobs relies upon accurate predictions of fracture growth during slick water injection for single and multistage fracturing scenarios. It is also important to consistently model the underlying physical processes from hydraulic fracturing to long-term production. A recently introduced thermodynamically consistent phase-field approach for pressurized fractures in porous medium is utilized which captures several characteristic features of crack propagation such as joining, branching and non-planar propagation in heterogeneous porous media. The phase-field approach captures both the fracture-width evolution and the fracture-length propagation. In this work, the phase-field fracture propagation model is briefly discussed followed by a technique for coupling this to a fractured poroelastic reservoir simulator. We also present a general compositional formulation using multipoint flux mixed finite element (MFMFE) method on general hexahedral grids with a future prospect of treating energized fractures. The mixed finite element framework allows for local mass conservation, accurate flux approximation and a more general treatment of boundary conditions. The multipoint flux inherent in MFMFE scheme allows the usage of a full permeability tensor. An accurate treatment of diffusive/dispersive fluxes owing to additional velocity degrees of freedom is also presented. The applications areas of interest include gas flooding, CO₂ sequestration, contaminant removal and groundwater remediation.<br>text