Tesis sobre el tema "Conservation of natural resources – Africa"

Thesis (MPhil)--University of Stellenbosch, 2011.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: There is a shift by conservation authorities in post-apartheid South Africa away from management strategies based on law enforcement towards strategies aimed at facilitating local community participation in the management of natural resources. South African National Parks has established community forums in order to facilitate better communication with the communities neighbouring it parks, especially around issues of natural resource consumption. However, at its largest Park, the Kruger National Park, a pervasive miscommunication between the Park and the communities appears to exist despite the ongoing activities of its forums. This study attempted to identify what miscommunication, if any, was occurring between three groups of participants in the Conservation Discourse related to the Kruger National Park environment. The participants were (i) South African National Parks (SANParks) conservation managers, (ii) Kruger Park community outreach officials, and, (iii) members of local communities settled on the borders of the Kruger Park. Specifically, the study was interested in how different perceptions of various participants, who also represent different cultural communities, were foregrounded in relation to different communicative goals. It is suggested that an understanding of where the different Discourses diverge can help identify where possible misunderstandings are occurring which may be resulting in communicative problems. My primary research questions were: (1) how do different communities of practice take part in and construct Conservation Discourse related to the Kruger Parks conservation goals, in particular, those related to the use of natural resources; and, (2) how do members of at least three interest groups construct their own identities in relation to conservation matters in the course of various discursive events where SANParks conservation programmes, particularly those related to the use of natural resources, are topicalised. My assumption was that the Parks conservation officers would have a common Conservation Discourse, and that the local communities would have a common discourse but one which deviates entirely from that of the Parks. From 23 September 2008, I conducted three semi-structured interviews with the Parks conservation officers, I was an observer of a Park departmental meeting as well as a Park Forum, and I conducted a focus group with eight members from one of the local communities. This approach enabled me to collect data from a number of different types of communicative events in order to collate a multidimensional picture of the complete Discourse on Conservation. A number of different Conservation Discourses were identified, some of which present significant discrepancies, and which, as in the case of the two of the departments, may be contributing towards what appears to be a serious breakdown in communication. The communities show that while they are supportive of the populist concept of nature conservation, they are completely unaware of the Parks conservation policies. This lack of awareness indicates a failure of the existing communication between the Park and its neighbouring communities despite the Park Forums having been set-up. Finally, the different discourses also appear to be resulting in misunderstandings and feelings of animosity between the different participants.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In post-apartheid Suid-Afrika beweeg bewaringsliggame weg van bestuurstrategieë wat op wetstoepassing gebaseer is, na strategieë wat daarop gemik is om die plaaslike gemeenskap se deelname in die bestuur van natuurlike hulpbronne, te fasiliteer. Suid-Afrikaanse Nasionale Parke het gemeenskapsforums in die lewe geroep om beter kommunikasie met die gemeenskappe wat aan sy parke grens, te bewerkstellig, veral rakende kwessies rondom die verbruik van natuurlike hulpbronne. By die grootse Park, te wete die Kruger Nasionale Wildtuin, kom dit egter voor asof miskommunikasie endemies is tussen die Park en sy aangrensende inheemse gemeenskappe, ten spyte van die forums se aktiwiteite. Hierdie studie het nagegaan watter miskommunikasie, indien enige, tussen drie groepe deelnemers aan die Bewaringsdiskoerse rondom die Krugerpark, plaasgevind het. Die deelnemers was (i) Suid- Afrikaanse Nasionale Parke (SANParke)-bewaringsbestuurders, (ii) Krugerpark Gemeenskapsuitreikbeamptes, en (iii) lede van plaaslike gemeenskappe wat op die grense van Krugerpark gevestig is. Die studie het spesifiek gekyk na hoe verskillende persepsies van die onderskeie deelnemers, wat ook verskillende kulturele gemeenskappe verteenwoordig, in die diskoerse op die voorgrond geplaas is afhangende van verskillende kommunikatiewe doelwitte. Daar word voorgestel dat begrip van waar die verskillende diskoerse uiteenloop, kan help om te identifiseer waar moontlike misverstande wat tot kommunikasie-probleme lei, ontstaan. My primêre navorsingsvrae was: (1) hoe neem verskillende gemeenskappe wat rondom gedeelde praktyke gevestig is deel aan Bewaringsdiskoerse wat die Krugerpark se bewaringsoogmerke (en veral daardie oogmerke wat met die gebruik van natuurlik hulpbronne te make het) en hoe konstrueer hulle daardie Diskoerse; en (2) hoe konstrueer lede van ten minste drie belangegroepe hul eie identiteite vis à vis bewaringskwessies in die loop van verskeie diskursiewe gebeurtenisse waar SANParke se bewaringsprogramme, veral daardie wat met die gebruik van natuurlike hulpbronne te doen het, bespreek word. My aanname was dat die Park se bewaringsbeamptes 'n gemeenskaplike Bewaringsdiskoers sou hê, en dat die plaaslike gemeenskappe 'n gemeenskaplike Diskoers sou hê wat heeltemal van die Park s'n verskil. Ek het van 23 September 2008 drie semi-gestruktureerde onderhoude met die Park se bewaringsbeamptes gevoer, ek was 'n nie-deelnemende waarnemer by een van die Park se departementele vergaderings asook by 'n Park Forum, en ek het 'n fokusgroep met agt lede van een van die plaaslike gemeenskappe gelei. Hierdie benadering het my daartoe in staat gestel om data van verskeie tipes kommunikatiewe gebeurtenisse in te samel, om sodoende 'n multi-dimensionele beeld van die volledige Bewaringsdiskoers saam te stel. 'n Aantal verskillende Bewaringsdiskoerse is geïdentifiseer, waarvan party noemenswaardige diskrepansies toon en wat, soos in die geval van die twee departemente, moontlik bydra tot wat lyk na 'n ernstige breuk in kommunikasie. Die gemeenskappe toon dat, hoewel hulle die algemene konsep van natuurbewaring ondersteun, hulle heeltemal onbewus is van die Park se formele bewaringsbeleid. Hierdie gebrek aan 'n bepaalde soort bewussyn dui op mislukking van die bestaande kommunikasiestrukture tussen die Park en aangrensende gemeenskappe, ten spyte van die instelling van die Park Forums. Uiteindelik blyk dit dat die verskillende Diskoerse ook lei tot misverstande en gevoelens van vyandiggesindheid tussen die verskillende deelnemers.

Systematic conservation assessments are spatially-explicit techniques for prioritising areas for the implementation of conservation action. There has been considerable reference in the peer-reviewed literature as to the usefulness of these tools, which appear to be primarily used by academics for theoretical research. A literature review and author survey reveals the peer-reviewed literature is largely theoretical, although conservation action results more frequently than reported. The effectiveness of these interventions is generally described as only ‘fairly effective’. This general trend, coupled with previous personal failures in translating systematic conservation assessments into effective conservation action triggered an explicit process of social learning implemented as action research. It examined the workings of the Subtropical Thicket Ecosystem Planning (STEP) project, which included development of a systematic conservation assessment. Systematic conservations assessments simply provide information on where action should be implemented, and so are only useful if situated within broader operational models for conservation planning. Most operational models presented in the peer-reviewed literature are primarily focused upon the testing ecological data, not upon the delivery of conservation action. A new operational model for conservation planning is presented which more accurately reflects the ‘real-world’ process of conservation planning. An implementation strategy is an essential complement to a systematic conservation assessment. It describes how specific, explicitly-stated goals will be achieved, who is accountable for undertaking these activities, and the resources required. As the Implementation Specialist for the STEP Project, I co-lead the collaborative development of an implementation strategy with stakeholders that aimed to mobilise resources towards achieving common goals. Whilst the development and initial uptake of the strategy was good, subsequent implementation has flounder. The reasons for this are explored. The ultimate pragmatic goal of a conservation planning process is the establishment of effective social learning institutions. These develop common visions, mobilise collective action, and adaptively learn and refine their conservation activities. Thicket Forum is one xi such institution established through the STEP Project. My involvement with Thicket Forum since 2004 in implementing an adaptive learning approach facilitates collaboration between land managers, government and research organisations. Systematic conservation assessments evolved in response to the ad hoc way in which protected areas were implemented, leaving unrepresentative, biased protected area networks. Most research is theoretical and without an intimate understanding of the social-ecological system of a planning region, notably opportunities and constraints for implementing conservation action. Highlighting the importance of an approach which is flexible, not only in space, but in time, which can capitalise upon implementation opportunities, is important for stemming the myth that opportunism is the nemesis of systematic conservation assessments. To this end, conservation planners have been slow to include factors influencing effective implementation in systematic conservation assessments. Many studies which identify candidate protected area networks, first, fail to identify the specific instrument(s) to be applied, and second, assume all intact land is available. Having mapped the willingness of land managers in the Albany District, South Africa, to sell their land, it is demonstrated the majority of targets fail to be achieved because land managers will not sell. Knowing this, the current focus of gathering ever-more ecological data is misplaced. Human, social and economic factors influence target achievement, efficiency and spatial configuration of priority areas. Selecting important areas for conservation, particularly at the local-scale, requires the mapping of factors which define opportunities for conservation. Land manager willingness to collaborate and participate, entrepreneurial orientation, conservation knowledge, social capital, and local champions were applied using a method of hierarchical clustering to identify land managers who represent conservation opportunities for private land conservation initiatives.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2003.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Peace Parks Foundation (PPF) was established in 1997 to facilitate Transfrontier Conservation (TFCA) initiatives in the SADC region and thereby support economic development, conservation of biodiversity, as well as the promotion of regional peace and stability. To this effect, their regional planners require a thorough knowledge of the condition of areas in which the estimated actions will be carried out. To date, the PPF have used base datasets, such as land cover and population densities, in their GIS projects to support their decision making processes. However, they have realised the importance of developing rigorous methods for the extraction and generalization of biodiversity information for informed conservation decisions. The main aim of this study was, therefore, to develop a spatial framework for the generalisation and integration of data to become meaningful information that may be readily interpreted. The resultant framework represents a methodology for, firstly, identifying and, secondly, prioritizing core natural areas or units (CNU). CNUs were modelled to represent large blocks (minimum 100 km') of contiguous natural vegetation that are far from major roads and densely populated places. They were, then, ranked into three classes of importance (low, medium and high) according to an ecological value derived for each. This made the framework comprehensive in its considerations of regional biodiversity and robust enough to be used for planning at the SADC scale. By organising data and quantitative approaches logically in a robust, but rigorous, way, spatial frameworks provide the structure for combining specialized knowledge as well as scientific analysis and pragmatic politics in an effective planning process. This could guide plans which are proactive instead of reactive, visionary as well as pragmatic and well founded in research and understanding.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Peace Parks Foundation (PPF) was gestig in 1997 om oorgrens bewarings-initiatiewe in die SADC streek te fasiliteer en daardeur steun te verleen aan ekonomiese ontwikkeling, die bewaring van biodiversiteit asook die bevordering van vrede en stabiliteit in die streek. Om dit te behaal benodig die betrokke streeksbeplanners 'n grondige kennis van die toestand van die areas waarin die beoogdede aksies uitgevoer sal word. Tot op hede het die PPF basis datastelle, van byvoorbeeld landgebruik en populasie-digtheid, ingespan m hul GIS projekte om besluitnemingsprossese te ondersteun. Daar is egter besef dat dit van hoogste belang is om deeglike metodes te onwikkel vir die onttrekking van biodiversiteits-informasie sodat ingeligte besluitneming moontlik gemaak kan word. Gevolglik was die hoof oogmerk van hierdie studie om 'n ruimtelike verwysingsraamwerk te ontwikkel wat data kan veralgemeen en integreer tot betekenisvolle inligting wat geredelik interpreteerbaar is. Die daaruit-vloeiende raamwerk stel 'n metodologie voor wat Kern Natuurlike Areas (KNA) eerstens kan identifiseer en tweedens kan prioritiseer. Hierdie KNA is gemodelleer om groot blokke (minstens 100km2 ) van aaneenlopende natuurlike plantegroei, ver van hoofpaaie en dig bevolkte gebiede, voor te stel. Hulle is hieropvolgend gesorteer in drie range van belangrikheid (laag, medium en hoog) na gelang van 'n ekologiese waarde wat vir elk afgelei is. Hierdeur is die raamwerk, in terme van voldoende oorwegings teenoor streeks-biodiversiteit, omvattend gemaak en terselfdertyd robuus vir beplanning op die SADC skaal. Deur data en kwalitatiewe benaderings logies en in 'n deeglike en robuuste wyse te organiseer, bied ruimtelike verwysingsraamwerke die struktuur om gespesialiseerde kennis met wetenskaplike analise en pragmatiese politiek te kombineer in 'n effektiewe beplanningsproses. Hierdeur kan planne geformuleer word wat proaktief is instede van reaktief, visionêr sowel as pragmaties, en terselfdertyd goed gefundeer bly op navorsing en begrip.

This thesis is an account of the challenges people in Tyefu Location, Peddie District, and specifically in Gwabeni village, face in their attempts to manage their common pool natural resources. Taking my analytical cue from the literature which deals with the institutional dimensions of resource management in common property systems, I look at the impact of both outside influences and local dynamics on resource managing institutions at village level. I show how particular historical circumstances, including state interventions, led to the enclosure of Tyefu Location, and to the rapid increase in the population that had to be accommodated here. This placed enormous pressure on the natural resources of the area, and contributed to the emasculation of the local institutions responsible for overseeing resource management. The residents of the location adopted whatever strategies they could to ameliorate the depletion of natural resources in their villages. One 'traditional' strategy they have sought to emulate is to move their imizi (homesteads) away from areas where local resources has been exhausted. Given the finite area of land available to them, this strategy was only ever likely to be successful in the short-term. I analyse social, economic and institutional factors at village level that appear to act as disincentives to collective resource management activities. These factors include the social structure of the imizi and the socio-economic heterogeneity that exists between imizi in Gwabeni village. The varying degrees of household economic marginality that follow from this, together with the differential ownership of livestock and other possessions that decrease people's reliance on locally available natural resources, mean that the transaction costs that people would incur by contributing to collective resource management activities, differ widely. A primary cause of people's failure to engage in resource management at village level stems from the dispersion of the members of their imizi. This factor robs the village of decision makers and undermines the capacity of those left behind to make and implement resource management decisions. It results in the various members of imizi in the village having different orientations that dissipate the energy needed for collective action. It also fuels existing struggles, and creates new ones, over the meanings and uses of the term 'community'. I conclude by arguing that, in Tyefu Location, the management of natural resources is extremely difficult to co-ordinate, because such management is highly contested, undermined by differentiation among resource users, and subject to the attentions of weak village institutions that do not share a clear set of resource management objectives.
KMBT_363

Social-ecological systems are facing complex social, political, economic and environmental problems beyond the capacity of one group of stakeholders or organization to solve in isolation. Ecosystem degradation causes major environmental and economic concern, due to the loss of ecosystem services which river and wetland ecosystems provide. Stakeholder communities who depend on natural resources need to identify the social processes which are underlying causes to unsuccessful natural resource management and thus environmental degradation. The study is primarily aimed at identifying and understanding the structural and functional properties of the stakeholder network in the Duiwenhoks River catchment in the Western Cape, South Africa. Through analyzing the social network properties the study identifies and describes the main stakeholders involved with natural resource management in the Duiwenhoks water catchment area. How the individual actors from the diverse stakeholder groups are connected through communication ties were assessed. Furthermore, issues and factors which limit the effectiveness of the social network were identified. The main factors include a lack of communication and collaboration between key local resource users and governance officials caused by conflicting perspectives regarding resource management and societal conflicts caused by asymmetries in power distribution favoring government institutions. The lack of collaboration between stakeholders was identified as a contributing factor that links to the resource degradation experienced in the catchment. Ultimately means of overcoming the limitations to effective social networking, in order to manage the challenges related to natural resource management were identified. Management recommendations include the development of bridging ties and collaboration between diverse stakeholders, whilst facilitating participatory processes aimed at participatory problem solving and adaptive co-management of natural resources. Government institutions were identified as being dominant stakeholders in the network and should be mobilized to perform a stronger bridging role to connect disconnected actors. The findings of the study may inform future efforts of researchers and facilitators to implement strategies which promote social networking, social learning and ultimately adaptive co-management in the study area or other similar social-ecological systems. Ultimately, collaboration can be achieved between the diverse stakeholders to successfully improve ecosystem management and resilience in the Duiwenhoks water catchment.

Internationally there is an increasing focus on involving local communities in natural resource management and monitoring. Monitoring methods which are professionally driven appear to be inadequate to deal with the monitoring of natural resource use and biodiversity conservation, globally. This is especially evident in areas such as South African rural communal land. Two community based natural resource management (CBNRM) programmes in areas which are communally governed in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, namely Nqabara and Machubeni, were used as part of this research study. This thesis identified and tested potentially simple and cost effective monitoring methods related to the utilization of the local rangelands and indigenous forests. The criteria that were tested include 1) appropriateness and effectiveness in measuring change, and 2) contribution to building adaptive capacity among local land managers through learning. The criteria were assessed using a scoring system for each monitoring method in order to evaluate their strengths and weaknesses . This was done by using both quantitative and qualitative data. Contribution to building adaptive capacity was assessed by evaluating technical capacity gained, local ecological knowledge contributed and learning by participants. This was done using qualitative data. The results show that the monitoring methods had different strengths and weaknesses in relation to the criteria, making them more appropriate for different priorities such as effectively measuring change or building adaptive capacity. It is argued that an adaptive approach is a useful component in the participatory monitoring process. An adaptive framework was developed from lessons learnt in this study for collaborative monitoring. Challenges such as low literacy levels and adequate training still need to be addressed to strengthen efforts towards participatory monitoring. Factors such as incentives, conflict and local values may negatively affect the legitimacy and sustainability of participatory monitoring and therefore also need to be addressed.

This study examines the possibilities within the conservancy movement for the facilitation of environmental education. By means of a case study approach, a conservancy in the Northern Cape and the conservancy movement within the Free State provinces are compared with a view to elucidating factors militating against and promoting the success of environmental education programmes. The current lack of research in isolated rural areas is discussed. Re-orientation of perspectives regarding the value of conservancy-based environmental education within governmental, academic and local circles is recommended.

This study aimed at analysing the South African government's attempt at reconciling poverty reduction and biodiversity conservation in the context of the Expanded Public Works Programme (EPWP). The study analyses this, using the cases of Hluleka and Mkanbati Nature Reserves in the Eastern Cape Province. To achieve this aim, the study used qualitative research methodology, which employed a three-pronged approach.

This study was motivated by the need to improve curriculum relevance in poor rural schools through contextualised teaching and learning based on the management of local natural resources. It involved four schools which are located in the Ngqunshwa Local Municipality of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The study's aim was to provide insight into and better understanding of the curriculum implementation process regarding natural resource management (NRM) education in a poor rural education context. This was done by analysing the extent of NRM integration in pedagogic texts, activities and practices in the different fields which constitute the structure of the pedagogic system in this education sector. The study adopted an interpretivist approach to the analysis, which was based on indicators of the extent of NRM integration, and was informed by Bernstein's concepts of classification and curriculum recontextualisation, and his model of the structure of the pedagogic system. The items which were analysed included national and provincial Grade 10 Life Sciences curriculum documents, Grade 10 Life Sciences textbooks, in-service training workshops for Life Sciences teachers, and various school documents, activities and practices. The analysis also involved interviews with educators, and classroom observations of Grade 10 Life Sciences lessons. The results revealed a very high overall level of NRM integration in the Grade 10 Life Sciences curriculum documents produced at national and provincial levels. The overall level of NRM integration was also found to be very high in the Grade 10 Life Science textbooks that were analysed, but very low in the in-service teacher training workshops, and in the schools' documents, activities and practices, especially in the Grade 10 Life Sciences lessons, and in schools' end-of-year Grade 10 Life Sciences examination papers. The study makes a number of recommendations towards effective integration of NRM into the curriculum of Eastern Cape's rural poor schools which include more specific and explicit reference to NRM in the official Grade 10 Life Sciences curriculum documents, the provision of environmental education courses to district education staff and Grade 10 Life Sciences teachers, the training of teachers in the classroom use of textbooks and other educational materials, and regular monitoring of teachers' work. The study also exposes important knowledge gaps which need urgent research attention in order to enhance NRM education in the poor rural schools of the Eastern Cape. These include analysing power and control relationships between the various agencies and agents that are involved with curriculum implementation in this education sector, and conducting investigation into the creation of specialist NRM knowledge and into the quality of NRM knowledge that is transmitted as pedagogic discourse in schools. This study contributes to the fields of rural education and environmental education in South Africa, and to the growing interest in the study of curriculum from a sociology of education perspective in the context of the country’s post-apartheid curriculum reforms.

This study explores the potential role of an environmental education approach towards the conservation of the Swartkops Estuary and Swartkops Nature Reserve. More specifically it examines the opinions, feelings and perceptions of a sample of twenty seven people, who have a vested interest, in the possible conservation of the area. These stakeholders were comprised of people representing all the various groups and communities that use either or both the estuary and reserve. Opinions were examined by means of a qualitative data analysis from semi-structured interviews. The conservation opinions of respondents were obtained on both general topics and more detailed areas. Due to the small sample and exploratory nature of the project, these results should be viewed as tentative. Proposals are made for increasing the impact of Environmental Education programmes in this and similar environments, and recommendations are put forward to help facilitate related studies in the future.

Community Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) in southern Africa has gained an important role in alleviating poverty and conserving natural resources. The attention and funding CBNRM is receiving from governments, non-governmental organisations and donors is seen as one way to strengthen civil society‟s involvement in decision-making and participating in activities that contribute to a sustainable livelihood, whilst at the same time learning in their social contexts to adapt and care for the ever changing environment characterised by constraints, challenges, contradictions, new opportunities for learning and change. This study focuses on social learning in commercialisation of natural resource products in two case studies of commercial beekeeping in rural southern African contexts. In this study social learning entails a process of qualitative change taking place in a social context for the purpose of personal and social adaptation. This perspective is useful in this study as learning in the two cases, Hluleka in South Africa and Buhera in Zimbabwe involved the transition beekeeping.from traditional honey harvesting practices and subsistence beekeeping to commercial beekeeping. This study is informed by two related theoretical perspectives namely Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) and Social Learning Theory. CHAT was used as conceptual and methodological framework to inform the first phase of data gathering and analysis processes; as well as second phase data gathering. In the first phase, I gathered data through semistructured interviews, document reviews and observations to identify problems, challenges and critical incidents in learning commercial beekeeping, technically known as tensions and contradictions within the CHAT framework. These tensions and contradictions, surfaced through analysis of first phase data were used as "mirror data‟ in Intervention Workshops within CHAT's process of Developmental Work Research, which supports social learning in response to tensions and contradictions in workplace activity. Use of mirror data provided a basis for dialogue and the modelling of new solutions to identified contradictions. To interpret the social learning processes resulting from these interactions, I drew on Wals' (2007) analytical lenses, through which I was able to monitor social learning processes that emerged from the Intervention Workshop dialogues while beekeepers modelled new solutions to contradictions in learning commercial beekeeping. The findings of the study revealed that social learning in commercial beekeeping is internally and externally influenced by socio-cultural, political and economic complexities. Social learning in Intervention Workshops was supported by different knowledge bases of participants, in this study these are beekeepers, extension officers, trainers and development facilitators. Such knowledge bases were the source of information for learning and constructing model solutions. The study also revealed that learning in CBNRM workplaces can be observed across the development processes, and CHAT as a methodological tool and Wals‟ (2007) analytical tool are complementary and can be used in researching social learning in other CBNRM workplaces. The study contributes in-depth insight into participatory research and learning processes, especially within the context of CBRM in southern Africa. It gives some empirical and explanatory insight into how change-oriented social learning can emerge and be expanded in Education for Sustainable Development. It also provides learning and extension tools to work with contradictions that arise from socio-cultural and historical dimensions of learning commercialisation of natural resources in southern African context. Its other key contribution is that it provides further insight into the mobilisation of human agency and reflexivity in change oriented social learning processes of commercialisation of sustainable natural resources products and poverty alleviation processes that are critical for responding to socioecological issues and risks and development challenges in southern Africa.

This study explores a possible relationship between personality factors and attitudes towards perceived problem animals in a sample of 17 white, male, full-time small- stock farmers in the Eastern Cape district of Cradock. Personality factors were analysed by means of Cattell's l6 Personality Factor Questionnaire, standardised for South Africa. Attitudes were determined by qualitative analysis of data from semi-structured interviews. Specific personality factors associated with positive and negative attitudes towards 'problem animals', including Lynx Felis caracal, eagles and vultures, were identified. Demographic and situational influences and certain world views associated with environmental attitudes are also discussed. Re-orientation of perspectives are recommended for farmers, conservationists and environmental educators.

Biology
Ph.D.
The anthropogenic use of natural resources has become a major cause of biodiversity loss and habitat degradation throughout the world. Deforestation - the conversion of forests to alternative land covers - has led to a decrease in local biodiversity directly through a decrease in habitat, and indirectly through habitat fragmentation. Likewise, defaunation – the loss of animals both directly through hunting and indirectly through deforestation – has led to the empty forest syndrome and subsequent deterioration of forest ecosystems. In many cases, areas where anthropogenic use of natural resources is high overlap with areas of high biodiversity value. Therefore, the present series of studies aims to better understand the impacts that different types of natural resources use and habitat degradation have on biodiversity. This dissertation details the results of five studies, which aimed to: 1) examine the effects of habitat degradation on plant-frugivore networks; 2), understand the live capture and extent of ownership of lemurs in Madagascar; 3) understand the micro- and macro-level drivers of wild meat consumption in Madagascar; 4) describe the capture, movement, and trade of wild meat in Madagascar; and 5) the impacts of habitat changes on the diets and vertical stratification of frugivorous bats. For the first study, our objectives were to understand the effects of habitat degradation on (1) community structure, (2) network structure, and (3) seed dispersal services. We focused on fruit-bearing trees and frugivores (two lemur and five bird species) across a three-point gradient of habitat degradation in a tropical dry forest in Madagascar. Our objectives were to understand the effects of habitat degradation on (1) community structure, (2) network structure, and (3) seed dispersal services. We focused on fruit-bearing trees and frugivores (two lemur and five bird species) across a three-point gradient of habitat degradation in a tropical dry forest in Madagascar. Data on fruit consumption by frugivores were collected over 592 hours of observations at 13 fruiting tree species. We found that as habitat became more degraded: (1) the community structure of both frugivores and fruiting tree communities changed; (2) the mutualistic network structure became less complex and less connected; (3) the interaction strengths of pair-wise interactions changed and the asymmetries of these interactions shifted; and (4) seed dispersal decreased by 91% in the secondary forest, compared to the primary forest. In addition, we show that frugivores: (1) sometimes stopped eating fruit in the degraded forest, even when they had consumed it in other forests; and (2) appeared to avoid some fruiting tree species while showing preference for others. The mutualistic network studied in this paper appeared sensitive to anthropogenic disturbance and a novel measure of effectiveness helped quantify these changes. For the second study, our objectives were to provide the first quantitative estimates of the prevalence, spatial extent, correlates and timing of lemur ownership, procurement methods, within-country movements, and numbers and duration of ownership. Using semi-structured interviews of 1,093 households and 61 transporters, across 17 study sites, we found that lemur ownership was widespread and affected a variety of taxa. We estimate that 28,253 lemurs have been affected since 2010. Most lemurs were caught by owners and kept for either short (≤1 week) or long (≥3 years) periods. The live capture of lemurs in Madagascar is not highly organized but may threaten several endangered species. For the third study, we investigated the role of wild meat in food security in Madagascar, a country where wild meat consumption is poorly understood in urban areas and at regional scales. Using semi-structured interviews (n = 1339 heads-of-households, 21 towns), we aimed to: 1) quantify the amount and purpose of; 2) understand the drivers behind; and, 3) examine recent changes in wild meat consumption in Madagascar. Few respondents preferred wild meat (8 ± 3%) but most had eaten it at least once (78 ± 7%), and consumption occurred across ethnic groups, in urban and rural settings. More food insecure areas reported higher rates of recent consumption of wild meat. However, consumption was best explained by individual preferences and taboos. Few respondents (<1 ± <1%) had increased rates of consumption during their lifetimes, and wild meat prices showed no change from 2005-2013. Most consumption involved wild pigs and small-bodied animals, though these animal groups and lemurs were consumed less in recent years. Given these data, wild meat is unlikely to enhance food security for most Malagasy people in urban and well-connected rural areas. For the fourth study, and to improve understanding of the wild meat trade in Madagascar, our objectives were to: (1) quantify the volume of consumption, transport, and sale for different animal groups, compared to domestic meat; (2) describe the methods of capture and hunting for different animal groups; (3) analyze the patterns of movement of wild meat from the capture location to the final consumer, compared to domestic meat; and (4) examine how the prices of wild meat change depending on the venue through which the consumer purchases it. Data was collected in May-August 2013 using semi-structured interviews of consumers (n = 1343 households, 21 towns), meatsellers (n = 520 restaurants, open-air markets stalls, and supermarkets, 9 towns), and drivers of inter-city transit vehicles (n = 61, 5 towns). We found that: (1) a wide range of hunting methods were used, though their prevalence of use differed by animal group; (2) wild meat traveled distances of up to 166 km to reach consumers, though some animal groups were hunted locally (<10 km) in rural areas; (3) most wild meat was procured from free sources (hunting and receiving meat as a gift), though urban respondents who consumed bats and wild pigs were more likely to purchase those meats; and (4) wild meat was consumed at lower rates than domestic meat, though urban respondents consumed twice as much wild meat as rural respondents. We conclude that urban and rural respondents differ in how they interact with the wild meat commodity chain. We also believe that the consumption and trade of wild meat in Madagascar is likely more formalized that previously thought. Finally, for our fifth study, we used stable isotope analysis to examine how foraging by three fruit bat species in Madagascar, Pteropus rufus, Eidolon dupreanum, and Rousettus madagascariensis, are impacted by habitat change across a large spatial scale. Our results indicated that the three species had broadly overlapping diets. Differences in diet were nonetheless detectable and consistent between P. rufus and E. dupreanum, and these diets shifted when they co-occurred, suggesting resource partitioning across habitats and vertical strata within the canopy to avoid competition. Changes in diet were also correlated with a decrease in forest cover, though at a larger spatial scale in P. rufus than in E. dupreanum. These results suggest fruit bat species exhibit differing foraging strategies in response to habitat change. They also highlight the key threats that fruit bats face from habitat change, and clarify the spatial scales at which conservation efforts should be implemented to mitigate threats for these bat species in Madagascar.
Temple University--Theses

Historical ad hoc allocations of land for biodiversity conservation have led to a biased representation of habitat within the Cape Floristic Region, with Protected Areas concentrated in upland areas at high altitudes and on steep slopes. The field of Conservation Planning developed to ensure that allocations of areas to Protected status no longer result in such bias and rather promotes the persistence of biodiversity. This study reviewed a recent allocation of land to biodiversity conservation within Western Cape of South Africa, using both a quantitative and qualitative approach, to determine their value to biodiversity conservation. The area was previously used for commercial forestry but now has been allocated to conservation land-uses. The allocation was based on the area’s value to the forestry industry. The qualitative approach in this study engaged with relevant stakeholder groups to map priority areas, while the quantitative approach used available data on biodiversity features to map priority areas. Neither approach determined that the area allocated is in its full extent a priority for biodiversity conservation. This indicated that in the current era of Conservation Planning, Protected Areas are still being allocated in an ad hoc manner, as a result of their limited perceived benefit to anthropocentric needs. The future allocation of land to biodiversity conservation should rather integrate expert knowledge and available quantifiable data to ensure that priority areas for biodiversity conservation are being protected.

The Botswana Community Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) programme started in 1989. Its aims were to promote sustainable development through sustainable natural resources management and utilisation to improve rural livelihoods. The country CBNRM programme has recorded mixed outcomes and this has raised questions on the programme performance throughout the country. Since the programme has been recognised as one of the eight main livelihood strategies for rural communities in Botswana, there was a need to evaluate the programme performance and determine the factors that influence it. This thesis therefore evaluated the performance of CBNRM projects along an aridity gradient in Botswana and by so doing answered the two research questions of: (1) What factors influence the performance of CBNRM? And (2) how does aridity influence the performance of CBNRM programmes? Performance was determined in terms of financial benefits generated by CBNRM projects and the projects adherence to the CBNRM principles. Data were collected from seven selected CBNRM projects covering three aridity zones (wet, medium rainfall and dry areas) in the country. Data were also collected from key informants and community based organisations (CBO) project managers. Research findings have indicated differences in the performance of CBNRM projects across the identified three aridity zones. Factors that influenced the performance of CBNRM projects varied among the three aridity zones. These factors included: existence of complimentary rules and regulations for managing CBNRM projects; literacy levels of communities involved in CBNRM; ethnic composition of the project communities; historic and current socio-economic trends within communities; collaboration between CBNRM institutions and other local level institutes; amount of benefits generated through the projects; ability of institutions to resolve outstanding issues in time and type of CBNRM project. Research results also indicated that there was variation in the performance of CBNRM projects across the three aridity zones. Aridity was found to directly influence the performance of CBNRM projects through its influence on the amount of revenues that projects generated.

Contemporary conservation and development understanding in both policy and academic circles espouses that natural resources have a significant contribution to the livelihoods of local people and that knowledge of this can better foster conservation policies that are consistent with livelihood and ecological needs. This thesis is based on research conducted in the southern Kalahari region, South Africa among the San and Mier communities bordering Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. It looks at the importance of natural resources to the San and Mier community groups and ascertains the extent of resource use and its value within broader livelihood portfolios. It also focuses on the cultural values of natural resources and interactions among institutions and actors and how these shape natural resource governance and livelihood outcomes. Overall, natural resources represent an important livelihood source contributing up to 32 % and 9 % of the total income of the San and Mier respectively or up to 46 % and 23 % if livestock incomes are included. However, the dependence on, diversification patterns and distribution of natural resource income vary substantially between and within the two communities. With regards to the cultural values attached to natural resources by the San and Mier, the findings show that these arise from an incredibly diverse and sometimes conflicting array of values that punctuate the two communities’ way of life and they are inextricably linked to resource use. Lastly, governance of natural resources in the co-managed Park and communitymanaged resettlement farms is characterised by complex institutional arrangements, compounded by the existence of multiple actors that have multiple and sometimes conflicting objectives – as shaped by different meanings and interpretations of natural resources. Heightened inter- and intra-community conflicts are common, notably resource use conflicts between the San and Mier and between the San ‘modernist’ and ‘traditionalist’ groups. This demonstrates that the communities’ livelihood dynamics in general and the dependence on natural resources in particular, are closely linked with ecological, economic and social factors including history, culture and present livelihood needs. By exploring the social-environment interactions, the study highlights the complexities and diversity of resource use for livelihoods that should be taken into consideration for both conservation and development policy interventions and research. The main argument of the study is that the contribution of natural resources to local livelihood portfolios in co- and community-managed areas, can be better understood through a consideration of cultural dynamics and institutional arrangements since these condition natural resource access, value and use.

Thesis (MPhil) Stellenbosch University, 2014
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Existence of natural resources in majority of African countries has been identified to support further development due to continuously increase in commodity revenues. However, the resource curse presents critical aspects of resource intensive economies such as short-term benefits of commodity revenues, limited economic diversification and unstable government. Due to natural resource abundance in Africa, extractive industries are essential in the domestic economic system, although, the disadvantages based on the resource curse theory, question the support of commodity revenues in Africa’s development. South America views the issues of extractive industries from a different perspective by analysing the related developmental approaches namely conventional extractivism, neo-extractivism and post-extractivism. While South American countries are in different transition phases of extractivism, Africa is dominated solely by conventional extractivism. This results in varying degrees of social and environmental impacts on the African continent. However, Africa’s transition towards neo- or post-extractivism will limit the problems of the resource curse and offers a more sustainable resource management of the extractive industries. The Environmental Kuznets’ Curve (EKC) supports the principle of developed and recently industrialised countries by relying on the economic development, which will reduce environmental degradation automatically by achieving a specific turning point. The three phases of EKC can be related to different stages of economic development, as well as to the three extractivism approaches. Therefore, transitions from conventional extractivism to neo-extractivism and finally to post-extractivism have to occur to stabilise economic development and reduce environmental degradation. Within this process of transition towards more sustainable extractivism approaches, the principle of “Sustainable Structural Transformation” (SST) is applicable. SST was described in the UNCTAD report (2012) as a tool to reduce environmental impacts while continuing to provide for the demand of an increasing global population. Neo- and post-extractivism approach supports the concept of SST, which primarily emphasises more efficient technologies, new economic activities, labour productivity and regulations. The foundation of SST is based on resource decoupling in order to separate economic developmental process from natural resource extraction while minimizing environmental impacts. For the application of SST and thus for the transition of extractivism, reinvestment is essential to create a diversified economy. While reinvestment can take place in various forms, the World Bank (2011) identified three types of wealth namely natural, produced and intangible capital contributing to the total wealth of a country. However, developing countries prioritise natural wealth in comparison to other forms of wealth; therefore, reinvestment has to take place in other types of wealth namely intangible and produced wealth in order to achieve sustainable development in Africa. UNCTAD (2012) considers SST as a framework without an attempt of creating a “one-size-fits-all” solution. This understanding is crucial for the transition from one phase of extractivism to another. Depending on the context of a country, tools have to be adapted to support the needed transition. These existing differences are presented in the case studies of Nigeria and Botswana, which are two developing countries in Africa but they present different stages of extractivism and resource management.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Daar is vasgestel dat die beskikbaarheid van natuurlike hulpbronne in ’n meerderheid van Afrikalande verdere ontwikkeling ondersteun deur ’n ononderbroke toename in grondstofinkomstes. Die hulpbronvloek wys egter kritisie aspekte van hulpbron-intensiewe ekonomieë uit. Van hierdie aspekte sluit in korttermynvoordele van grondstofinkomstes, beperkte ekonomiese diversifisering en onstabiele regerings. Weens die oorvloed van natuurlike hulpbronne in Afrika is ontginningsnywerhede onontbeerlik in die binnelandse ekonomiese stelsel, alhoewel die nadele wat deur die hulpbronvloekteorie uitgewys word die ondersteuning van grondstofinkomstes in Afrika se ontwikkeling bevraagteken. Suid-Amerika beskou die kwessie van ontginningsnywerhede vanuit ’n ander perspektief deur die verwante ontwikkelingsbenaderings, naamlik konvensionele ontginning, neo-ontginning en postontginning, te ontleed. Alhoewel Suid-Amerikaanse lande in ander oorgangsperiodes van ontginning verkeer, word Afrika slegs deur konvensionele ontginning oorheers. Dit lei tot wisselende grade van sosiale en omgewingsimpakte op die Afrika-kontinent. Afrika se oorgang na neo- en postontginning sal egter die uitdagings van hulpbronvloek beperk en bied ’n meer onderhoubare hulpbronbestuur van die ontginningsnywerhede. Die Omgewing-Kuznetskurwe (OKK) ondersteun die beginsel van ontwikkelde en onlangs geïndustrialiseerde lande. Hierdie ondersteuning geskied deur staat te maak op die ekonomiese ontwikkeling wat outomaties omgewingsagteruitgang sal verminder deur ’n spesifieke keerpunt te bereik. Die drie fases van die OKK kan met verskillende fases van ekonomiese ontwikkeling asook die drie ontginningsbenaderings verbind word. Om hierdie rede moet oorgange van konvensionele ontginning na neo-ontginning en uiteindelik postonginning plaasvind om die ekonomiese ontwikkeling te stabiliseer en die omgewingsagteruitgang te beperk. Die beginsel van “Onderhoubare Strukturele Transformasie” (OST) is veral toepaslik in die oorgangsproses na meer onderhoubare ontginningsbenaderings. Die OST is in die verslag van die Verenigde Nasies se Kongres van Handel en Ontwikkeling (VNKHEO) (2012) beskryf as ’n middel om omgewingsimpakte te beperk terwyl dit in die behoefte van ’n toenemend groeiende wêreldbevolking voorsien. Neo- en postontginningsbenaderings ondersteun die OST-konsep wat veral meer doeltreffende tegnologieë, nuwe ekonomiese aktiwiteite, arbeidsproduktiwiteit en regulasies benadruk. Vir die toepassing van OST en dus die verandering in ontginning is herbelegging noodsaaklik om ’n gediversifiseerde ekonomie te bewerkstellig. Alhoewel herbelegging op verskillende maniere kan plaasvind, het die Wêreldbank (2011) drie tipes rykdom geïdentifiseer, naamlik natuurlike, vervaardigde en ontasbare kapitaal wat tot die algehele rykdom van ’n land bydra. Ontwikkelende lande gee voorkeur aan natuurlike rykdom teenoor ander vorme van rykdom. Om hierdie rede moet herbelegging binne die ander vorme van rykdom plaasvind om onderhoubare ontwikkeling in Afrika teweeg te bring. Hierdie ander vorme van rykdom sluit ontasbare en vervaardigde rykdom in. VNKHEO (2012) beskou OST as ’n raamwerk wat nie poog om ’n “one-size-fits-all”-oplossing voort te bring nie. ’n Oorkoepelende benadering is kardinaal om die verandering in ontginning teweeg te bring. Afhangende van die konteks van ’n land moet middels aangepas word vir die nodige ondersteuning van die verandering. Hierdie bestaande verskille word in die gevallestudies van Nigerië en Botswana uitgewys. Dié twee lande dui op twee verskillende ontginningstadia en hulpbronbestuur.

Globally, ecosystems provide services of almost twice the value of global gross national product (Costanza et al., 2006). The Buffalo City Municipality (BCM), South Africa contains biodiversity of national and international importance (Pierce, 2003; Pierce et al., 2005). Despite this, the municipality continues to experience loss of both urban and rural biodiversity (Buffalo City Municipality, 2006a). This study sought to determine the status of biodiversity, and the potential for ecosystem services to contribute to conservation, within the BCM. Biodiversity features, including ecosystem type, species of special concern and biodiversity processes, were identified and mapped using a GIS to produce a biodiversity priority index for the BCM. Current transformation status was then mapped to determine the level of ecosystem degradation within the BCM. Priority biodiversity areas as well as individual biodiversity features were spatially overlain against current transformation status and protected areas and analysed using a GIS to determine the level of degradation and protection of BCM biodiversity. In total 3.5 % of total BCM biodiversity was protected. Of the 24 ecosystem types, 11 (45%) had less than 1% under protection, while 16 (67%) had less than five percent protected. Not restorable areas, thus completely lost to biodiversity conservation, comprised just less than a quarter of the total BCM area while un-impacted areas comprised just 12.3%. Twenty five ecosystem services were identified as being provided by intact natural ecosystems within the BCM. The natural capital providing these services was identified and mapped to produce an ecosystem service index (ESI) using a GIS. This ecosystem service index and the biodiversity priority index were overlain to determine their level of correlation. Overall ESI correlation with priority biodiversity was weak although several individual ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration, showed correlation. Using the above data layers an implementation plan and conservation framework was proposed to assist the coordination of local conservation action within the BCM. It is concluded that ecosystem services are a potentially useful tool for conservationists at the local level seeking to ensure that biodiversity has relevance to and receives protection from broader society.

Bibliography: pages 53-57.
This dissertation has four main aims: 1. To assess whether multi-media (particularly interactive video) can be used in illiterate and semi-literate communities as a tool for both increased environmental awareness and increased participation in various stages of the development process. 2. To assess whether interactive video as an approach in itself facilitates empowerment of target communities. 3. To create a visual communication experience which combines the rigours of academic research with the practical application of academic theories in the field. 4. To foster a sensitivity in the "reader" towards access to information.

Escalating human elephant conflict (HEC) continues to be a contributing factor towards elephant decline, and crop raiding is the most common form of negative human-elephant interactions. For communities that cannot reverse or prevent crop raiding, it is necessary to contain HEC events through deterrent measures. Few deterrent measures exist that combine practicality and affordability while also preventing habituation by elephants. This project focused on comparing the efficacy of deterrent methods to assess which was the most successful at preventing elephants from entering crops in the farming community of Sasenyi, Kenya. In this paired-control study, four deterrent methods were evaluated: acacia fences, chili-pepper fences, a new metal strip fence, and a combination of a chili and metal strip fence. Of the over 400 visits by elephants to individual fields containing crops recorded during two field seasons, elephants entered farmer fields in the experimental area on 33 occasions (<10%). Analysis of incidents when elephants approached at less than 50 m revealed that the chili + metal fence and the metal fence were significantly more effective than no deterrent. Following further verification of its effectiveness, this new deterrent method could be a powerful new tool to alleviate elephant crop raiding and reduce HEC.

The dissertation is rooted in the implications of the policy on Transfrontier Conservation Areas. It is a comparative policy analysis study of sustainable development in South Africa between the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area and Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation Resource Area. Qualitative research methodology and theoretical analysis are used in this research. Qualitative research answers the question, “what is going on here?” (Bouma, 1996: 169). The research on the two Transfrontier Conservation Area is investigated through literature review and to a lesser extent by conducting face to face interviews with government officials dealing with the two Transfrontier Conservation Areas. The approach in the research is the Managerial approach. “The focus of the management approach is the improvement of the efficiency, effectiveness and economy of the public sector by the utilisation of techniques which were once regarded purely appropriate to the private profit sector” (Parsons, 1995: 479). The dissertation also examine the effects of the two TFCA’s in question on Ecotourism, Economic growth and the conservation of biodiversity for sustainable development in South Africa within the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) initiative. Chapter one is the introduction, the rationale for the dissertation, background and objectives of the study. Chapter two is the theoretical framework in detail which define the managerial approach technique used in the research. Chapter three explain Sustainable Development. It looks at various arguments by the different school of thoughts. It also explains the link between the economy and the environment. In chapter four Environmental Economics and the TFCA’s are looked into as part of the aim of the dissertation to establish whether the policy of the TFCA’s on economic growth and sustainable development is viable or not. Chapter five examine Ecotourism as one of the sub-themes of the dissertation. Ecotourism is defined and the value of ecotourism is examined. Integrated tourism plan is also discussed in the chapter in order to determine the effects of TFCA’s in question on ecotourism. Chapter six deals with the case study no. one of the dissertation which is the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area. It is an indepth study on this TFCA i.e. history of the region of these protected areas, management structures, zonation rivers, diseases etc. Chapter seven is a further expansion on the case study no. one and looks at the developmental aspects of the TFCA. Chapter eight deals with the second case study of the dissertation which is the Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation and Resource Area. It describes in detail the composite parts of this TFCA. It also looks at sociological, cultural and historical resources of the TFCA in question. Opportunities for development and the activities that can boost the economic growth of the region and the surrounding communities. Chapter nine is the concluding chapter of the dissertation which gives findings and recommendation of the dissertation.
Dissertation (MA(Political science))--University of Pretoria, 2007.
Political Sciences
unrestricted

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2012.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The restoration of natural capital has ecological, hydrological and economic benefits. Are these benefits greater than the costs of restoration when compared across a range of dissimilar sites? This study examines the impact of restoration at eight case study sites distributed throughout South Africa. The benefits of restoration include improved grazing values and crop yields, improvements in water yield and quality, soil carbon improvements, wild products, lumber, fuelwood and electricity. The impact of restoration on all forms of natural capital (i.e. cultivated, replenishable, renewable and non-renewable) is therefore quantified. The costs of restoration include depreciation on capital expenditure, labour costs, equipment and bond refinancing costs. The literature review done during this study presents three frameworks. The first framework classifies social science using the classification scheme of Burrell and Morgan. It shows that system dynamics modelling and neoclassical economics share the same epistemological and ontological characteristics, both of these fall within the naturalistic paradigm, which also characterises most of scientific research. System dynamics modelling and neoclassical economics, however, digress in the Flood and Jackson classification scheme, which is the second framework for classifying social science. Neoclassical economics is characterised by a small number of elements and few interactions between the elements. Systems dynamics modelling, on the other hand, is characterised by a large number of elements and many interactions between the elements. The nature-freedom ground motive is subject to a number of criticisms, including the fact that it introduces dualistic thinking into the analysis, as well as that it does not adequately address normative or moral issues. The framework of Dooyeweerd, the third framework, is presented as a means of transcending the nature-freedom ground motive. Although the nature-freedom ground motive is largely utilised in this study, the analysis does transcend the traditional economic approach in a number of areas. These include, for example, a focus on transdisciplinary methods, disequilibria, adopting a case study approach, and empirical estimation instead of theoretical models. The restoration case studies in this study are examples of individual complex systems. Eight system dynamics models are developed to model interactions between the economic, ecological and hydrological components of each of the case studies. The eight system dynamics models are then used to inform a risk analysis process that culminates in a portfolio mapping exercise. This portfolio mapping exercise is then used to identify the characteristics and features of the different case study sites based on the risk profile of each sites. This study is the first known application of system dynamics, risk analysis and portfolio mapping to an environmental restoration project. This framework could potentially be used by policymakers confronted with budgetary constraints to select and prioritise between competing restoration projects.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die restorasie van natuurlike kapitaal het ekologiese, hidrologiese en ekonomiese voordele. Maar is hierdie voordele groter as die kostes verbonde aan restorasie wanneer dit oor verskeie ongelyksoortige terreine vergelyk word? Hierdie studie bestudeer die impak van restorasie op agt verskillende studie terreine versprei regoor Suid-Afrika. Die voordele van restorasie sluit die volgende in: beter weiding waardes en oes opbrengste, verbeterde water lewering en water kwaliteit, verbetering van grondkoolstof, wilde produkte, hout, brandstofhout en elektrisiteit. Die impak van restorasie op alle vorme van natuurlike kapitaal (gekultiveerd, aanvulbaar, hernubaar en nie-hernubaar) is daarom gekwantifiseer. Die kostes van restorasie sluit in ‘n vermindering in kapitaal uitgawes, arbeidskoste, toerusting en verband herfinansieringskoste. Die literatuurstudie hou drie raamwerke voor. Die eerste raamwerk klassifiseer sosiale wetenskappe volgens die Burrel en Morgan klassifikasie skema. Dit wys daarop dat dinamiese stelsel modellering en neoklassieke ekonomie dieselfde epistemologiese en ontologiese eienskappe deel; beide val binne die naturalistiese paradigma, wat dan ook meeste wetenskaplike navorsing tipeer. Stelseldinamiese modellering en neoklassieke ekonomie wyk egter af na die Flood and Jackson klassifikasie skema, wat die tweede raamwerk is waarvolgens sosiale wetenskappe geklassifiseer word. Neoklassieke ekonomie word gekenmerk aan 'n klein aantal elemente en 'n beperkte hoeveelheid interaksie. Stelseldinamiese modellering het egter 'n groot aantal elemente met veel meer interaksies tussen hierdie elemente. Die natuur-vryheid grondmotief is onderworpe aan 'n aantal punte van kritiek, insluitende die feit dat dit dualistiese denke in analise inbring. Verder spreek dit ook nie voldoende die normatiewe of morele kwessies aan nie. Die raamwerk van Dooyeweerd, wat dan die derde raamwerk is, word voorgestel as 'n wyse waarop die natuur-vryheid grond-motief getransendeer kan word. Alhoewel die natuur-vryheid grondmotief grootliks gebruik word in hierdie studie, transendeer die analise die tradisionele ekonomiese benadering op 'n aantal gebiede. Hierdie gebiede sluit die volgende in: 'n fokus op transdissiplinere metodes, onewewigtigheid, 'n gevallestudie benadering, en empiriese skatting in plaas van teoretiese modelle. Die restorasie gevallestudies wat in hierdie studie gebruik word is voorbeelde van individuele komplekse sisteme. Agt dinamiese stelsel modelle word ontwikkel om die interaksies tussen ekonomiese, ekologiese en hidrologiese komponente in elke gevallestudie te modelleer. Hierdie agt stelseldinamiese modelle word dan gebruik in 'n risiko analise proses wat uitloop op 'n portefeulje plot oefening. Hierdie portefeulje plot oefening word dan gebruik om eienskappe en kenmerke van verskeie gevallestudie terreine te identifiseer gebaseer op die risiko profiel van elke terrein. Hierdie studie is die eerste bekende toepassing van dinamiese stesels, risiko analise en portefeulje plot tot 'n omgewingsrestorasie projek. Hierdie raamwerk kan potensieël gebruik word deur beleidskrywers wat met begrotings beperkinge gekonfronteer word om tussen restorasie projekte te kies en om hulle te prioritiriseer.

The study focused on the development of an environmental education (EE) strategy framework in the Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT) of South Africa. Evidence shows that the roles of conservation and biodiversity education could potentially be merged towards producing a practical strategy, beneficial to the organisation and its individual staff members. Questionnaires, interviews and the individual perceptions of staff members, as well as the analysis of relevant documents, suggested that the potential for the practice of EE towards the development of an EE strategy within the organisation is substantial. EWT staff members can contribute towards a change in the way that South Africans think about conservation and nature. Environmental ethics need to be promoted and understood by all. Within the EWT, environmental education activities are in place and diverse, yet they lack any form of monitoring and evaluation. The Trust is already practicing a form of EE but the potential to do more and the opportunities for expansion are unlimited.

The recognition of the close link between the lifestyles of 'indigenous' and 'local' people and biodiversity is widely acknowledged as crucial, not only for the survival of biological diversity but also for the protection of cultural diversity. Most discussions centre on the argument that cultural diversity can, through a wide variety of uses and practices, sustain and conserve biodiversity, particularly in many developing countries. However, local people's relationship with natural landscapes and the extent to which they value biodiversity has not been fully explored and is in most cases misunderstood, which in fact undermines the bio-cultural diversity link. This misunderstanding exists primarily because the majority of environmental or ecological research conducted so far has been oriented towards economic valuation, in quantifying the estimated value of plants and fauna utilised by local people. As a result, biodiversity is primarily treated as a commodity, with wild harvested plant products being classified as either having subsistence, or commercial and medicinal value. This approach is narrow and conceals the critical, profound noneconomic values of biodiversity among local communities in everyday life. Literature indicates that biodiversity and natural landscapes also include less tangible values such as spiritual, cultural, psychological and social values (e.g., sense of place, place attachment, and psychologically restorative effects) which are crucial to human well-being. This suggests that human-nature interaction is complex, and that the meanings and values that people ascribe to natural landscapes cannot be solely reduced to economic values. Nevertheless, to date, studies investigating these less tangible values have received little attention in South Africa. As a result, we have very little understanding of what local and indigenous communities value or appreciate with regard to natural landscapes, beyond their general economic significance. This study seeks to address this particular limitation by exploring non-economic values of natural landscapes and their significances to local people while illuminating the complexities inherent in human-nature interactions. I argue that the purely economic valuation of natural resources is simplistic and biased, and therefore does not represent the complete meaning and significance that natural resources may hold for local communities and households. Therefore, this study takes an innovative psychological approach to explore in detail the everyday lived experiences of the amaXhosa in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. It seeks to investigate the cultural, spiritual, and psychological values that ordinary people attach to natural landscapes in the peri-urban and urban communities of Ndlambe Village l and Grahamstown respectively. This research also aims to study the general perceptions of and meanings ascribed to the natural landscape (referred to by the amaXhosa as ihlathi lesiXhosa). In addition, it carefully integrates the Phenomenological and Transactional approaches to investigate how the amaXhosa engage, interact, and find meaning within the natural landscape. Furthermore, the study explores the impact of such landscape experiences on local people's spiritual and psychological well-being, demonstrating it link to bio-cultural diversity and conservation. The major findings in this study reflect that ihlathi lesiXhosa provides a place for peace and tranquillity to enhance psychological restoration. Moreover, ihlathi contributes towards redefining and strengthening personal and cultural identity; and provides spiritual satisfaction in everyday life. Overall, the findings of this study indicate that i!liathi lesiXhosa plays a profound role in both the personal and social lives of many amaXhosa in the Eastern Cape in that it appears to improve their lives. Therefore, the evidence in this study suggests that, among the amaXhosa, biodiversity and natural landscape management processes should not aim to address and promote ecologicallbiological and economic values in a compartmentalized manner independent of other social, cultural, psychological, and more specifically the spiritual values of these features. An increased understanding of these more intangible values and local people's value system of biodiversity could help towards implementing improved biodiversity conservation and landscape management strategies in South Africa. These insights would not only help us to address the challenges of the previous conservation framework but would also encourage a more inclusive, mutual benefiting process that respects local people's values and needs.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2000.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The composition and state of soil-stored seed banks on- and off the mesa Tafelberg, in the Nama Karoo rangelands of the Eastem Cape, South Africa, were investigated within the context of a broader restoration ecology project "Restoration of degraded Nama Karoo rangelands: the role of conservation islands'". The premise for this seed bank study was that restoration of degraded semi-arid rangelands is possible through applied management programs based on the methodology and practice of ecological restoration. Broadly acknowledged properties of non-equilibrium environments (e.g. unpredictable climates and varying degrees of disturbance) and soilstored seed banks (e.g. spatial and temporal distributions) formed the basis for investigating. the general environment and the properties.. of existing seed, banks, in the Tafelberg locality. The potential role of hills as refugia for palatable plant species was an under-lying element of the investigation. Following a brief investigation, of historical and contemporary research and policy on rangeland degradation in semi-arid regions of the world, the fundamental need for comprehensive and applied seed bank research in the Nama Karoo is emphasised. Within the framework of the umbrella project, the seed bank study examined local environmental criteria commencing with an investigation into seed bank- and vegetation habitats. Chemical and physical properties of soils from twenty two sites on- and off Tafelberg were described. Substantial soil habitat variation, between the top, the north west slopes and plains and the south east slopes and plains of Tafelberg, was identified. Micro-site variation between open-canopy (interplant spaces) and closed-canopy (under plant cover) microhabitats was found to be significant Primary soil habitat differences were linked to soil organic matter content which was found to be low on the plains relative to the top and slopes; and, low in open-canopy micro-sites relative to closed-canopy sites. Soil texture and nutrient composition on- and off Tafelberg was found to be highly variable with significant differences between the top and the plains as well as between the north west and south east plains. The slopes were found to be intermediate (showing some level of gradient) between the top and the plains. Soil nutrient variation was interpreted as a function of textural and parent-material properties of soils. Anthropogenic factors for accelerated erosion, deposition, leaching and salt-crust formation were also considered. It was concluded that while properties of soils on- and off Tafelberg are inherently related to parent soils, changes to textural and nutrient properties may be occurring and these changes may have been exacerbated by high levels of grazing. An investigation (focusing on small shrubs) of plant phenological response, in relation to rainfall and grazing gradients, identified trends of peak budding- and flowering seasons following rainfall during summer and autumn respectively. A continuum of seeding activity, with peaks in late autumn and early winter, was construed from quarterly data. Flush vegetative growth was noted for most small shrubs during spring, autumn and summer surveys. Since some form of activity related to reproductive output (flush growth, budding, flowering or seeding) was apparent at almost all times of the year, it is argued that high intensity disturbance (including grazing) might impact negatively on plant survival, leading to reduced reproductive input (i.e. seeds) into future generations. Plant communities on the top and plains are described noting significant differences between vegetation on top of Tafelberg (comprising primarily high production, palatable grass and shrub species) and that on the plains (comprising mainly spinescent, ephemeral, toxic and low production species). Given the high grazing pressure on the plains (relative to the less utilised slopes and top of Tafelberg), differences in vegetation composition are discussed in relation to studies elsewhere that describe degraded rangelands. It is concluded firstly that the plains surrounding Tafelberg are degraded, secondty that long term over-utilisation has altered vegetation composition and finally that inter-grazing rest periods of three- or six months alone may not restore vegetation diversity nor desirable plant species to the plains. Results of germination trials (investigating soil-stored seed banks) from two sampling episodes (spring and autumn 1998) revealed that seed banks in soils removed from the plains, slopes and top of Tafelberg followed distribution patterns observed in above-ground vegetation. Species-specific data was not finalised for this thesis since not all seedlings matured and flowered within given time constraints. In order to compare seedling emergence data, plant categories were developed that distinguished ephemerals versus persistent (perennial) species and dicotyledonous species versus grasses and other monocotyledonous plants. Samples from the top and the middle to upper slopes showed a high percentage of palatable and persistent grass and shrub species present in soil-stored seed banks while over twothirds of plants germinating from plains' soil samples were ephemeral species and most of these were both tiny «Scm) and short-lived «3 months). Most of the perennial species germinating from plains' samples were seedlings of Pentzia incana, Chrysocoma ciliata and succulents (mostly Mesembryanthemaceae) but few perennial grasses were present. On the other hand, roughly 94% of seedlings germinating from samples from the top and 63% of seedlings germinating from two slopes of Tafelberg respectively were persistent- grass or shrubby species. Roughly 89% of ephemeral species recorded from slopes' samples germinated from the lowest footslope sites. Seed densities were closely linked to micro-habitats with roughly three-fold differences between open- (lower seed density) and closed-canopy (higher seed density) micro-sites. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) indicated that most of the variation in seed density data was explained at the micro-habitat level. Seasonality played a secondary role with significant twoway interaction between the two effects. It is concluded that both factors must be considered when developing restoration programmes that aim to improve both overall plant cover and improved plant species diversity. While the original or "pristine" state of vegetation composition and seed banks on the plains is unknown, concems were raised regarding the apparently degraded state of total above- and below-ground plant diversity on these plains. A likely consequence of habitat degradation is that species with specific soil-, nutrient ratio-, aspect- and altitudinal requirements from the top and slopes of Tafelberg (as well as from nearby plains' refugia) may not be able to establish in degraded habitats on the plains. The identification of pioneer plant species (tolerant of habitat degradation) that allow increased vegetation cover and safe-sites for seedling germination of desirable plant species is recommended. Restoration programmes will need to be coupled with strict grazing management principles that allow seedling germination. establishment and successful reproductive output of desirable plants for future rangeland regeneration. Common and salient features of the soil habitat, plant pbenological response and germination trial studies are brought together in an examination of habitats and related seed bank diversity on- and off Tafelberg. Acknowledging the brevity of this research study, but utilising case studies from elsewhere and integrating both lines of questioning, the conclusion is again reached that the plains surrounding Tafelberg are degraded through decades and probably centuries of grazing by domestic livestock. It is considered crucial that restoration through improvement (or rehabilitation) of habitats and increased seedling safe-sites be considered. Both climate and grazing management appear to play an irrevocably linked role in shaping vegetation composition in rangelands. While rangelands are intrinsiCalfy adapted to surviving extremes of climatic variability found in non-equilibrium regions it is argued that the impacts of grazing, particularly during times of drought and climate change, are slowly reducing the intrinsic "buffer-capacity" of rangelands to withstand these changes and extremes. It seems apparent from research elsewhere that restoration through passive management is slow and probably not economically achievable within a viable time frame. The instifution and promotion of integrated and strategic programmes that identify and address issues of land degradation and land use change in semi-arid rangelands is recommended. The input and endeavours of different authorities, ministries and a broad public participation incentive are encouraged in these proposed programmes in order to ensure broadly-based input into long term sustainability and conservation of the considerable biological diversity of these regions. Seed bank assessment is considered to be a valuable means of indicating restoration potential and ranqeland condition with potential for the identification of both degraded and conservationworthy areas. Finally, some limitations and challenges of this study are examined through a process of firstly identifying alternative approaches to research methodologies and secondly through proposing recommendations for future research projects. While alternative methods could have been applied for the purposes of accomplishing this study it is concluded that, within the given time- and other constraints, the appropriate methods were applied.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die samestelling entoestand van groncbbewaarde saadbanke.op en van die mesa Tafelberg af, in die Nama Karoo weiveld van die Oos-Kaap, Suid-Afrika, is ondersoek binne die konteks van 'n wyer herstelekologieprojek: "Restourasie van oorbeweide Nama Karoo weiveld: die rol van bewannqseilande'". Die uitqanqspunt van hierdie saadbankondersoek was dat dit moontlik is om beskadigde semidroë weiveld te herstel deur middel van toegepaste bestuursprogramme wat gebaseer is op die metodologie en praktyk van ekologiese herstel. Algemeen erkende eienskappe van nieekwilibrium- omgewings (byvoorbeeld onvoorspelbare klimate en wisselende mates van versteuring) en grond-bewaarde saadbanke (byvoorbeeld ruimtelike en temporale verspreidings), het die basis gevorm vir die ondersoek van die algemene omgewing en die eienskappe van bestaande saadbanke in die Tafelberg omgewing. Die potensiële rol van heuwels as skuilplek vir aanvaarbare plantspesies was 'n onder1iggende element van die ondersoek. Na 'n kort ondersoek van historiese ~n kontemporêre navorsing en beleid oor weiveldbeskadiging in semi-droë streke van die wêreld, is die fundamentele behoefte aan omvattende en toegepaste saadbanknavorsing in die Nama Karoo beklemtoon. Binne die raamwerk van die oorkoepelende projek het die saadbankondersoek plaaslike omgewingskriteria bestudeer, beginnende met 'n ondersoek na saadbank- en plantegroeihabitats. Chemiese en fisiese eienskappe van grond vanaf twee en twintig terreine op en van Tafelberg af is beskryf. Omvattende grondhabitatwisseling tussen die kruin, die noordwestelike hange en die vlaktes en die suidoostelike hange en vlaktes van Tafelberg is geïdentifiseer. Mikroterreinwisseling tussen die oop-dak (tussenplantruimtes) en toe-dak (onderplantdekking) -mikrohabitats is as beduidend bevind. Primêre grondhabitatverskille is gekoppel aan die inhoud van die grond se organiese materiaal, wat op die vlaktes as laag bevind is vergeleke met die kruin en hange; en laag bevind is in oop-dak-mikroterreine vergeleke met toe-dak-terreine, Daar is gevind dat die grondtekstuur en voedingstofsamestelling op en van Tafelberg af aansienlik varieer, met beduidende verskille tussen die kruin en die vlaktes, en ook tussen die noordwestelike en suidoostelike vlaktes. Daar is gevind dat die hange intermediêr is (toon 'n mate van gradiënt) tussen die kruin en die vlaktes. Die wisseling in grondvoedingstowwe is vertolk as 'n funksie van teksturele en ouermateriaaleienskappe van grond. Antropogeniese faktore vir versnelde erosie, neerslag, loging en soutkorsvorming is ook oorweeg. Die gevolgtrekking is gemaak dat terwyl die eienskappe van grond op en van Tafelberg af inherent aan ouergrond verwant is, kan veranderinge aan tekstuur en voedingstofeienskappe voorkom, en hierdie veranderinge kon deur hoë vlakke van weiding vererger gewees het. 'n Ondersoek (wat op klein struike gefokus het) van plantfenologiese reaksie met betrekking tot reënval en weidingsgradiënte het tendense van piekbot- en blomseisoene na reënval gedurende die somer en herfs onderskeidelik geïdentifiseer. 'n Kontinuum van saadskietaktiwiteit, met piektye in laat herfs en vroeë winter, is van kwartaallikse data saamgestel. Groeistuwing is vir die meeste klein struike waargeneem gedurende lente-, herfs- en someropnames. Aangesien die een of ander vorm van aktiwiteit met betrekking tot voortplantingsgroei (groeistuwing, bot, blom of saadskiet) op feitlik al die tye van die jaar sigbaar was, word daar geredeneer dat hoëintensiteitversteuring (ook weiding) 'n negatiewe impak op plantoorlewing kan hê, wat sal lei tot verminderde voortplantingsinset (m.a.w. sade) in toekomstige geslagte. Plantgemeenskappe op die kruin en vlaktes word beskryf met beduidende verskille tussen plantegroei op die kruin van Tafelberg (wat hoofsaaklik bestaan uit hoëproduksie, smaaklike gras- en struikspesies) en dié ap die vlaktes (wat bestaan uit hoofsaaklik doringagtige, efemere, toksiese en laeproduksie-spesies). Gegee die hoë weidingsdruk op die vlaktes (vergeleke met die minder benutte hange en kruin van Tafelberg), word verskille in die samestelling van plantegroei bespreek met betrekking tot studies elders wat beskadigde weiveld beskryf. Die gevolgtrekking word eerstens gemaak dat die vlaktes om Tafelberg beskadig is, tweedens dat langtermyn-oorbenutting die samestelling van die plantegroei verander het, en laastens dat interweiding-rusperiodes van drie tot ses maande alleen dalk nie die diversiteit van plantegroei of die verlangde plantspesies op die vlaktes kan herstel nie. Die uitslae van kiemingstoetse (wat ondersoek ingestel het na grond-bewaarde saadbanke) van twee steekproefepisodes (lente en herfs 1'998)het getoon dat saadbanke in grond wat van die vlaktes, hange en kruin van Tafelberg verwyder is, die verspreidingspatrone volg wat in bogrondse plantegroei waargeneem is. Spesie-spesifieke data is nie vir hierdie tesis gefinaliseer nie, aangesien nie alle saailinge binne die gegewe tydsbeperkinge gegroei en geblom het nie. Ten einde saailing-verskyningsdata te vergelyk, is plantkategorieë ontwikkel wat efemere en langdurige (meerjarige) spesies en dikotiele spesies en grassoorte en ander monokotiele plante onderskei. Steekproewe van die kruin en teen die middelste en boonste hange het 'n hoë persentasie van aanvaarbare en standhoudende gras- en struikspesies getoon wat in grond-bewaarde saadbanke teenwoordig is, terwyl meer as twee derdes van plante wat in die vlaktes se grondmonsters ontkiem het, efemere spesies was, en die meeste daarvan was klein «5cm) en met 'n kort leeftyd «3 maande). Die meeste van die meerjarige spesies wat van die vlaktes se steekproewe kom, was saailinge van Pentzia incana, Chrysocoma ciliata en vetplante (hoofsaaklik Mesembryanthemaceae), maar min meerjarige grasse was teenwoordig. Daarenteen was onderskeidelik ongeveer 94% van saailinge wat van monsters van die kruin en 63% van saailinge wat van twee van die hange van Tafelberg ontkiem het, langdurige gras- of struikspesies. Ongeveer 89% van die efemere spesies wat van die hange se steekproewe aangeteken is, het op die laagste voethang-terreine ontkiem. Saaddigthede toon 'n noue verband met mikrohabitats, met ongeveer drievoudige verskille tussen oop- (laer saaddigtheid) en toe-dak (hoër saaddigtheid) -mikroterreine. 'n Multivariaatontleding van variansie (MANOVA) het aangedui dat die meeste van die variasie in saaddigtheidsdata op die mikrohabitat-vlak verduidelik is. Seisoenaliteit het 'n sekondêre rol gespeel, met beduidende tweerigting-interaksie tussen die twee uitwerkings. Die gevolgtrekking word gemaak dat albei faktore oorweeg moet word wanneer herstelprogramme ontwikkel word wat ten doel het om algehele plantbedekking en die diversiteit van verbeterde plantspesies te verhoog. Terwyl die oorspronklike of "ongerepte" toestand van die plantegroei se samestelling en saadbanke op die vlaktes onbekend is, is kommer uitgespreek oor die klaarblyklik beskadigde toestand van die totale bo- en ondergrondse plantdiversiteit op hierdie vlaktes. 'n Waarskynlike gevolg van habitatbeskadiging is dat spesies met spesifieke grond-, voedingstofverhouding-, aspek- en seevlak-vereistes van die kruin en hange van Tafelberg (asook van nabygeleë vlakteskuilings) nie in staat sal wees om in beskadigde habitats op die vlaktes te vestig nie. Die identifikasie van pionierplantspesies (verdraagsaam vir habitatbeskadiging) wat verhoogde plantegroeidekking en veilige terreine vir saailingontkieming van verlangde plantspesies toelaat, word aanbeveel. Herstelprogramme sal gekoppel moet word aan streng weidingsbeginsels wat saailingontkieming, die vestiging en suksesvolle voortplantingsproduksie van gewenste plante vir toekomstige weiveldherstel moontlik maak. Algemene en belangrike eienskappe van die grondhabitat, plantfenologiereaksie en kiemingsproefondersoeke word saamgevoeg in 'n ondersoek van habitats en verwante saadbankdiversiteit op en van Tafelberg af. Met erkenning van die kortstondigheid van hierdie navorsingsondersoek, maar met benutting van gevallestudies van elders en die integrasie van albei vraaglyne, word daarweertot die slotsom gekom dat die vlaktes om Tafelberg beskadig is deur dekades en waarskynlik eeue se beweiding deur mak lewende hawe. Dit word as uiters belangrik beskou dat herstel deur verbetering (of rehabilitasie) van habitats en 'n groter aantal saailing beveiligingsterreine oorweeg moet word. Dit lyk asof klimaat sowel as weidingsbestuur 'n onherroeplik gekoppelde rol speel in die vorming van die samestelling van plantegroei op weiveld. Terwyl weiveld intrinsiek aangepas is by die oorlewing van uiterste klimaatswisseling wat in nie-ekwilibriese streke aangetref word, word daar geredeneer dat die impak van beweiding, veral gedurende droogtetye en klimaatsverandering, stadigaan die intrinsieke "buffervermoë" van weiveld verminder om hierdie veranderinge en uiterstes te weerstaan. Dit blyk uit navorsing elders dat herstel deur passiewe bestuur stadig en waarskynlik nie ekonomies haalbaar is binne 'n lewensvatbare tydsraamwerk nie. Die instelling en bevordering van geïntegreerde en strategiese programme wat kwessies van grondbeskadiging en verandering van grondgebruik in semi-droë gebiede identifiseer en oplos, word aanbeveel. Die insette en pogings van verskillende owerhede en ministeries en deelname deur die breë publiek word aangemoedig in hierdie voorgestelde programme ten einde insette met 'n breë basis in die langtermyn~volhoubaarheid en bewaring van die aansienlike biologiese diversiteit van hierdie streke te verseker. Saadbankbeoordeling word beskou as 'n waardevolle manier om die herstelpotensiaal en weiveldtoestande met die potensiaal vir die identifisering van beskadigde sowel as bewaringswaardige gebiede aan te dui. Laastens word 'n paar beperkings en uitdagings van hierdie studie ondersoek deur 'n proses van eerstens die identifisering van alternatiewe benaderings tot navorsingsmetodologieë, en tweedens deur die voorstel van aanbevelings vir toekomstige navorsingsprojekte. Terwyl alternatiewe metodes toegepas kon gewees het ten einde hierdie studie af te handel, is die gevolgtrekking dat die toepaslike metodes binne die gegewe tyd5- en ander beperkings toegepas is.

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2000.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In this era of globalisation, the world is becoming more economically, politically and ecologically interdependent, that is, there is a growing mutual vulnerability between actors. The conditions of growing interdependence produce specific challenging circumstances for the achievement of particular goals, -includinq that of sustainable development. The Southern African context holds further obstacles to such development, which include poverty, inequality, a history of racial conflict and colonialism, and a regional economy on the semi-periphery of the global economy. It is my assertion that it is in the mutual self-interest of states and other stakeholders (e.g. communities) to approach this dilemma through transnational co-operation under the ethical umbrella of sustainable development. Thus this thesis seeks to discover to what extent the construction of Transborder Conservation Areas (TBCAs), relatively large areas which straddle the borders between two or more countries and cover natural systems incorporating one or more protected areas, can meet the criteria of sustainable development, given these conditions. The three primary criteria used for measuring sustainable development are community-based development; close linkages between the environment and development; and co-operation on all levels. The Kgalagadi TBCA, formally recognised on the 7th of April 1999 between South Africa and Botswana, serves as the case study. The conceptual framework used for the analysis is a theory of cooperation, as it applies to the field of International Relations. The key concepts employed here are those of interdependence, co-operation, sustainable development and institutionalisation. The research centers around three key issues: If sustainable development is the way forward for Southern Africa, do TBCAs reflect and fulfill the criteria as set forth by sustainable development? What does the experience of TBCAs in Southern Africa tell us about co-operation, recognising that TBCAs can only succeed if it has a sound base in the awareness and engagement of people? And, how best can decision-makers go about establishing TBCAs? Ultimately the thesis is a call to Southern African countries to embrace this new form of utilising the environment.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In hierdie era van globalisering is die wêreld besig om ekonomies, polities en ekologies meer interafhanklik te word, met ander woorde, daar is 'n toenemende wedersydse kwesbaarheid tussen akteurs. Toenemende interafhanklikheid produseer spesifieke uitdagings ten opsigte van die bereiking van sekere doelwitte, insluitend volgehoue ontwikkeling. Daar is besondere hindernisse op die weg na volgehoue ontwikkeling in Suidelike Afrika, is byvoorbeeld armoede, ongelykheid, en verlede gekenmerk deur rassekonflik en kolonialisme, asook en regionale ekonomie op die semi-periferie van die globale ekonomie. Dit is in die wedersydse belang van state en ander betrokke partye (bv. gemeenskappe) om hierdie dilemma te benader deur middel van transnasionale samewerking onder die etiese sambreel van volgehoue ontwikkeling. Hierdie tesis probeer vasstel tot watter mate die skep van Transnasionale Bewaringsgbiede, of sogenaamde "Vredesparke" (Transborder Conservation Areas = TBCAs), d.w.s. relatiewe groot areas aan weerskante van die grens(-e) tussen twee of meer lance en wat natuurlike stelsels dek wat ten minste een beskermde gebied inkorporeer, kan voldoen aan die kriteria vir volgehoue ontwikkeling, gegewe die bogenoemde konteks. Die drie primêre kriteria wat gebruik word om volgehoue ontwikkeling te meet is gemeenskapsgebaseerde ontwikkeling; die hegtheid van die verhouding tussen die omgewing en ontwikkeling; en samewerking op alle vlakke. Die Kgalagadi TBCA, amptelik op 7 April 1999 tussen Suid-Afrika en Botswana erken, dien as die gevallestudie. Die konseptueie raamwerk wat gebruik word in die analise is 'n teorie van samewerking, soos dit van toepassing is op die veld van Internasionale Betrekkinge. Die sleutelkonsepte wat gebruik word is interafhanklikheid, samewerking, volgehoue ontwikkeling en institusionalisering. Die navorsing sentreer rondom drie sleutelkwessies: lndien volgehoue ontwikkeling die weg vorentoe vir Suidelike Afrika is, weerspiëel en voldoen TBCAs aan die vereistes van volgehoue ontwikkeling? Wat kan ons wys raak oor samewerking na aanleiding van ons ervaring van TBCAs in Suidelike Afrika, gegewe dat TBCAs slegs kan slaag indien dit gefundeer is op gemeenskapsbewustheid- en deelname? Laastens, wat is die beste manier waarvolgens besluitnemers TBCAs kan vestig? Ten slotte is hierdie studie 'n beroep op die besluitnemers In Suidelike Afrika om hierdie nuwe wyse waarop die omgewing benut kan word, te ondersteun.

Thesis (M.Dev.) --University of Limpopo, 2012
The main aim or purpose of this study was to look at the ways and the strategies of minimizing\ mitigating the over-harvesting of indigenous medicinal plants in order to use them sustainably. The task of identifying and assessing challenges facing local communities in utilizing and sustaining indigenous medicinal plants in Thengwe village and their implications on environmental conservation and management of natural resources was done during the pilot survey. The environmental field survey was conducted after gaining permission to enter into the identified study areas including the Mutavhatsindi Nature Reserve. The result revealed that most of the indigenous medicinal plants are used for healing, religious, economical and for protection purposes. Most of the indigenous medicinal plants in the study area are depleted and many of them are facing extinction. The study was qualitative in design. Semi-structured interviews and a questionnaire were used. The questionnaire had both open-ended and closed questions. The study area was Thengwe Village in the Mutale Municipality. The existence of medicinal plants is threatened by people `s perceptions and attitudes towards them. For some indigenous medicinal plants, depletion is at a high rate due to over-harvesting and because the plants when traded by herbalists they have a premium price attached to them. Interestingly, perhaps surprisingly, the majority of young people hold negative attitudes towards the indigenous medicinal plants due to poor knowledge of the value of indigenous medicinal plants, in contrast to the elders who appreciate their role and consider them as part of their culture, economy and religion. One of the findings is that medicinal plants were found to be important to the community members as the source of income and creation of jobs for the medicinal collectors who sell the species to traditional healers. For the reason of preserving indigenous medicinal plants and others as the environmental resources, this study recommends that there should be strong intergovernmental relationships between the National, Provincial and Local governments in order to prevent over-harvesting of the medicinal plants. The indigenous medicinal plants are equally important to biodiversity students and researchers who want to study and research indigenous medicinal plants which play an important role in the improvement of the livelihoods of community members. Furthermore, education campaigns within the communities and school learners are recommended to encourage the prevention, sustainability and utilization of the indigenous medicinal plants. Additionally, the legal authorities should be empowered to prosecute all people who may be found illegally in possession of indigenous medicinal plants, as well as endangered and protected species. Heavy fines and charges should be imposed on such culprits. Of importance is the fact that the results and recommendations of this study may facilitate the teaching of environmental education and management of natural resources as well as boost the local economy of the Vhembe district Municipality by showing that medicinal plants in the area can be seen as a viable tourist attraction.

Gorongosa: a history of an African landscape, 1921-2014, focuses on changes in the Gorongosa ecosystem, in central Mozambique, southeastern Africa. Environmental changes result from natural, non-human causes and from the activities of humans. I describe four socioecological events: African and Portuguese interactions, Gorongosa National Park, the effects of Mozambique’s civil war, and the Park's restoration in the aftermath of the civil war. Prior to European partition of Africa in 1884-85, Mozambique did not exist as clearly a demarcated territory as it is now. Today, the sense of Mozambicanhood bears traces of Portuguese colonial era experience. The demarcation of Mozambique’s boundaries and the reshaping of the colony until 1975 was a painful process that both the Africans and Portuguese colonialists endured; these physical and social separations from the rest of southern Africa represented the first human-induced changes in southern Africa. The endeavors to reshape Mozambique did not end with political boundaries. Painful processes, including the reshaping of Gorongosa National Park in the Gorongosa ecosystem, continued after border demarcations. Countless Mozambican and Portuguese lives were lost in the long trajectory within the colony as the Africans and the Europeans all developed a sense of unity in diversity while reshaping their attitude of and about Mozambique. After independence in 1975, internal transformations and wars continued reshaping Mozambique and Mozambicans, as different nationalists sought to maintain their colonial experience. These dynamics marked the environmental history of the Mozambican and Portuguese peoples and are often reflected in the prevalence of high sympathy, which the two peoples share toward one another. Gorongosa: a history of an African landscape, 1921-2014, critically celebrates these collective achievements.

The Eden To Addo Corridor Initiative aims to connect formally protected areas in a conservation corridor from the coastal area of the Eden District near Plettenberg Bay, Western Cape, South Africa to the Addo National Elephant Park, Eastern Cape, South Africa. The corridor will incorporate government and privately owned land, and will be an attempt to maintain ecological processes at a range of spatial and temporal scales. The Langkloof Valley lies between the Baviaanskloof World Heritage Area and the Tstitsikamma National Park; two formally protected areas that will be incorporated into the Eden To Addo Corridor. Spatial prioritization analyses allow conservation planners to select areas that should be targeted for conservation action based on a range of criteria. Historically, ecological criteria have been included mostly alone in spatial prioritization. Recently, the idea of ‘conservation opportunity’ has emerged in the field of conservation planning; the notion suggests that a range of different types of data should be included in processes to spatially prioritise for conservation. By including those data defined as ‘human’ and ‘social’ data into prioritising activities, the feasibility of conservation plans can be accounted for, but historically conservation planners have failed to do so. I conducted a literature review that demonstrated that although the importance of human and social data are acknowledged in the conservation planning literature, these data that define opportunity are rarely actually included in spatial prioritisation analyses. I then carried out a social assessment that allowed me to define the social and human context of our study area and, specifically, what stewardship instruments land managers in the Langkloof would be prepared to engage. We found that land managers were generally willing to engage, but lacked the financial capacity to adopt conservation methods. Using a subset of the social and human data that were collected in the social assessment, I trialled a new Decision Support Software to fuse those data with ecological data in a novel attempt to identify priority areas for conservation action based on ecological integrity and feasibility. We also scheduled (ranked) land managers to approach for conservation action with a focus on local champions and clusters of land managers displaying strong conservation characteristics. Two corridors were identified; a major corridor in the western region of the valley and a secondary corridor closer to the middle. The members of the Initiative have been briefed on the outcomes, which provided them an opportunity to provide feedback; it is hoped that the framework of this study can be used for planning future connections. The Eden To Addo Corridor Initiative sent out a stewardship extension officer in February 2011 to approach those land managers areas that were identified. This planning exercise is a good demonstration of how, by collaborating effectively, academic conservation planners can contribute to supporting decision making by organizations that are implementing conservation action.

Forest and woodland ecosystems provide a variety of natural resources such as fuelwood, brushwood and kraal posts to local communities, as well as possess important cultural and spiritual value. However, many forests and woodlands worldwide have been unsustainably used and managed. Thus, under pressure from the international conservation community to recognise the importance of people's relationships with their surrounding natural environment, particularly for the natural resources it can provide, and given a move away from the management of forests and woodlands for sustained yields, and according to simple cause and effect models, in favour of systems approaches, South Africa has developed some of the most progressive natural resource management policies in the world. Nevertheless, for these policies to be sensitive to local contexts, there remains a need for a better understanding of how local people in different contexts, determine forest and woodland ecosystems to be of use to them, and what 'usefulness' means to different groups of resources users. This is a case study, which examines the role of fuelwood, brushwood and kraal posts in the rural livelihoods of the people of Machibi village, located in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa, through people's preferences for particular landscapes and species, accessed for these purposes, and the trade-offs people make between resource availability and resource accessibility. Key objectives of the study are to 1) determine the preferred landscapes and species for fuelwood, brushwood and kraal posts at Machibi, 2) determine the landscapes and species actually used for fuelwood, brushwood and kraal posts, and 3) with the help of a conceptual model, and using iterative modelling as a tool, determine the factors that influence people's harvesting strategies in terms of the costs and benefits associated with the different landscape and species options. On the basis of this knowledge, the study provides some guiding principles for the better use and management of these landscapes and species for fuelwood, brushwood and kraal posts. An innovative research approach and methodology that integrates social and ecological systems, works across disciplines, and draws on different types of knowledge is used to develop and test a conceptual model of the harvesting strategies of fuelwood and kraalwood users at Machibi. Participatory methods such as workshops, participatory resource mapping, ranking exercises and trend-lines were used to tap into local knowledge while plotless vegetation sampling and GIS maps were used to capture the scientific information. Results showed that people did not always use the landscapes and species they preferred. However, the local people did behave in a rational manner by weighing up the returns from harvesting and accessibility costs associated with the respective options available to them, before selecting the option(s) associated with the greatest net benefits. At the landscape level, people made trade-offs between the returns from harvesting and the accessibility costs of using particular landscapes in addition to costs associated with the physical work of harvesting fuelwood, brushwood or kraal posts from these landscapes. At the species level, people made trade-offs between the returns from harvesting and the accessibility costs of harvesting particular species for fuelwood, brushwood and kraal posts, or the costs of commercial alternatives. Costbenefit factors that influenced people's resource use patterns also differed across landscapes and species for fuelwood, brushwood and kraal posts, respectively. Consequently, a range of diverse and flexible management options and strategies is recommended for the wise use and management of these landscapes and species, focused on short, medium and long term goals. These strategies examine the use of cost - benefit incentives to influence people’s landscape and species use patterns.

Stewardship in South Africa, as it is being implemented within the framework of the Biodiversity Stewardship Programme (BSP), is an attempt by conservation agencies to engage landowners in the voluntary securing of parcels of biodiverse land, through signing a contract for a certain time period, not to develop the landscape in ways that will impact negatively on the biodiversity of the area in question. The focus of this study is the relationship between biodiversity stewardship and social learning, as I hope to ascertain how stewardship practices are helping to resolve the current problems of biodiversity loss in the Western Cape. The overall aim of this research is to gain an understanding of how, in its capacity as a conservation education process, the Cape Nature Stewardship Programme can foster social learning amongst the landowners involved in its implementation, by leading them to a better understanding of their environmental responsibilities. Data was generated through the use of interviews and informal discussions with participants together with document analysis, such as brochures, pamphlets and presentations. My approach to the analysis of my data was two-phased. In the first phase, I analysed the data generated from the interview process and from reviewing the documents the stewardship officials supplied me with. The second phase involved looking into the results of the two case studies, and formulating analytical statements which were then used to review the case evidence within a social learning perspective, derived from Wals (2007). In constructing an analytical framework for the interpretation of my data, I drew heavily on Wals' (2007) notion of social learning occurring in sequential activities. I used this insight as a lens through which to trace the educational effects of the implementation of the CNSP in the two case study areas.The research highlighted evidence that Stewardship initiatives should be based on the foundation of social learning and invest time and effort in building an environmental knowledge capital amongst the landowners involved. By equipping them with these necessary conservation skills, one creates a 'community of practice' where those individuals adopt a sustainability habitus contributing towards a change and environmental understanding and practises in field.

The broad objective of the study was to determine the economic value of local pigs in marketand subsistence-oriented production systems in communal areas of Southern Africa. Data were collected from 288 households to investigate farmer perceptions, effects on pig production and handling of disease outbreaks such as classical swine fever (CSF) in market- and subsistenceoriented production systems. The utilisation of local pigs in these market- and subsistenceoriented production systems in improving people‟s welfare was evaluated. Climate change was identified by farmers in these production systems as a major constraint to pig production hence an experiment was carried out in the hottest season to determine diurnal heat-related physiological and behavioural responses in Large White (LW) and South African local pigs. The same genotypes were used to determine effects of diurnal heat-related stress on their growth performance. Choice experiment was done to determine farmer preferences for local pig traits and implicit prices for these traits in CSF-affected and unaffected areas that were under subsistence- and market-oriented production systems. In this experiment, the importance of heat tolerance was assessed relative to other productive and climate change adaptation traits. Significantly more pigs were culled in the CSF-affected areas that were market-oriented (8.0 ± 1.76) than subsistence-oriented (4.1 ± 1.00) production system. The risk of parasites and disease challenges was high in subsistence-oriented production system and coastal areas. In both production systems, CSF was perceived as destructive since the culling of pigs affected pork availability and income generation. The high risk of disease outbreaks and threat of climate change caused farmers in subsistence-oriented production system to select local pigs for their adaptive traits while those in the market-oriented production system focused on productive imported pigs. Farmers (83 %) indicated that they wanted pig genotypes that were adapted to climate change effects such as hot conditions. Local pigs were found to have superior heat tolerance over LW pigs (P < 0.05) in terms of lower heart rate and skin surface temperature. Frequency per day and duration for behavioural heat loss activities such as wallowing, sleeping in a prostrate posture and sprawling in slurry were also lower (P < 0.05) for local than LW pigs. The superiority of heat tolerance of local over LW pigs was further confirmed by their uncompromised growth performance under high diurnal temperatures. The Pearson‟s product moment correlation coefficient between temperature and feed conversion ratio for LW pigs was strongly positive (r = 0.50; P < 0.001) unlike the weak and positive correlation for local pigs (r = 0.20; P < 0.05). There was a quadratic relationship between temperature and average daily gain (ADG) for both pig genotypes. The regression coefficients for ADG were higher (P < 0.001) for LW than local pigs. It was concluded that at high ambient temperatures, performance of local pigs was less compromised than for LW pigs. Although local pigs were found to be heat tolerant, results of choice experiment showed that this trait was not selected for relative to other traits. Keeping pigs that required bought-in feeds, fell sick often and produced low pork quality (eating quality based on farmer perceptions) negatively affected farmers‟ livelihoods more in subsistence- than market-oriented production system. Farmers in market-oriented production system derived more benefit from productive traits such as heavier slaughter weights and large litter size than subsistence-oriented farmers. Under the subsistence-oriented production system, farmers in CSF-affected areas placed high prices on adaptive traits than the unaffected areas. Subsistence-oriented farmers who were affected by CSF wanted a total compensation price of R10 944.00 (USD1563.43) for keeping a pig genotype with unfavourable traits when compared to R4235.00 (USD605.00) for their CSF-unaffected counterparts. Implicit prices for traits could not be determined for market-oriented production system. It was concluded that farmers in CSFaffected areas placed high economic values on pig traits than farmers from the CSF-unaffected areas. The findings suggest that adapted local pigs can be promoted in subsistence-oriented production systems while productive imported pigs and their crosses with local pigs can be kept in market-oriented production systems.

This study looks firstly at the historical background to conservation, particularly in the South African National Parks Board, and relates this to developments in interpretation in the National Parks. These are evaluated against international norms as they appear in the current literature. The aim is to establish a platform upon which future developments in interpretation may be built, avoiding the mistakes of the past, while capitalising on the strong points. Current views of what interpretation is, and what it should be, are reviewed. Knowing who the audience is, in terms of cultural background, education, needs and interests, as well as sound planning, clear objectives and ongoing evaluation of interpretive programmes, emerge as essential prerequisites for effective interpretation. Through reviewing the development and current status of interpretation in the National Parks, the study finds that although the view has been expressed by management, both past and present, that interpretation in the national parks is of great importance, the past and current status of interpretation does not reflect that view. Generally, interpretation appears to be regarded as a non-essential service. This report argues that environmental interpretation should be given a higher status in the National Parks Board and that it should form an important part of the conservation strategy and management plan for the national parks. The researcher contends that a greater investment in interpretation could lead to a decrease in the need for further, increased investment in law enforcement in the parks. The researcher is also of the opinion that interpretation aimed at all levels of personnel of the National Parks Board is at least as important as interpretation aimed at visitors.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 1996.
One copy microfiche.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The We Care Primary project is a participatory materials development research project, grounded through a socio-historical location of the research question in the assumptions and ideals of the critical inquiry paradigm and socially critical environmental education. This research represents an atlemptto clarifY the assumptions and orientations of socially critical environmental education as a possible 'tangible alternative' to modernist models of environmental education and educational change in a South African context. Through this project environmental education materials development emerged as a reflexive and responsive process of change in which I was able to work with teachers with in local contexts to develop resource materials which may contribute to the development of quality education and the transformation of the junior primary school phase. The emerging central thesis of this report is an ongoing questioning of the notion of participation, and a realisation of the complexities of establishing conditions for authentic participation in materials development, curriculum development and research contexts, Phase one of this research report describes a journey of inquiry toward" socially critical environmental education. This phase portrays a growing understanding of environmental education and is focused on the development of a participatory orientation to materials development. Phase two of this research journey illustrates a critical and reflexive stance to the 'weaknesses' identified in the first phase of the project. The interdependence of curriculum development, materials development and in service teacher education is explored. This phase of the research is presented as a journey with in socially critical environmental education and reflects ongoing praxis and engagement with in the assumptions of critical theory and socially critical environmental education. In phase two and three, the development of a critically reflexive stance to the assumptions guiding this study is described, and a shift in possible research orientations is highlighted. Further possibilities for research journeys beyond socially critical environmental education are presented in phase three through a tentative critique of the first two phases of this research project. This research report offers a brief insight into some of the complexities of change in the formal education sector. It demonstrates that confronting the challenges and complexities of change in realistic and meaningful ways is possibly one of the most daunting realities facing South Africans as we begin to respond to the many legacies of apartheid ideologies, modernisation, a history of mis-education and poor education, decades of social separation and increasing socioecological degradation and risk.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Ons Gee Om Primer-projek is 'n navorsingsprojek in deelnemende hulpbronontwikkeling, gegrond op die sosio-historiese plasing van die navorsingsvraag binne die aannames en ideale van die kritiese navorsingsparadigma en sosiaal-kritiese omgewingsopvoeding. Die navorsing verteenwoording 'n poging om die aannames en orienlasies van sosiaa/-kriliese omgewingsopvoeding as moonllike 'Iasbare a/lemalief' vir modemisliese modelle van omgev.'ingsopvoeding and opvoedingsverandering binne 'n Suid Afrikaanse konleks Ie verk/aar. Deur hierdie projek het hulpbronontwikkeling na yore gekom as 'n refleksiewe en responsiewe proses van verandering, waardeur ek mel onderwysers kon werk mel in plaaslike kontekse om hulpbronmateriaal te ontwikkel wat moontlik kan bydra tot die ontwikkeling van die kwaliteit van opvoeding en die transformasie van die junior primere skoolfase. Die sentrale tese van hierdie verslag is 'n voortdurende bevraa!:,rtekening van die idee van deelname, en 'n hesefvan die komp/eksileile daarvan om loeslande Ie skep wal ware dee/name verseker in hulpbronontwikkeling, kurrikulumontwikkeling en navorsingsverbande. Fase een van hierdie navorsingsverslag beskryf 'n reis van ondersoek op weg 110 sosiaal-kritiese omgewingsopvoeding. Die fase skets 'n toenemende begrip van omgewingsopvoeding en fokus op die ontwikkeling van 'n deelnemende orientasie tot hulpbronontwikkeling. Fase Iwee van hierdie navorsingsreis illustreer 'n kritiese en refleksiewe houding ten opsigte van die 'swak plekke' wat in die eerste fase ge"identifiseer is. Die interafhanklikheid van kurrikulumontwikkeling, materiaalontwikkeling and die indiensopleiding van onderwysers word ondersoek. Hierdie fase van die navorsing word voorgestel as 'n reis mel in sosiaal-kritiese omgewingsopvoeding en weerspieel voortdurende praksis en 'n betrokkenheid by die aannames van kritiese teorie en sosiaal-kritiese omgewingsopvoeding. Infases Iwee en drie word die ontwikkeling van 'n krities-refleksiewe houding ten opsigte van die aannames van hierdie studie beskryf, en 'n verskuiwing in moontlike navorsingsorientasies word uitgelig. Verdere moontlikhede vir navorsingsreise verby sosiaal-kritiese omgewingsopvoeding word infase drie uitgewys deur 'n tentatiewe kritiek op die eerste twee fases van die navorsingsprojek. Hierdie navorsingsverslag bied 'n vlugtige kykie na van die kompleksiteite van verandering in die formele onderwyssektor. Dit wil blyk dat 'n realistiese en betekenisvolle reaksie op die uitdagings en kompleksiteite van verandering moontlik een van die gedugste realiteite is waarmee Suid-Afrikaaners te kampe het in ons pogings om te reageer op die vele nalatings van apartheidsideologiee, modernisasie, 'n geskiedenis van wanopvoeding en swak opvoeding, dekades van sosiale skeiding en toenemende sosio-ekologiese degradasie en risiko's.

Natural resource conservation is important for human well-being, especially in fragile environments of developing countries. This study occurred in 2006 among 6,500 smallhold farmers residing along a 25-km segment of a heavily utilized river. Research objectives were to determine use and adoption constraints for 14 soil and water conservation practices (SWCPs). Farms were reportedly contributing to a decline in river water quality via soil erosion. Recent occupation of the upper watershed by immigrants magnified concerns that resource degradation could escalate. A multi-method approach incorporating quantitative surveys, qualitative interviews, and participant observation was used to interpret constraining factors within the biophysical and historical context of the watershed. Adoption rates for SWCPs were expected to be low (less than 20 percent). Increased formal education, income, access to information, and security of land tenure and soil characteristics, were expected to positively influence adoption. Data analysis included descriptive statistics and use of classification and regression trees. Results indicated that all sampled farms had adopted at least two SWCPs, with an average of six per farm. Favored practices were those that were easier to implement and more effective for resource protection and food production. Years in residence (tenure security) and income emerged as primary explanatory variables for adoption of SWCPs, while soil quality and formal education were secondary. Only 27 percent of surveyed farmers held title deeds, but the others perceived that land occupation conferred "ownership" and hence implemented SWCPs. A follow-up visit in 2009, after the region had endured a year of highly publicized ethnic conflict, immigration and farm expansion continued with SWCPs being adopted. Njoro communities mostly remained intact and appeared resilient. While small farms likely contribute to watershed-scale problems and declines in quality and quantity of water in the River Njoro, farmers have made remarkable strides--largely on their own--to conserve natural resources. Future research should examine how a general lack of infrastructure off-farm and study-site context contributes to reduced watershed-resource quality. Further protection of soil and water is best served by a more aggressive policy and extension education framework that links food security, household well-being, and natural resource management.

Thesis (MSc (Conservation Ecology and Entomology))--University of Stellenbosc, 2005.
Biodiversity is under enormous pressure from an increasing human population. Urbanisation, agriculture, and mining are just some of the factors responsible for the continuous degradation of the natural environment. Of these, urbanisation is one of the leading factors of diversity loss. To address this problem, it is necessary to understand the relationship between biodiversity and urban areas, as well as the relationship between society and biodiversity. This study focuses on these relationships and suggest ways in which urban biodiversity can be maximised without compromising on development. In order to create an urban environment that successfully supports maximised biodiversity, new methods and ideas must be developed to promote the protection of urban ecosystems. The Cape Floristic Region in South Africa is a good example of an area that requires immediate action in order to prevent enormous losses in biodiversity. Data have shown drastic decreases in natural vegetation cover in this area, and with its close to 9000 species, of which approximately 60% occurs nowhere else in the world. This state of affairs should be regarded as a serious crisis. This study consists of three main parts, the first being a literature review on the current relationships between the urban environment, society, and biodiversity. The second and third parts report on two empirical investigations on the campus of the Faculty of Health Sciences at the University of Stellenbosch in the City of Cape Town. The first of these investigates the possibility of using spirituality connected to nature as a promotional tool for conservation through rehabilitation or restoration of damaged urban vegetation habitats. For this purpose students’ and staff members’ opinions of the urban nature at the campus were tested. In the second investigation the options of restoring biodiversity to the campus was considered by exploring the best options available for rehabilitation while taking the current biodiversity status on and around the premises into account. This was carried out through three smaller projects that included the physical reintroduction of plant species, vegetation analysis, and bird identification and attraction. The response of employees and students at the Faculty of Health Sciences was found to be in favour of restoring vegetation and animal life to the campus. This is supported by a belief that their attitude towards their work would improve with improved natural surroundings. Initial rehabilitation attempts highlighted the complexity of rehabilitation practices by bringing forward challenges and problems experienced with the reintroduction of plant species. Despite these problems, increased plant diversity in experimental areas showed the possibility of successfully completing the project. Biodiversity analysis showed that methods of controlling vegetation used by the university are doing more harm than good, as it results in indigenous vegetation being displaced by exotic vegetation. This study introduces a number of questions regarding the relationship between urbanisation and biodiversity and to what extent the two should be linked. Hopefully it is a step in the direction towards marrying the urban and natural environment, and to create a sustainable urban environment where society no longer sees nature as something outside the city boundaries.

Rhetoric of "community-based conservation" has gained prominence among development specialists and environmentalists, yet such projects are often implemented from the top-down in Africa. This dissertation contends that only a bottom-up approach can foster resilient livelihoods and environmental stewardship. This study focused on determinants of household resilience within a poverty-stricken agricultural community near Gombe Stream National Park (GSNP) in western Tanzania. The research purpose was to explore: 1) relationships between villagers and GSNP management; 2) how groups and individuals view priority livelihood problems and solutions; 3) various attributes of households; and 4) perceived trends for household resilience and how these are related to natural, social, human, and financial capital as per the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF). A mixed-methods approach provided qualitative and quantitative assessments. Data collection consisted of Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA), key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and household surveys. The RRA was conducted adjacent to GSNP while other work was implemented over a larger area. Survey data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, chi square, and logistic regression. Regression examined relationships between trends in resilience variables (quality of life or ability to solve problems) versus trends in capital. Results from the RRA indicated high polarization and problems between villagers and GSNP management. A more complex picture, however, emerged from subsequent investigations revealing that the most important issues facing local communities were inadequate public services, ineffective leadership, and development isolation. This situation was exacerbated by population growth, poverty, and environmental decline. Regression results identified lack of income, manual labor, and skills and knowledge as factors undermining household resilience. Other data indicated a need for improving farming systems. In conclusion, while all forms of capital mattered to resilience, human and financial were most lacking. Knowledge of such variation strengthens future applications of the SLF. Practical implications include how an indigenous educational institution, the Gombe School of Environment and Society (GOSESO), could operate in the area. The GOSESO needs to adopt a bottom-up, participatory approach that emphasizes capacity building for poverty reduction and conservation. This could allow for broader goals of economic and cultural vitality, as well as environmental stewardship, to be achieved.

The project was initiated by Eastern Cape Parks (ECP) as a request for the construction of inventories of priority species and their population levels inside three nature reserves on the Eastern Cape Wild Coast, South Africa, and to develop a strategic management plan to manage these natural resources in each reserve. Thirty key species were identified by local communities in and around Dwesa-Cwebe, Silaka and Mkambati Nature Reserves through community workshops. For forested areas belt transects of 100 m x 6 m where used. The basal circumference of key tree species within the belt transect was measured as well as the height of saplings (height < 150 m). Tree species were categorized based on densities, size class distribution (SCD) curves and values, and spatial grain. For grassland areas straight transects of 200 m long were used, along which ten 3 m x 3 m quadrates were placed at 20 m intervals. Within each grassland transect the height of herbs or tuft diameter of grasses was recorded and percentage cover estimated. Grassland species were categorized based on density, SCD curves and percentage cover. All species were placed into harvesting categories based on analysed ecological data that was collected in the field. Category 1 species were very rare or not found in the reserve and it was recommended that species be conserved and monitored. Category 2 species had low densities in the reserve indicating declining populations and was suggested that these be monitored and not harvested. Category 3 species had high densities and have potential for harvesting with strict limitations. Category 4 species were most abundant with very high densities and can be harvested within management guidelines. These categories were grouped further using social and ecological data such as harvesting risk, frequency of collection, use value and number of uses. This highlighted which species have conservation priority within each category and a decision can be made as to how intense or limited extraction should be. By incorporating GIS the distribution of each species was looked at and harvesting and non-harvesting zones established to determine where species can be extracted. Monitoring plans must consider the quantity of plant material collected, fire regimes, optimal harvesting rates and harvesting zones, and be able to pick up changes in populations. Also, it is important that the community be involved in conserving and monitoring these species. Adaptive monitoring and management must be used to steer harvesting practices in the Wild Coast reserves. This allows for the development of harvesting practices through ‘learning by doing’, and the evolution of good questions to guide monitoring decisions

This study aimed to analyse the potential and challenges for ecotourism development and how it can be applied as an integrated tool to provide economic incentives and better opportunities for community development, while improving natural resource management and conservation in Isimangaliso. The capital assets, the context of vulnerability of the local communities along with other significant attributes of the supply side were investigated in-depth. In addition, the potentials and challenges for ecotourism development in the selected Isimangaliso, Khula Village were studied. The impacts of ecotourism on local livelihood improvement, biodiversity resources and natural environment, and management and conservation of the area were also explored through sustainability concepts. However, the focus of the study was not only on ecotourism potentials and opportunities but was also on the development of sound guiding principles for planning and management of ecotourism development in Isimangaliso in a sustainable manner. It was found that community‟s willingness to participate in local development and natural resource management remains a questionable issue to be achieved. This is because local communities are strongly influenced by vertical network of the state administration. The study reveals that there is a strong interaction and interdependency between local livelihoods or poverty and the status and effectiveness of natural resource management in Isimangaliso. The study indicates that the area has plenty of potential natural and cultural resources. These resources signify three fundamental elements for ecotourism destination: quantity, quality, and fascination. The natural attractions consist of vital and sensitive biological and scenic values of the destination area.