Tesis: "Entourage and court society"

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Roger, Jean. "Le conseil du prince, par-delà Machiavel, des temps médiévaux à la Renaissance : Gouverner sans être soi-même gouverné". Electronic Thesis or Diss., Rennes 1, 2022. http://www.theses.fr/2022REN1G011.

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La thèse a pour objet les discours et les pratiques relevant de ce qui est traditionnellement désigné sous le titre de « conseil du prince ». Un tel objet est particulièrement vaste et peut être circonscrit à trois grands enjeux : l’étude de la littérature proposant un modèle d’art de gouverner ; l’analyse de l’évolution des entourages princiers ; l’institutionnalisation des dispositifs gouvernementaux et consultatifs concomitamment à la construction de l’État. La thèse a pour ambition de montrer que les transformations relatives à la manière d’envisager le conseil du prince aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles s’inscrivent moins dans une rupture paradigmatique que dans le prolongement d’un processus engagé depuis les temps médiévaux. Il s’agira donc de décentrer le regard traditionnellement fixé sur la pensée de Machiavel pour mettre en lumière les dynamiques intellectuelles, sociales et politiques au Moyen Âge conduisant à faire émerger ce que nous appelons la conception directive du conseil. La conception directive du conseil désigne l’idée que le gouvernement du royaume soit organisé de façon à ce que la volonté princière ne soit pas bridée par ses conseillers. L’étude de la pratique du pouvoir met en évidence le fait que l’essor de l’État royal au XIIIe siècle constitue le terreau de cette nouvelle approche. Machiavel lui donna une assise philosophique dans un des chapitres du Prince mais d’autres sources contemporaines jouent un rôle essentiel dans cette histoire. La littérature courtisane d’une part et la littérature utopique d’autre part ont contribué de façon ambivalente à promouvoir cette approche
The subject of the thesis is the discourses and practices relating to what is traditionally referred to as "Advice to prince". Such a topic is particularly vast and can be sectioned into three main themes: the study of the literature dealing with the art of governing; the analysis of the evolution of a prince’s entourage; the institutionalization of governmental and advisory mechanisms in parallel with the construction of a State. The aim of this thesis is to show that the transformations relating to the way of considering the advice to the prince in the 16th and 17th centuries are less part of a paradigmatic break than the extension of a process initiated since medieval times. It will therefore be a question of taking a step back from the traditional focus on Machiavelli’s thought in order to highlight the intellectual, social and political dynamics in the Middle Ages leading to the emergence of what we call “la conception directive du conseil”. This expression designates the idea that the exercise of government must be ordered in such a way that the prince’s will is not curbed by his advisers. The study of the practice of power shows that the royal state’s rise in the 13th century constitutes the starting point of this new approach. Machiavelli gave it a philosophical foundation in one of his chapters of The Prince, but other contemporary sources play an essential role in this history. Courtesan literature on one hand and utopian literature on the other have contributed in an ambivalent way to promoting this approach

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2

Désos, Catherine. "L' entourage français de Philippe V d'Espagne, 1700-1724 : étude d'une société de cour dans le premier quart du XVIIIème siècle". Strasbourg 2, 2007. http://www.theses.fr/2007STR20015.

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Le présent travail met en valeur le rôle de l'entourage français de Philippe V d'Espagne, dans les affaires diplomatiques de ce temps (guerre de Succession, guerre franco-espagnole de 1719, mariages princiers), comme dans la modernisation des affaires intérieures espagnoles (réforme de la Cour, de l'étiquette, mise en place des secrétaires d'Etat, simplification des finances, rénovation de l'armée). De nouveaux dépouillements d'archives ont permis, notamment, de créer un corpus sociologiquement diversifié de près de 260 personnes, dont les relations entre elles, avec les Espagnols ou avec Versailles, sont présentées en trois temps. Tout d'abord, est étudiée leur installation à Madrid, suivie de la prise en main des rouages de la monarchie. Puis, l'on s'intéresse aux modalités de leur prépondérance, entre 1702 et 1712, avant d'analyser le lent déclin de cette influence jusqu'en 1724. Cette recherche offre un éclairage inédit sur de nombreux aspects du règne du premier Bourbon d'Espagne
This work examines the French personalities that surrounded Philip V of Spain, and explores their role in diplomatic events (War of Succession, Franco-Spanish War of 1719, dynastic marriages) and in the modernization of Spanish domestic affairs (reform of the Court and etiquette, appointment of secretaries of state, streamlining of finances, reform of the army). A new examination of the archival sources facilitated the compilation of a sociologically diverse collection of nearly 260 persons, whose relations with the Spaniards and Versailles are profiled in three periods. The first is that of the arrival of the French entourage in Madrid and the extension of its influence throughout the Spanish monarchical apparatus. This is followed by a discussion of the nature and manifestations of the entourage’s power during 1702-1712. It concludes with an analysis of the decline of its influence up to 1724. This work offers new insights into diverse aspects of the reign of Spain’s first Bourbon monarch

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3

Dor, Gal. "State, society and the in-between court, the Israeli experience". Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 1998. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape11/PQDD_0002/MQ40988.pdf.

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4

Tarhan, Celebi Gulce. "The Constitutional Court of Turkey from State-in-Society Perspective". Thesis, University of Oregon, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/1794/23159.

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This dissertation examines the role of the social struggles and alliances in shaping the Constitutional Court rulings that structure core political controversies in Turkey. By adopting Joel Migdal’s State-in-Society approach, the Court is conceived as an organization that exists in an environment of conflict. By following a process oriented approach, this study analyzes the ways in which the relation between the Court and other actors influence the Constitutional Court of Turkey’s motives, capacity and manner of activism mainly during the period under the 1961 Constitution. This study argues that the limits of the Court’s power and its role in structuring the core political controversies that define and divide society can be explained by looking at the alliances formed between the Court and other actors. Alliances extend the jurisdiction of the Court by opening new avenues for political intervention and creating a support network for the reasoning and the justification of its rulings. By comparing the Court’s activism under the 1961 Constitution and under the 1982 Constitution, it is demonstrated that neither the nature nor the influence of these alliances remains static. In fact, this dissertation points out that we need to make a conceptual differentiation between two forms of alliances; strategic alliances and judicial coalitions. Strategic alliances refer to implicit alliances between the Court and other actors formed around an issue, whereas judicial coalitions refer to alliances based on a common normative framework and a shared identity. Whereas the Court’s activism in the first period is best described in terms of a strategic alliance, its activism in the 1990’s and 2000’s is best described with the term judicial coalition.
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5

SERRANO, PAULO MARCELO DE MIRANDA. "PATHS TO THE COURT: STATE AND SOCIETY IN THE NOMINATION OF JUSTICES TO THE BRAZILIAN SUPREME COURT". PONTIFÍCIA UNIVERSIDADE CATÓLICA DO RIO DE JANEIRO, 2015. http://www.maxwell.vrac.puc-rio.br/Busca_etds.php?strSecao=resultado&nrSeq=26899@1.

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PONTIFÍCIA UNIVERSIDADE CATÓLICA DO RIO DE JANEIRO
O tema da pesquisa é o Supremo Tribunal Federal, enfrentando a seguinte questão: o modelo de escolha dos ministros do STF deve ser alterado ou mantido? A investigação tem por objetivo chaves para essa indagação. A relevância do tema é justificada pela importância, no cenário nacional, do Supremo Tribunal Federal, que, além de se encontrar no vértice do Poder Judiciário, encontra-se presente, de forma crescente, na vida contemporânea da sociedade brasileira. São objetivos intermediários da pesquisa: verificar por que o Senado brasileiro, nos séculos 20 e 21, até o momento, jamais deixou de aprovar a escolha dos presidentes da República; quem são os ministros do período mais recente, adotando-se como delimitação temporal os trintas anos do período de redemocratização iniciados em 1985; e, finalmente, por que o Brasil mudou tanto desde 1891 e a forma de escolha dos ministros do STF nunca foi alterada, bem como de que maneira o aparente paradoxo existente entre um sistema institucional dinâmico e um modelo de escolha conservador pode nos revelar o caráter do sistema institucional brasileiro. Ao final, respondendo ao objetivo geral, avalia-se quais são as alterações com maior viabilidade de serem introduzidas, tanto por cambio formal do modelo, quanto pelo modo de sua efetivação e acompanhamento pela sociedade. A seguir, é feita contribuição própria, apontando caminhos para ensejar e motivar a participação da sociedade civil no processo. Encerrando o trabalho, após desvendar os caminhos que levam homens e mulheres para a Corte Suprema brasileira, que, por sua vez, determinam os caminhos que a própria Corte percorrerá, é feito, em considerações finais, um esforço interpretativo que sugere o que pode a escolha dos ministros do Supremo Tribunal Federal, enquanto fenômeno sócio-político, revelar sobre o Brasil contemporâneo.
The research theme is the Brazilian Supreme Court, facing the following question: should the model of choosing the justices be altered or maintained? The goal of the investigation is finding keys to this question. The relevance of the theme is justified by the importance, in the national scene, of the Brazilian Supreme Court, which not only is at the top of the Judiciary Power, but finds itself increasingly present in contemporary brazilian society life. Intermediate goals of the research are: investigate why the brazilian Senate, from the 20th and 21st century until present day, has never disapproved the choice of presidents of the Republic; who are the most recent ministers, setting as temporal delimitation the thirty years of redemocratization starting in 1985; and finally, why did Brazil change so much since 1891 and the model of choosing justices was never altered, as well as how the apparently existing paradox between an institutional dynamic system and a conservative model of choice can reveal the character of the Brazilian institutional system. In closing, while answering the main goals, an review on the alterations with most viability of being introduced in provided, both by formal model switching as well as by method of execution and followup by society. After that, a personal contribution is made, pointing paths to give rise and motivate participation of the civil society in this process. Finishing the research, after unveiling the paths that lead men and women to the Brazilian Supreme Court, paths that determine the course of the Court itself, an effort is made, as final considerations, suggesting what the choice of ministers of the Brazilian Supreme Court, as a social-political phenomena, reveal about contemporary Brazil.

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6

Langenbrunner, Mary R. "Findings From A Court-Mandated Parenting Education Seminar". Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University, 2003. https://dc.etsu.edu/etsu-works/3493.

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7

Blunkosky, Sarah K. "Unlawful Assembly and the Fredericksburg Mayor's Court Order Books, 1821-1834". VCU Scholars Compass, 2009. http://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/etd/1730.

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Unlawful assembly accounts extracted from the Fredericksburg Mayor’s Court Order Books from 1821-1834, reveal rare glimpses of unsupervised, alleged illegal interactions between free and enslaved individuals, many of whom do not appear in other records. Authorities enforced laws banning free blacks and persons of mixed race from interacting with enslaved persons and whites at unlawful assemblies to keep peace in the town, to prevent sexual relationships between white women and free and enslaved black men, and to prevent alliance building between individuals. The complex connections necessary to arrange unlawful assemblies threatened the town’s safety with insurrection if these individuals developed radical ideas opposing the existing social order, the foundation of which was slavery. Akin to residents of areas where natural disasters like volcanoes always pose a risk of dangerous eruptions, those living in Fredericksburg lived their lives within the town slave society and its potential threats. In an area, state, and region where insurrections occurred, unlawful assembly, whether frequent or infrequent, mattered.

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8

Wasserman, Zia. "The importance of reparations for victims of conflict-related sexual violence : challenges facing the International Criminal Court". Master's thesis, University of Cape Town, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/20802.

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Sexual violence perpetrated during armed conflict is a notoriously prolific, yet oft neglected phenomenon. It used to merely be considered an inevitable by-product of war, yet recently sexual violence has come to be described as a 'weapon of war'. This refers to the deliberate and tactical intentions of the perpetrators, and alludes to the fact that sexual violence has been and continues to be an inherent aspect of conflicts. Fortunately, with increased global attention on this issue, there have been numerous developments in international humanitarian law as well as the field of criminal justice, which serve to recognise and condemn the prevalence of wartime sexual violence. That is, rape and other forms of sexual violence have been categorised as international crimes falling within the jurisdiction of international criminal tribunals and courts dealing with conflict situations. Furthermore, there have been several convictions of persons indicted for such crimes. These advances must be applauded, yet there remains a troubling omission: the provision of reparations to the victims of wartime sexual violence. Though the international tribunals and courts are statutorily empowered to award such reparations, there seems to be lapse in this regard. This is critically problematic considering the many harmful consequences of conflict-related sexual violence, namely: physical and medical issues, emotional and psychological issues, social exclusion and stigmatisation, as well as resultant monetary issues. Without a concomitant award of reparations attached to the conviction of a perpetrator of wartime sexual violence, victims are not able to experience true justice. The focus of this paper therefore rests on the challenges of the official court system - specifically that of the ICC - in providing reparations to victims of conflict-related sexual violence. With these in mind, it is recommended that a separate forum be created to deal exclusively with the provision of reparations.

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9

Henderson, Amy Hudson. "Furnishing the Republican Court building and decorating Philadelphia homes, 1790-1800 /". Access to citation, abstract and download form provided by ProQuest Information and Learning Company; downloadable PDF file, 373 p, 2008. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=1612979201&sid=2&Fmt=2&clientId=8331&RQT=309&VName=PQD.

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10

Svensson, Linnéa. "Violence against women with temporary residence permit : An analysis of judgements from the Migration Court". Thesis, Umeå universitet, Juridiska institutionen, 2017. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-150598.

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The Swedish government has an equality goal that men´s violence against women must stop, the government has also signed several international obligations to eliminate discrimination and violence against women. The number of people that moves to Sweden due to family ties is steadily increasing and research has shown that foreign born women have an increased risk of being exposed to male partner violence. How the question about violence against women with temporary residence permit is handled in the alien law has been criticised by women’s organisations and in a government inquiry for being oppressive towards women. The aim in this thesis is to examine how the alien law is applied in the practical work and since the Migration Court generally is the final instance that decides in cases regarding continued residence permit, 16 judgments from the Migration Court are analysed. The aim is to examine how violence against women with temporary residence permit is handled by the Migration Court, which discourses about violence and immigrant women that can be identified in the judgements and how this relate to the gender equality goal to eliminate violence against women. To analyse the judgements discourse analysis is used, to analyse how the law is applied a dogmatic approach and a critical perspective is also partly used. The analysis of the judgments suggest that the interpretation of the alien law is more generous than the legislator might has intended, however the assessments in the judgements varies, especially the question of the duration of the cohabitation. The consequence is that the interpretation of the alien law is unpredictable. Findings also suggest that a woman´s credibility is dependent on that she has made the violence probable. Two discourses are identified “the seeking help discourse” that shows that a lot of responsibility is placed on the individual woman to seek help and protection. And “the discourse of the invisibility of the violence” which points to that if the woman has any other reasons to be granted a residence permit, the Migration Court in many cases fail to discuss or even mention the claimed violence or violation, which creates a notion about what the Court values. It can be stated from this study that how the Migration Court handles the question about men´s violence against women is not compatible to national obligations and to that Swedish government gender equality goal about ending men´s violence against women.

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11

Mohamed, Ifrah-Degmo. "Civil Society and Democratic Ideas : A Case Study Based on Sweden’s Young-Muslims, A Court-Verdict". Thesis, Stockholms universitet, Sociologiska institutionen, 2018. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:su:diva-157183.

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Abstract This thesis explores the role of civil society organizations and the democratic participation of minority groups in Sweden. It is based on an analysis and interpretation of a major court decision that denied government support (MUCF) for a Muslim Youth organization (SUM) in 2016. Based on case study methodology and a close reading of court documents and related reports, the analysis of the empirical material identified nine themes of democratic participation and democratic principles, including: integration, discrimination, multicultural society/diversity, Muslims, Islamism/Muslim brotherhoods in Sweden, human rights. The analysis shows, how the Muslim Youth organization was both included in the democratic process but also excluded. I argue that their exclusion is based on ethnic boundary making processes which construct Muslims as essentially different from the rest of society. The thesis suggests that this exclusion could damage the integration processes of ethnic and religious minorities in Sweden.

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12

Langenbrunner, Mary R. "Court-Mandated Parenting Classes & the Future: Is Psychoeducation All We Have to Offer?" Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University, 2003. https://dc.etsu.edu/etsu-works/3492.

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13

Parkin, Kate. "Courts and the community : reconstructing the fourteenth-century peasant society of Wisbech Hundred, Cambridgeshire, from manor court rolls". Thesis, University of Leicester, 1998. http://hdl.handle.net/2381/31026.

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This thesis assesses afresh the feasibility of social reconstruction based on court rolls, through a methodologically self-conscious analysis of records from Wisbech Hundred. It identifies a recent historiographical movement away from social history towards a 'legal' orthodoxy justified in terms of the nature of the records. It questions the definition of 'custom' implicit in this trend, while exposing and rejecting attempts to use Maitland's work to drive a wedge between legally- and sociologically-informed approaches to court rolls. Computer-based analysis is applied to 316 sessions between 1327 and 1377 of the halimotes, leet, curia and hundred courts of Wisbech, Elm, Leverington, Newton and Tydd St. Giles. These vills were under the single lordship of the bishop of Ely, whose fourteenth-century privileges and jurisdictions are here defined. Court rolls are taken to record court roles (juror, essoin etc.) and these are defined in detail as attributes of individuals, whose activities and interactions are thus considered strictly within the arena of the court. The predominant business of regulating land transfer receives particular attention, shedding light on custom and 'deathbed transfers'. Rudimentary social network analysis is undertaken, proving more useful as an interpretative mode than a mathematical technique. Narrative case-studies relate individuals and families to observed trends. Finally, a refinement of existing methodologies is offered. It is suggested that, although social historians should indeed be sensitive to the limited purposes of these records, they need not abandon social reconstruction. Rather, the nature and dynamics of individuals' 'court-lives' should be defined with detailed reference to local custom and circumstances. This done, other classes of records can be utilised, each to illuminate its own aspect of individual lives. 'Identity' is advanced as a theoretical basis for keeping these lines of investigation separate until their combination in social reconstruction reflective of the multifaceted nature of society.

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14

Karhu, Evelina. "How rape myths are used in Swedish child rape court cases in comparison with adults : A critical discourse analysis". Thesis, Umeå universitet, Juridiska institutionen, 2017. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-150597.

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A commonality in rape trials is that the legal system is colored by myths and norms – more specifically ‘rape myths’. These myths includes the perception of ‘men as more sex needing’, ‘rape victim brought the offense on themselves’ and so forth. A new law on sex crimes was introduced in 2005 in Sweden in order to create a stronger protection when it comes to rape and sexual assaults of different kinds – especially the removal of violence in child rape cases. Previous research conclude that rape myths are still routinely used at trial in adult rape and sexual assault cases. Rape myths in court often relates to a specific ‘rational’ behavior as the ‘normal’ or ‘right’ way to act, which relates to a masculinized view of reasoning colored by the patriarchal society. The overall purpose of this paper is to examine how rape myths appear in trials involving children; if children are viewed in the same way as adults according to these myths in rape cases – or differently, and how these myths are manifested. Also, a certain focus is on gender similarities and differences when it comes to rape myths. The paper is based upon 20 Swedish court cases from 2005 to 2017. Five cases within each group of victims: girls, boys, women and men. The thesis uses critical discourse analysis along with feminist studies to analyze these rape myths. This study shows that rape myths also are used in child rape cases, and thus, that children are no exception. Moreover, victimized females are often found in a disadvantaged position within court, as opposed to males. Girls seem to be most disadvantaged due to their position as both young and female. The results further indicates that legislation can be a useful tool to create rape myth busters.

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15

Carlos, Raoul Christian. "‘One Dress – One Nation!’ : The societal implications of King Gustav III’s National Costume in late eighteenth-century Swedish Court Society". Thesis, Stockholms universitet, Modevetenskap, 2021. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:su:diva-194805.

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This thesis explores the societal implications of Gustav III’s national costume in the context of Swedish court society during the late eighteenth century. With the aims of uncovering King Gustav III’s view of the National Costume and its role in Swedish court society, as well as how we can understand the National Costume’s meaning for the aristocracy in late eighteenth-century Sweden, this thesis presents a post-structural textual analysis of Gustav III’s (1806) REFLEXIONER, angående en ny nationel klädedrägt (Reflections concerning a new national costume) in order to uncover King Gustav III’s perception of and ideology behind the national costume. This is then juxtaposed with a similar analysis of a chapter from Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotta’s (1902) journal, representing an aristocratic counter-perspective. This thesis presents a previously unexplored sociological perspective in studying Gustav III’s National Costume. Departing from Norbert Elias’ work around the court society, arguments are made for the interpretation of the National Costume as an instrument in court ceremonial, at the king’s disposal, holding the potential to create a distance in power between the Swedish court nobility and the monarchy. Furthermore, it is argued that the National Costume represents an oppressive force to the Swedish court nobility as a social class.

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16

Millman, Eric. "Substantive Due Process and the Politicization of the Supreme Court". Scholarship @ Claremont, 2018. http://scholarship.claremont.edu/cmc_theses/1905.

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Substantive due process is one of the most cherished and elusive doctrines in American constitutional jurisprudence. The understanding that the Constitution of the United States protects not only specifically enumerated rights, but also broad concepts such as “liberty,” “property,” and “privacy,” forms the foundation for some of the Supreme Court’s most impactful—and controversial—decisions. This thesis explores the constitutional merits and politicizing history of natural rights jurisprudence from its application in Dred Scott v. Sandford to its recent evocation in Obergefell v. Hodges. Indeed, from slavery to same-same sex marriage, substantive due process has played a pivotal role in shaping our nation’s laws and destiny: But was it ever intended to? This paper first examines the legal arguments in favor of substantive due process to determine whether the judiciary was designed to be the “bulwark” of natural as well as clearly scribed law. Then, employing a novel framework to measuring judicial politicization, the thesis tracks the doctrine’s application throughout its most prominent case studies. Often arriving at nuanced conclusions, we observe that the truth is more often painted in some gradation of grey than in black or white.

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17

Ljungström, Daniel. "Bad or Mad? : A Qualitative Study of How the Gender of a Perpetrator Affects Court Decisions". Thesis, Umeå universitet, Juridiska institutionen, 2018. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-152445.

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The purpose of this thesis has been to analyze Court cases determined in a Swedish context which included the crime gross assault against a closely related victim. The purpose has also been to investigate the possibility of identifying differences in Court assessments in consideration of a gender perspective and to examine how female and male perpetrators are described and characterized by Courts. The study has had a qualitative orientation and assumed a constructionist and a socio-legal perspective. The data material, consisting of ten cases with male offenders and ten cases with female offenders, has been examined by using a thematic analysis approach, where the results have been related to Nils Christie`s ideal victim theory and to the concept of genus The results of the study showed that Courts were constant in their decisions regarding male offenders, while decisions concerning female offenders appeared to be more varied. All of the male offenders were sentenced to imprisonment, while Courts` choice of sanction regarding female offenders to a high degree consisted of different measures of care. The study claims that there is an indication of that violent male and female offenders are treated differently by Courts and, in accordance to this viewpoint, that criminal men are bad and criminal women are mad.

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18

Liu, Ruoxi. "The media, the public and the courts under Chinese governmentality: case study of a highly publicized trial in a transitional society". Thesis, University of Iowa, 2015. https://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/1874.

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Recent years have witnessed an increase in the phenomenon of highly publicized trial in China. There have been studies exploring the relationship between the media and the political system, especially the judicial system in China. Scholarship on this topic has shown that the Chinese media are playing an increasingly important role in sustaining the regime. Specifically, they are becoming more influential over the outcomes of court cases and have developed to one of the most important actors in China's legal system (Wang & Tan, 2008; Liebman, 2005, 2010; Stockmann &Gallagher, 2011). The media-court relationship provides insights into China's politics, and more importantly, reflects the logics and rationale behind the Communist Party-state's governance. This thesis aims to contribute to existing knowledge on the functioning of the Chinese judicial system using as a case study, the trial of Yao Jiaxin, a young man prosecuted for a particularly heinous murder. This case study explores the dynamic relationship between the media and the courts in China under the framework of the “governmentality” of the Chinese Communist Party. The findings showed that the relationship between the media and the courts is changing, and the public has become an important actor in this relationship. As such, both the media and the courts are now more responsive to public opinion. This new dynamic is attributed to China’s evolution to a governmentality of “soft authoritarianism,” which is enabled by the Internet, mainly online forums and social media platforms in China. However, Yao’s case also suggested some limitations of China’s governmentality. First, social actors including the media and the court are facing challenges in achieving a balance between being responsive to the public and maintaining their professional integrity. Secondly, “soft” authoritarianism is only a means to an end, not an end in itself. Individual interests are expected to be sacrificed for the sake of collective interests under this governmentality.

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19

Villum, Aksel Reppe. "(In)equality before the law? : An analysis of the role of gender in sentencing in cases concerning welfare fraud tried in the Norwegian Court of Appeal". Thesis, Umeå universitet, Juridiska institutionen, 2018. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-155170.

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The fight against welfare fraud currently sees an increased focus from Norwegian authorities. This attention is connected to the narratives of real and perceived threats to the welfare state, where welfare fraud not only implies the misappropriation of government funds but may also be detrimental to the public’s support of the welfare state. This paper investigates the relationship between gender and sentencing in cases concerning welfare fraud tried in the Norwegian Court of Appeal (Lagmannsretten). Based on the literature on gender bias in sentencing, particularly from an American perspective, the main hypothesis proposed was that women received more lenient sentences than men. The secondary hypotheses proposed that aggravating and mitigating circumstances would correlate with the type of punishment being awarded, i.e. custodial, probation and community sentence. Further, mitigating circumstances would have a positive correlation with probation and community sentence, while aggravating circumstances would have a negative correlation on the same punishment categories. Finally, these correlations would correlate stronger in a positive direction for females, and stronger in a negative direction for males.SPSS was used to conduct descriptive and regression analyses on a data material which was organized in MS Excel. The data was collected through the online source Lovdata.no.Drawing on the research of Daly, 1989; Bickle & Peterson, 1991; Williams, 1999; Spohn & Holleran, 2002; Doerner & Demuth, 2012; Embry & Lyons, 2012; and Bontrager & Stupi, 2013, especially that of ”courtroom paternalism”, the findings of the thesis echoes that of previous work on the the field of gender bias in sentencing. The results showed a correlation between gender and type of punishment: females had a proportionately higher frequency of probation and community sentence than that of males. When taking into account aggravating and mitigating circumstances, strong correlations where identified between females and community sentence, and moderate so with probation and females. With regards to custodial, few differences between the sexes were found. However, one would benefit from further research into the aggravating and mitigating circumstances, for instance by conducting interviews.

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20

Korach, Grzegorz. "The Limited Deductibility of Costs Incurred by Non-residents in the Restriction Test Applied by the Court of Justice of the European Union". Thesis, Uppsala universitet, Juridiska institutionen, 2018. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-351794.

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21

Avelar, de Carvalho Helena. "Vir sapiens dominabitur astris: astrological knowledge and practices in the Portuguese medieval court (king João I to king Afonso V)". Master's thesis, Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/10362/6672.

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Dissertação apresentada para cumprimento dos requisitos necessários à obtenção do grau de Mestre em História Medieval
The present study addresses the practice of astrology and its cultural repercussions in the 14th and 15th centuries’ Portuguese court. The research is based in the comparative study of three sets of sources: 1) the astrology books from the royal libraries, which reveal the dominant concepts of astrology; 2) the writings of kings João I and Duarte, and prince Pedro, as examples of the practical application of these concepts; 3) the royal chronicles of Fernão Lopes, Gomes Eanes de Zurara and Rui de Pina, as examples of its presence in political discourse. The astrological references occur in three main contexts: the validation of power, the explanation of manners and the debate about determinism-versus-free will. The latter stands as the main fracturing topic in medieval astrology. In any case, the validity of astrology by itself was never in question; the debate revolved only around its limits and its legitimacy in face of Christian faith. Astrology was seen as a sophisticated art, practiced by learned men. Its foundation was the scientific understanding of the natural laws and its practitioners tried to demarcate themselves from common divination and superstition. Due to its pervasiveness in this period, it can be concluded that astrology is an essential factor for the understanding of Portuguese medieval life. The study of the astrological practice, from the perspective of the History of Culture and Mentalities, offers new insights to the understanding of the medieval period.

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22

Whitman, Kim. "Contesting Uganda's legislative homophobia in the African court on human and peoples' rights: Substantive and procedural challenges". University of the Western Cape, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/11394/8219.

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Magister Legum - LLM
In many societies, a division between genders exist. This differentiation is attributed to a patriarchal culture which creates gender norms in sexualities.1 A set of cultural practices and expectations exist; these cultural practices and expectations assume that heterosexuality is the cornerstone of social unions - this phenomenon is known as heteronormativity.2 Heteronormativity affords that there are only two sexes with predetermined gender roles,3 creating the homophobia in societies. Human rights infringements on the basis of gender identity and sexual orientation has become noticeable across Africa.4 Homophobia in Africa is linked to the codification of laws that infringed on human rights under colonialism, which still forms part of the current norms around sexuality.5 Homosexuality is prohibited and is unlawful in most of the countries in Africa, South Africa being the only country that allows for the legal union of same-sex couples.6 There have been a number of academic texts debating the importance of culture against the right to equality in the South African context; 7 however, there is an inadequate amount of academic text available about this topic on an African level. Therefore, an ongoing debate about the protection of "sexual minorities" contrasted with the protection of cultural rights exists on an international scale. 8 The rights of sexual minorities are disregarded too often and they are often denied equal and fair access to the law. A large number of African countries believe that homosexuality is un African,9 thus choosing to exclude lesbians and gays from citizen rights. 10 Due to this belief, the practice of homosexuality in Africa is seen one that goes against the morals and values of the majority of society. This creates a stand-off between cultural rights and equality rights of sexual minorities.

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23

Dabbagh, Zahran. "The Discrimination in Workplaces : A Critical Discourse Analysis of the European Court of Justice Judgment about the Islamic Veil Prohibition". Thesis, Umeå universitet, Juridiska institutionen, 2017. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-150600.

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The issue of the Islamic headscarf has been in the centre of the political debate whether it fits into the Western culture or not. Several member-states in the European Union have issued laws and regulations that impose restrictions on wearing the Islamic headscarf in the public sphere. Even some EU courts have ruled such restrictions imposed by member-states. Recently, this issue has been discussed in the context of the occupational life. In a dispute before the European Court of Justice, the ban was considered as legitimate. In this research, I analyse the judgment from a socio-legal perspective and analyse the intersectional identity of Mrs. Achbita who is a party in the dispute, considering that she belongs to the social category of veiled working Muslim women.

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24

Gomalo, Kena. "Affirming Actions, Fallacy of American Post Racial Society: Policy Analysis and Critique of United States Supreme Court Effect on Black Student Access To Higher Education". Thesis, University of Oregon, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/1794/23194.

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Affirming actions, fallacy of American post racial society: Policy analysis and critique of United States Supreme Court effect on Black student access to higher education. Since the inception of the country that is now known as the United States of America, the inquiry of racial equity and inclusion is one that has not been unequivocally and diligently answered. In attempt to remedy these societal burdens, the government leadership has retreated to various affirmative action policy initiatives. The affirmative action policies range from Executive Order from the President of the United States, policies in governmental contractors work sector, to university admissions policies. In turn, these policies, especially the college admissions policies, have been legally scrutinized and attenuated by the United States Supreme Court. As a result, theses policies, that were initially put in place to help Black students get equitable access to higher education, have had meager effects on creating a equitable education society. The meager effects are attributed to continuous restrictive guideline and regulations of the Supreme Court. In that vein, chronological research findings suggests that the Supreme Courts decisions have had injuriously powerful impact on Black students ability to get into an institute of higher education and subsequently find economic success. Furthermore, society’s increasing apprehension and non-understanding of the fundamental goals of affirmative action suggests that the Supreme Courts affirmative action decisions will morph from the restrictive and injurious strict scrutiny to permanent decease of any utilization of race based policy.

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25

FALCETTA, SILVIA. "JUDICIAL INTERPRETATION, HUMAN RIGHTS, SEXUAL ORIENTATION: A SOCIO-LEGAL STUDY OF THE JURISPRUDENCE OF THE EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS". Doctoral thesis, Università degli Studi di Milano, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/2434/454719.

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The contemporaneity has been famously defined as “the age of rights” (Bobbio 1995), and the logic of rights has become “the principal language that we use in public settings to discuss weighty questions of both right and wrong” (Glendon 1991, 63). If human rights give voice to minorities and marginalized groups in society, and they can do so with powerful legal and symbolical resources, the tendency to frame almost every social conflict in terms of a clash of rights also favours absolute formulations and the activation of judiciary.Under such premises, this dissertation provides a qualitative socio-legal analysis of the jurisprudence on sexual orientation of the European Court of Human Rights. More in detail, I focus on the arguments produced by the judges, and I analyze the legal controversies, the normative framing, the social perspectives, and the moral standpoints that orient the interpretation of the European Convention on Human Rights. The aim is twofold; on one hand, I investigate how the aforementioned arguments influence the evaluation, the acceptance, or the refusal of claims grounded on sexual orientation. On the other, the purpose is to critically engage in the asserted neutral character of judicial reasoning, in order to reveal the clash of perspectives underpinned to the interpretation of human rights.

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26

Papaioannou, Andreas. "Humanitarian Values on Trial: Legal Cases relating to Humanitarian Protection at the Migration Court in Stockholm". Thesis, Uppsala universitet, Teologiska institutionen, 2019. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-393910.

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Purpose: The paper’s purpose is to critically discuss how a government institution, the Migration Court in Stockholm, interprets the law and how this interpretation reflects value choices and value priorities. Methodology/Design: The present paper employs qualitative research methods focusing on discursive social psychology and the interpretative repertoire of “effortfulness”. Results/Findings: This paper suggests that the definition of values as behaviour predictors helps us understand how state institutions and, in the present study, the Migration Court in Stockholm can express “other-oriented” values. Value/Originality: The paper’s socio-legal analysis of the humanitarian sector highlights the emergence of the judiciary system as a new humanitarian actor.

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27

Kaur, Simranjit. "The Distinction between Jurisdiction and Admissibility in International Investment Law : The Practice in Investment Treaty Arbitration within the Wider Framework of Public International Law, Accounting the Practice of the International Court of Justice". Thesis, Uppsala universitet, Juridiska institutionen, 2020. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-412195.

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28

Givelber, Jackie. "Is Love a Battlefield? The New Politics of Marriage Equality in the Aging War on Terror". Scholarship @ Claremont, 2017. http://scholarship.claremont.edu/scripps_theses/1026.

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When Donald Trump took the stage as the Republican presidential nominee at the Republican National Convention in July 2016, he made a historical appeal to LGBTQ Americans: to the boisterous applause of a Republican audience, he promised "to protect LGBTQ citizens from the violence and oppression of a hateful foreign ideology." Utilizing this historical moment as an indicator of shifting political views around LGBTQ rights in the Republican Party and the US nation-state as a whole, this paper links contemporary iterations of the War on Terror to the legalization of same-sex marriage in June 2015. Connecting same-sex marriage to the US nation-building project, I argue that the "dignity" newly available to certain queer folks via the institution of marriage makes possible an articulation of queer-defensibility that services a Republican investment in the aging War on Terror and the sustained targeting and hyper-surveillance of Muslims globally.

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29

Hawes, Janelle M. "An examination of fathers' satisfaction with the legal system: Exploring the concept in relation to fathers' experience with the Family Law Court of Western Australia". Thesis, Edith Cowan University, Research Online, Perth, Western Australia, 2004. https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/822.

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Although the importance of fathers' post divorce contact with their children has been linked with a better outcome for the children and is valued by society, studies in the United States and Australia have suggested that up to 30 percent of fathers do not maintain regular contact with their children post divorce. To date, the literature has focused mainly on demographic variables and some personal characteristics of the father. An area, which has been neglected, is the influence of fathers' perception of legal proceedings and rules on their contact with their children post divorce. This study aimed to explore the underlying concepts of satisfaction and examine fathers' perception of satisfaction in relation to their experience with the Family Court of Western Australia. This was done by utilising qualitative research methodology. Twenty·four fathers were interviewed using an interview schedule adapted from Tyler (1988). Results from the present study indicated that fathers' satisfaction was primarily influenced by a favourable outcome in relation to contact with their children. Factors found to result in dissatisfaction included fathers’ feelings that their father role had been eroded, a perceived bias by the family law system in favour of the mother, and a lack of legal assistance and limited availability of legal personnel. In order to clarify a number of issues, a subset often fathers from the original sample were re-interviewed. Further analysis confirmed that fathers' unresolved issues in relation to their separation; strong emotions including anger and distress during the court process; and unrealistic expectations in relation to contact with their children, made dissatisfaction with the legal system, and in particular court outcomes, more likely. This research suggests that early intervention for fathers is needed to allow them to address any unresolved issues surrounding their separation, and the emotions such as anger and grief that often follow separation. Services, which provide legal assistance and direction prior to entering and during legal proceedings, also appear to be necessary.

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30

Pierré-Caps, Alexandra. "L'empereur et la cour de Dioclétien à Théodose Ier (284 - 395) : espace, réseaux, dynamiques de pouvoir en Occident". Thesis, Université de Lorraine, 2018. http://www.theses.fr/2018LORR0271.

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Le sujet interroge les procédés de structuration et de configuration d’une cour impériale, qu’ils soient spontanés ou à l’initiative de l’empereur. Comme le rappelle le sociologue allemand Norbert Elias, dont les travaux encadrent largement cette étude, la cour ne doit pas son existence à la volonté d’un seul individu. Le cadre chronologique de cette étude est celui d’un long IVe siècle, prétexte à l’observation d’une évolution de la structure aulique et de l’image de la dignité impériale sur le long terme. L’Occident offre un objet d’étude privilégié, par sa diversité et ses pratiques du pouvoir héritières d’une ancienne centralité axée sur la ville de Rome. Notre hypothèse de recherche vise à pondérer le « paradigme du prince décideur » et à faire de l’empereur du IVe siècle un acteur de la cour et non plus seulement le point nodal d’une structure aulique qui tend à s’autonomiser. Il s’agit de mieux appréhender l’évolution de la pratique d’un pouvoir souvent perçu comme autocratique, le façonnement d’une cour destinée à servir le prestige d’une dignité impériale restaurée et l’autonomisation d’une administration extrêmement lourde. La permanence de certains réseaux d’influence à la cour semble entraîner un paradoxe entre le renforcement de l’autorité impériale et la faiblesse de l’influence décisionnelle des empereurs dans certains domaines de la vie politique. Cette contradiction ménage de nouveaux espaces du pouvoir jusque dans les territoires de l’empire, sous la forme de projections spatiales de la réalité aulique à travers la mobilité des hauts fonctionnaires. De là, la cour apparaît d’abord comme une abstraction soumise au politique avant que d’être une réalité topographique. L’ « absolutisme » en tant que « trait dominant du régime » mérite une nouvelle approche historiographique à l’aune de ces nouvelles pratiques du pouvoir à l’œuvre dès la Tétrarchie
The present subject examines the processes of structuration and configuration of an imperial court. Those processes could be spontaneous or on the emperor’s initiative. As the German sociologist Norbert Elias reminds us, the court doesn’t owe its existence to the will of one person. This study takes place in a long 4th century and highlights the evolution of the court structure and the representation of the imperial dignity over the long term. The Western empire is a priviledged field of study due to the diversity of its political practices of power inherited from the old centrality of power settled in Rome. Our research hypothesis is about moderating the paradigm of the ‘decision-maker prince’. In that sense, the emperor of the Late Roman Empire would become an actor of the court again and not only the nodal point of this structure which is trying to become autonomous. We would like to better comprehend the evolution of a power usually regarded as autocratic, the making process of a court intended to serve the prestige of a restored imperial dignity and the autonomisation of an heavy administration. There is a paradox between the permanency of some political networks at court, the reinforcement of the imperial authority and the decision-making weakness of the emperors in some aspects of the political life. This contradiction creates new spaces of power in empire's territories because of the mobility of the senior officials. In that, the court appears more as a political abstraction than just a topographic reality. The ‘absolutism’ of that time deserves a new historiographical approach to understand those new political practices noticeable since the Tetrarchy

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31

Jändel, Viktor y Lira Kolaric. "Barnets bästa vid tvångsomhändertagande av barn som far illa i Sverige och Norge : En komparativrättslig studie av svensk och norsk rätt". Thesis, Södertörns högskola, Offentlig rätt, 2019. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:sh:diva-38094.

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This study in comparative public law analyses if the courts have decided in the best interest of the child when judging for immediate care due to domestic violence. Both Sweden and Norway have transformed the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) article 3 in parts of their national legislation. The difference between the countries is that Norway in 2003 incorporated CRC as a part of their legal policy, Sweden, on the other hand, has not integrated CRC in their national laws. There is a need for research if and how the local authorities and the courts in the two countries live up to the concept for the best interest of the child. Six court decisions from both countries as well as the development of the national legislation will be analyzed. To achieve our purpose, we will use the comparative and dogmatic legal method. The comparative method will be used when we compare the similarities and differences between their national legal system and the court's judgment for immediate care for the best interest of the child. The dogmatic legal method will be used for defining the current law. The results of this study indicate that Norway has more appropriate laws for the best interest of the child. The difference between the countries is that in Norway the court can decide based on their child specific law. While the courts in Sweden only can decide for the best interest of the child with the interpretation based on the two laws but the code is not just for the child. Despite the differences, both Sweden and Norway have appropriate laws for how the local authorities and the court should promote the best interest of the child. In the future, we hope that it would be easier for the Swedish courts to apply the best interest of the child when CRC has been incorporated into the national legislation.

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32

Cardoso, Lino de Almeida. "O som e o soberano: uma história da depressão musical carioca pós-Abdicação (1831-1843) e de seus antecedentes". Universidade de São Paulo, 2006. http://www.teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/8/8138/tde-16072007-110842/.

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Entre os anos de 1808 e 1831, a cidade do Rio de Janeiro tornou-se um dos mais fecundos centros operísticos das Américas. Não o fora por acaso. Na primeira década do século XIX, o Teatro de São Carlos, de Lisboa, ainda era tido na Europa como a melhor ópera italiana além dos limites da Itália, e todo o fino cultivo do drama cantado italiano, desenvolvido desde o reinado de Dom João V, se transferiu, em parte, para a então capital do Estado do Brasil, quando a família real portuguesa e membros de sua corte ali se instalaram. Além de importantes autores e executantes europeus, o Rio passou a dispor, em poucos anos, de uma grande casa de ópera, comparada às melhores do Antigo Continente, e nesses pouco mais de vinte anos, cerca de quarenta títulos de óperas diferentes foram ali estreadas, fora as centenas de repetições. Além de ópera, podia-se também ouvir, no Rio desse mesmo período, excelente música sacra na Capela Real, depois Imperial. Para Manuel de Araújo Porto Alegre, esse gênero, \"que encantava os estrangeiros em Roma, era executado com a mesma perfeição, durante a Semana Santa, no Rio de Janeiro\", elogio, diga-se de passagem, endossado pela maior parte dos europeus que tiveram a oportunidade de ouvir tal conjunto musical, como Debret, Freycinet, Graham, Caldcleugh. Tal cultivo excelente da música sacra devia-se, em parte, à existência, ali, de exímios músicos nativos, como José Maurício Nunes Garcia e Pedro Teixeira de Seixas, mas, também, graças ao esforço de Dom João em fazer vir de Portugal, desde a sua chegada, muitos dos músicos que formaram, durante o reinado de Dona Maria I, \"a primeira Capela da Europa, superior inclusive à do Vaticano\", como testemunhou o viajante inglês William Beckford, em 1787. Por outro lado, entre setembro de 1831 e janeiro de 1844, surpreende notar que nenhum espetáculo de ópera completa tenha sido estreado ou sequer encenado no Rio de Janeiro. Como se não bastasse, cerca de dois meses após a abdicação de Dom Pedro I, o governo regencial fez cumprir, com extremo rigor, o orçamento imperial de 1831-1832, praticamente extinguindo a orquestra da Capela Imperial e reduzindo o número de músicos, que chegou a cerca de setenta na época de Dom Pedro I, a menos de trinta integrantes. A reorganização dessa orquestra somente iria ocorrer em maio de 1843, já em pleno segundo reinado. Nenhuma dúvida paira quanto ao fato de que essa depressão musical repentina e ao mesmo tempo duradoura dos anos 1831-1843 tenha uma íntima relação com o interregno de 1831-1840. Porém, nenhum estudo histórico ou musicológico foi realizado até hoje buscando, em meio a eventos de diversas naturezas - social, política e econômica -, estabelecer, com precisão, que fatores mais teriam contribuído para esse fulminante declínio da ópera e da música sacra na capital do Império, em 1831. Igualmente, jamais se explicou por que razão tantos anos, incluindo-se alguns já do segundo reinado, foram necessários para que o Rio de Janeiro voltasse a ter uma atividade musical similar à que tinha antes da partida de Dom Pedro I. Diante disso, procuraremos - acompanhando os moldes de alguns importantes estudos internacionais, os quais, paulatinamente, têm contribuído para a edificação de uma história mais geral da música - abrir não apenas um amplo leque de causas diretas dessa derrocada, como demonstrar que essa parte mais importante da atividade musical no Rio de Janeiro - a produção de te-déuns e óperas - esteve, até então - e desde muito antes do que se imaginava, ainda nos tempos dos Governadores e Vice-Reis -, assim como em Lisboa e em outras capitais européias, intimamente ligada ao simbolismo da figura do soberano, ao status do artifício maravilhoso e sagrado do poder real. E, daí, propor que a fundamental causa da decadência dos dois mais importantes organismos musicais do Rio de Janeiro durante os anos 1831-1843 tenha sido o concomitante enfraquecimento, após a partida de Dom Pedro I, dessa antiga expressão simbólica da monarquia, um ritual de manutenção de um poder real que se efetivava na atividade social de corte, prática recuperada, em parte, entre 1840 e 1841, com a Maioridade e a Coroação, e, cabalmente, em 1843, com o imperial consórcio.
In the years between 1808 and 1831, the city of Rio de Janeiro became one of the most active operatic centers in America. This had not been by chance. In the first decade of the 19th century, the São Carlos Theatre, in Lisbon, was still considered the best Italian opera house in Europe, outside Italy, and all the intense cultivation of the Italian lyric drama, developed since the reign of Dom João V, was, in part, transferred to the capital of the State of Brazil at that time, when the Portuguese royal family, together with members of the court, settled down there. Within a few years, besides important European composers and performers, Rio already had a great opera house which could be compared to the best ones in Europe, and during little more than those twenty years, nearly forty different opera titles were first performed there, not to mention hundreds of repetitions. In the same period, besides opera, it was also possible to listen to excellent sacred music in the Royal Chapel, called Imperial later on. According to Manuel de Araújo Porto Alegre, that kind of music \"which enchanted foreigners in Rome was equally played with the same perfection during the Holy Week in Rio de Janeiro\", a praise, in passing, supported by most of the Europeans who had the opportunity of listening to such a musical ensemble, as Debret, Freycinet, Graham, Caldcleugh and many others. Such an excellent cultivation of sacred music was due not only to the existence, there, of extraordinary native musicians, as José Maurício Nunes Garcia and Pedro Teixeira de Seixas, but also to the effort made by Dom João since his arrival, to fetch from Portugal several of the musicians who, during the reign of Dona Maria I, had formed \"the fist Chapel of Europe, superior to that one in the State of Vatican\", as the English traveller, William Beckford, had testified in 1787. On the other hand, it is a surprise to notice that, between September 1831 and January 1844, no complete opera had been first performed or even staged in Rio de Janeiro. Moreover, about two months after the abdication of Dom Pedro I, the regent government carried out the imperial budget of 1831- 1832 with extreme severity, practically extinguishing the Imperial Chapel Orchestra and reducing the number of musicians that had almost reached seventy, during the time of Dom Pedro I, to less than thirty. The reorganization of that orchestra would only occur on May 1843, in the second reign already. There is no doubt about the fact of that sudden and, at the same time, lasting musical depression of the years 1831-1843 has had a close relationship with the interregnum of 1831-1840. But no historical or musicological research has been accomplished so far, trying, among events of different nature - social, politic, economic -, to establish precisely which other causes had contributed to the extreme decline of opera and sacred music in the capital of the Empire in 1831. Likewise, it has never been explained why so many years, including some in the second reign, were necessary for Rio de Janeiro to have again a musical activity similar to that one before the departure of Dom Pedro I. Thinking of that - following the patterns of some important international researches that have slowly contributed to the edification of a more general history of the music - , we\'ll try not only to open a huge set of direct causes of such a destruction, but also to demonstrate that those most important musical activities in Rio de Janeiro - to produce Te Deum and opera - were since then - and since long before it could be imagined, still in the time of the Governors and Viceroys -, so as in Lisbon and other European capitals, closely connected to the symbolism of the image of the sovereign, to the status of the marvelous and sacred artifice of the royal power. And, from that, to propose that the chief cause of the decline of the two principal musical organisms of Rio de Janeiro, during the years 1831- 1843, had been the concomitant debility, after the departure of Dom Pedro I, of that old symbolic expression of monarchy, a ritual to maintain a royal power which became effective in the social activity of the court, custom recovered, in part, between 1840 and 1841, with the Majority and Coronation of Dom Pedro II, and finally completed with the imperial marriage, in 1843.

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33

Sigafoos, Jennifer A. "The European Court of Justice and social policy : a mixed methods analysis of preliminary references from the EU-15, 1996-2009". Thesis, University of Oxford, 2011. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:4d612059-2269-4e16-94bd-1e9180c2f3e2.

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Although social policy was once perceived to be solely within the purview of the nation state, there has been a move toward a more European social policy. The European Court of Justice for the European Communities (‘Court of Justice’ or ‘Court’) determines the scope of European law and how it affects national welfare states. The court’s decisions will affect not only the national law of the member states with regard to social policy but also the direction of European social policy as it expands. However, the ECJ does not choose the policy areas in which it makes its decisions, but instead reacts to the preliminary references that are sent by the national courts of the Member States. These preliminary references from the Member States will set the Court’s agenda. Preliminary references are unevenly distributed across the Member States of the EU, and some Member States’ preliminary references are concentrated in particular policy areas. The jurisprudence of the Court, and consequently the social policy of the EU, could be steered by this uneven distribution. This thesis will answer the threshold question of why scholars of social policy should care about the Court of Justice, with a legal analysis of some key themes in the Court’s decisions in the area of social policy. It will then employ a mixed methods research design to explain the variation in rates of social policy preliminary references from the EU-15. First, a Time Series Cross-Section (TSCS) model will be used to test a series of hypotheses generated from the literature, and three novel hypotheses, in a dataset of social policy preliminary references from the EU-15 from 1996 to 2009. Next, a Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) (Ragin 2000) will group the variables that were found to be significant into sets of conditions, or ‘causal pathways,’ that lead to higher and lower rates of social policy preliminary references. Finally, two qualitative case studies will be conducted, in the UK and France. Analysis of documentary evidence and 25 expert interviews in the two member states and at the Court of Justice will further explain and illuminate the differing usage of preliminary reference process. The analysis of the mixed methods is integrated in the final stage. Implications for the direction of EU law related to social policy and the future development of European social policy will be considered in the concluding chapter.

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34

Drakopoulos, David. "Appeal mechanisms and Investment Court Systems in Investor-State Dispute Settlement : An analysis of AM and ICS suggestions, in light of contemporary reform". Thesis, Uppsala universitet, Juridiska institutionen, 2021. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-443417.

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We begin with a short analysis of the history of Investor-State Dispute Settlement (ISDS). We then discuss the merits and demerits of the regime, such as the arguments between finality, speediness, and correctness. Following from this, historical reforms are discussed, and whether those issues have gotten worse or better since these discussions. The modern problems are discussed, leading to the explanation of the “legitimacy crisis”. As Appellate Mechanisms (AM) and Investment Court Systems (ICS) both propose multi layered systems, we argue whether ISDS must be a “one bite at the apple” system. We expand on the issues of regulatory chill, before showing the contradictions in the granting of awards. From this, a discussion is raised on the advantages of a tenured system of adjudicators, particularly in reference to their apparent bias. We delve deeper into the direct consequences of the perceived issues of ISDS, in the context of human rights, the environment, and other issues of sovereignty.As more reforms are suggested, the question of “what makes arbitration, arbitration?” is raised. From here, we may begin to suggest reforms based on which key factors are to be preserved. Firstly, we discuss current reform options, such as the Mauritius Convention. We take inspiration from existing AM, and prior discussions on the implementation of such a system across the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) and United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) frameworks. We analyse whether these discussions have led to change by comparing trends in drafting.Thereon, we offer suggestions of reform. ICS and how this would be implemented, what it would look like structurally, and its positive and negative effects. Using the Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) and other contemporary ICS reform suggestions, we gain some knowledge of what an ICS regime could and should look like, the implementation of AM previously discussed in this regime, and other. Finally, we offer a different solution to the problems, yet less pragmatic, the termination of arbitration.

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35

Erlandsson, Amanda. "Språkkrav vid rekrytering : Var går gränsen mellan ett lämpligt och nödvändigt kunskapskrav i svenska språket och etnisk diskriminering?" Thesis, Linnéuniversitetet, Institutionen för ekonomistyrning och logistik (ELO), 2017. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:lnu:diva-62766.

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The migration to Sweden has increased in the last few years and in order to diminishsegregation and unemployment among the population, it has been a prioritized matterto help the migrants to enter the Swedish labour market. Employers that set languagerequirements when recruiting can reduce the possibility for a person with a differentethnical background to obtain employment. These language requirements can beappropriate and necessary to achieve a legitimate purpose. This study aims toinvestigate in which cases the employer has the right to set a language requirementand in which circumstances setting the requirement is discriminatory on grounds ofethnicity. In order to answer the research question, a legal dogmatic method has beenused.The investigation indicates that the court judge discrimination on grounds of ethnicityvery restrictively and in some cases fails to enforce the law correctly. Employersseem to evade sanctions easily, for example by implying that the decision is based onthe applicant’s personal qualities. This could be a reason why there are only a fewcases taken to the court.

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36

Löfvenberg, Olof. "Rättstillämpningens enhetlighet : En analys av objektiva ändamålsövervägandens tillämpning i tingsrätt och Högsta domstolen". Thesis, Uppsala universitet, Juridiska institutionen, 2019. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-394236.

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Rättstillämpningens enhetlighet i tingsrätt och Högsta domstolen (HD) är en utgångspunkt som kommer till uttryck genom regleringen av rättskipningen i RF och av instansordningen i RB. Däremot talar flera utomrättsliga faktorer för att rättstillämpningen ändå kan skilja sig åt mellan tingsrätterna och HD. Det finns skillnader mellan domstolarnas adressater, domstolarnas arbetssituation och domarnas bakgrund. För att uppfylla uppsatsens huvudsakliga syfte att empiriskt utvärdera om det finns tendenser till skillnader i rättstillämpningen i tingsrätten jämfört med i HD, används en rättsteoretisk analys för att identifiera ett problemområde där det råder oenighet bland domare och i doktrinen om hur rättstillämpningen ska gå till på ett abstrakt plan. Problemområdet som urskiljs är användningen av objektiva ändamålsöverväganden, vilket definieras som all sådan tolkning och argumentation som inte bygger på tillämpliga lagar, prejudikat eller förarbeten. Sex rättsfall analyseras, systematiserade under tre olika typfall, i syfte att belysa och nyansera de tendenser till skillnader i användningen av objektiva ändamålsöverväganden som observeras. Undersökningens resultat är att HD generellt visar en större benägenhet att beakta olika sorters ändamålsöverväganden i sin rättstillämpning. Det anses innebära att det finns större chans att vinna framgång i rättslig argumentation som förutsätter en analog tillämpning eller reduktionsslut i HD än i tingsrätt. Däremot kan HD:s prejudikatbildande roll ha en avhållande effekt på dess benägenhet att tillämpa objektiva ändamålsöverväganden, vilket indikeras av att skillnaderna mellan HD:s och tingsrättens rättstillämpning i rättsfallen var som störst när prejudikatets innebörd var som otydligast.

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37

Edmundson, Joshua R. "THE ONE EXHIBITION THE ROOTS OF THE LGBT EQUALITY MOVEMENT ONE MAGAZINE & THE FIRST GAY SUPREME COURT CASE IN U.S. HISTORY 1943-1958". CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2016. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd/399.

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The ONE Exhibition explores an era in American history marked by intense government sponsored anti-gay persecution and the genesis of the LGBT equality movement. The study begins during World War II, continues through the McCarthy era and the founding of the nation’s first gay magazine, and ends in 1958 with the first gay Supreme Court case in U.S. history. Central to the story is ONE The Homosexual Magazine, and its founders, as they embarked on a quest for LGBT equality by establishing the first ongoing nationwide forum for gay people in the U.S., and challenged the government’s right to engage in and encourage hateful and discriminatory practices against the LGBT community. Then, when the magazine was banned by the Post Office, the editors and staff took the federal government to court. As such, ONE, Incorporated v. Olesen became the first Supreme Court case in U.S. history that featured the taboo subject of homosexuality, and secured the 1st Amendment right to freedom of speech for the gay press. Thus, ONE magazine and its founders were an integral part of a small group of activists who established the foundations of the modern LGBT equality movement.

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38

Miles, David Jonathan. "Stability or renewal : the judicialisation of representative democracy in American and German constitutionalism". Thesis, University of St Andrews, 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/10023/11056.

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This thesis examines how American and German constitutionalism, as shaped by the U.S. Supreme Court and the German Constitutional Court (Bundesverfassungsgericht), have mediated the tension between threats to stability and the imperative of renewal through occasional or constant interventions in their democratic processes. To do this, it primarily assesses the 1960s U.S. reapportionment cases and the European Parliament electoral threshold cases of 2011 and 2014. It also considers the ideas of four thinkers, theorists and jurists who have wrestled with the dilemma of how to maintain the bond between citizen and state: Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde, Hannah Arendt, Thomas Jefferson and Alexis de Tocqueville. Stability and renewal represent the twin orientation points for constitutionalism and the courts against which they must adjust to possible democratic threats, or new political and social forces in need of recognition. Threats to the state can emerge either from a surfeit of illiberal views in politics and society aimed at destroying an existing constitutional order, or when democratic channels become starved of new opinions through the constitutional or unconstitutional exclusion of voters and parties. A distinctive feature of the approach taken is the conceptual division between the ‘legal/institutional' space in which the Supreme Court and Bundesverfassungsgericht interpret constitutional meaning, and the ‘civic space' in which citizens accept or reject constitutional meaning. One central question is how American and German constitutionalism, and the U.S. Supreme Court and Bundesverfassungsgericht shape and influence the vital civic space that is integral to the democratic relationship between citizen and state, and the survival of the state itself. Ultimately it is concluded that without acceptance of the importance of law and constitutionalism by citizens in the civic space, the influence of the Supreme Court and the Bundesverfassungsgericht becomes purely institutional and effectively consigned to the courtroom.

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39

Backes, Maria Helena. "A audiência pública jurisdicional no estado constitucional: uma análise crítica das audiências públicas realizadas pelo Supremo Tribunal Federal". Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, 2014. http://www.repositorio.jesuita.org.br/handle/UNISINOS/4952.

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No âmbito da jurisdição constitucional brasileira, a atuação do Supremo Tribunal Federal é cada vez mais valorizada, publicizada e também, questionada. Isso pois, na análise e julgamento das demandas sociais (e processuais) que apresentam interesse público e repercussão geral, é a referida Corte quem assume, mediante à sociedade, a principal responsabilidade na tomada de decisão final e na formulação de novos modelos e parâmetros jurídicos que se apresentam como resposta à inquietação social. Nesse sentido, as audiências públicas surgem como instrumento para contribuir com a formação da tomada de decisão, a partir de debate e esclarecimentos acerca de determinada matéria, propiciados através da participação da sociedade civil interessada. Considerando tal premissa, o presente estudo surge a partir da preocupação em, de forma crítica, avaliar os propósitos e os métodos assumidos pela Suprema Corte brasileira através das audiências públicas, no sentido de que seus resultados possibilitem a formação de decisões constitucionais legitimas e democráticas fundamentadas no produto deste movimento e encontro entre Poder Judiciário e Sociedade Civil que é estruturado historicamente pela preocupação sociológica acerca do acesso à justiça. Para tal propósito, foi necessário o desenvolvimento de três capítulos. No primeiro, o estudo apresenta a origem histórica e legal das audiências públicas, analisadas a partir de suas diversas razões finalísticas identificadas através do ordenamento jurídico brasileiro, nos seus mais diversos âmbitos. O segundo capítulo é formado a partir de reflexão acerca da evolução do Acesso à Justiça como direito fundamental, na crescente judicialização das demandas sociais, mantida como grande efeito pós-moderno e da conjunção dos conceitos de democracia e participação popular no contexto instaurado pelo atual cenário processual brasileiro. Por fim, o terceiro capítulo apresenta análise acerca de cada uma das audiências públicas realizadas pelo Supremo Tribunal Federal até então, e das decisões judiciais, consideradas o produto final da interação participativa realizada entre Suprema Corte e sociedade civil. O presente estudo atende à linha de pesquisa Hermenêutica, Constituição e Concretização de Direitos e encontra-se ancorado no Direito Público, área de concentração do Programa de Pós Graduação em Direito da Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos - UNISINOS, pois versa sobre a efetiva realização de direitos por meio dos instrumentos processuais adotados no âmbito da jurisdição constitucional e sua efetiva resposta às provocações sociais.
Within the Brazilian constitutional jurisdiction, the role of the Supreme Court is increasingly valued, publicized and also questioned. This is because, in the analysis and judgment of social (and procedural) demands with public interest and general implications, is that Court who takes upon society, the major responsibility for a final decision and the formulation of new models and judicial parameters for a response to social unrest. By this way, public audiences emerge as a tool to contribute to the formation of decision-making, from discussion and clarification on certain subject, enabled through the participation of interested civil society. Considering this premise, the present study arises from the concern, in a critical way, evaluate the purposes and methods undertaken by the Brazilian Supreme Court through public audiences, in the sense that their results provide generation of based and legitimate democratic constitutional decisions in the product of this movement and encounter between the judiciary and civil society that is historically structured by sociological worries about justice access. For this purpose, it was necessary the development of three chapters. In the first, the study presents the historical and legal source of public audiences, analyzed from their various purposive reasons identified by Brazilian law, in its various contexts. The second chapter is formed from the observation on the development of the Justice Access as a fundamental right, the growing judicialization of social demands, kept as a great post-modern effect of the conjunction by democracy concepts and popular participation in the context established by the current Brazilian legal scenario. Finally, the third chapter shows the analysis on each of the public hearings held by the Supreme Court until then, and judicial decisions, considered the final product of participatory interaction between the Supreme Court and civil society. This study attends the research line in Hermeneutics, Constitution and Implementation of Rights and is anchored in public law, the concentration area of the post Graduate Program in Law, Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos - UNISINOS therefore focuses on the effective realization of rights through legal instruments adopted within the constitutional jurisdiction and its effective response to social provocations.

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40

Alendal, Oscar. "Aggressionsbegreppet : En komparativ studie av Förenta nationernas stadgas och Romstadgan för den Internationella brottsmålsdomstolens aggressionsbegrepp". Thesis, Uppsala universitet, Juridiska institutionen, 2018. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-342031.

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I och med Romstadgan för den internationella brottmålsdomstolen (nedan Romstadgan) finns nu, för första gången, en juridiskt bindande definition av begreppet aggression, vilken baseras på Förenta Nationernas stadga (nedan FN-stadgan) artikel 2(4). Romstadgan utgör grunden för att Internationella brottmålsdomstolen (nedan ICC), i efterhand, ska kunna utkräva ansvar av en fysisk person för aggressionsbrott. Förenta Nationerna (nedan FN) har till uppgift att bevara freden, genom att agera mot staters aggressionshandlingar, framför allt i preventivt syfte och efter beslut av säkerhetsrådet. Det är intressant att jämföra FN-stadgan och Romstadgans aggressionsbegrepp för att på så sätt förstå hur begreppet aggression behandlas i internationell rätt, både i relationer mellan stater och då fysiska personer ska hållas rättsligt ansvariga för aggressionsbrott. Det är också värdefullt att förstå hur de två definitionerna kan påverka varandra och vad det kan föra med sig för fördelar och nackdelar. I denna uppsats behandlas FN-stadgans och Romstadgans aggressionsbegrepp i en komparativ studie, en viktig slutsats är att det finns skillnader mellan de båda stadgorna. I uppsatsen ges inledningsvis en historisk inblick i aggressionsbegreppets utveckling, som underlag för den efterföljande behandlingen, där FN-stadgans och Romstadgans begrepp aggressionshandling utreds. Därefter behandlas begreppet aggressionshandling enligt FN-stadgan. Utredningen följer Wienkonventionen om traktaträttens allmänna tolkningsregel. Först görs en tolkning av begreppet aggressionshandlings ordalydelse, i enlighet med FN-stadgans systematik. Sedan redogörs för hur begreppet tolkats av relevanta FN-organ och i staters praxis. Generalförsamlingens aggressionsdefinition, i resolution 3314, gås igenom och kritiseras till viss del, då den inte ger en tydlig avgränsning av vad aggressionsbegreppet innefattar. Generalförsamlingens resolution 3314 är dock central och används därmed, som grund för vidare behandling i uppsatsen där resolutionen också jämförs kritiskt med andra FN-organs praxis och med FN-stadgans lydelse. Uppsatsen visar att begreppet aggressionshandling har givits en vag formulering i FN-stadgan och att vad som anses innefattat i begreppet också skiljer sig något mellan de olika FN-organen. Hos FN-organen finns dock den gemensamma kärnan att, som aggressionshandling anses den första våldsanvändningen i en stats internationella relationer genomförd med ett specifikt aggressivt uppsåt. Uppsatsen utreder sedan kritiskt Romstadgans aggressionsbegrepp och dess olika delar varvid viktiga skillnader mot FN-stadgan behandlas. Ett specifikt aggressivt uppsåt saknas i Romstadgan och kan inte heller läsas in i denna, då det skulle gå emot Romstadgans ordalydelse och systematik. Romstadgan ser därmed inte heller ett specifikt aggressivt uppsåt, som en försvårande omständighet, utan Romstadgan ser enbart till det använda våldets allvar och omfattning. Vidare så innehåller Romstadgan en tröskel, i syfte att utesluta en legal gråzon från ICCs jurisdiktion, vilken saknar motsvarighet i FN-stadgan. Romstadgan utesluter därmed genom sin lydelse våldshandlingar, som inom delar av den folkrättsliga doktrinen, anses befinna sig inom en gråzon av jus ad bellum. I slutsatserna sammanställs sedan de huvudsakliga skillnaderna mellan aggressionsbegreppen enligt FN-stadgan, FN-organen och Romstadgan och en utredning görs av de fördelar respektive nackdelar och risker, som dessa skillnader medför samt hur skillnaderna påverkar varandra. Författaren finner att det föreligger betydande skillnader då specifikt aggressivt uppsåt saknas i Romstadgan samt då Romstadgans tröskelvärde syftar till att utesluta den legala gråzonen inom jus ad bellum. Vidare anser författaren att dessa skillnader riskerar att urholka FN-stadgans våldsförbud och således i framtiden riskera att gynna starka våldsbenägna stater på svaga staters bekostnad.
The Rome Statute for The International Criminal Court (henceforth The Rome Statute) now provides, for the first time, a legally binding definition of the concept of Aggression. The definition is based on the United Nations Charter (henceforth The UN Charter) article 2(4). The Rome Statute is the foundation on which the International Criminal Court (henceforth ICC) can prosecute individuals on crimes of aggression post the events. The United Nations (henceforth UN) has the charter to sustain the peace through acting against the acts of aggression of nations, primarily preventively and based on resolutions by the Security Council. It is interesting to compare the UN Charter and the Rome Statute definition to understand how the concept of aggression is used in international law, both in relations between nations and when individuals shall be held accountable for crimes of aggression. In addition, it’s valuable to understand how the two definitions can impact each other and what the implications might be of similarities and differences. Hence, this thesis is a comparative study of the concept of aggression in the UN Charter and the Rome Statute. One key conclusion is that there are significant differences in how the aggression is defined in the two documents. The use and development of the concept Aggression is first accounted for in a historic context as a foundation for the comparative study. Then, acts of aggression in the UN Charter is thoroughly investigated in three steps. The investigation is carried out in accordance with the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. Firstly, through an interpretation of acts of aggression in accordance with the ordinary meaning of the term in the context of the UN Charter. Secondly through an investigation of the interpretation in relevant UN bodies and in the practice of nations. Thirdly, the definition of the UN General Assembly, resolution 3314, is investigated and criticised as it does not offer a sufficiently clear delimitation of the concept of aggression. Resolution 3314 is, however, of key importance and is used subsequently as an element of comparison. The resolution is also compared with the practice of other UN bodies and the wording of the UN Charter. The thesis proves the that aggression has a vague definition in the UN Charter and that the scope of the concept is different in different UN bodies. However, common to all UN Bodies is to define aggression as the first use of force with a specific aggressive intent in international relations. Following on UN, the thesis provides a critical investigation of the concept of aggression in the Rome Statute where key differences relative to the UN Charter are accounted for. The Rome Statute lacks specific aggressive intent and such cannot be made part of the interpretation as it would the statutes wording and systematics. Thus, the Rome Statute does not regard a specific aggressive intent aggravating but looks solely to the gravity and scale of the force used. In addition, the Rome Statute includes a threshold with the purpose of excluding a grey zone from the jurisdiction of ICC. Such grey zone does not exist in the UN Charter. The implication of this is that the Rome Statute excludes acts of violence that, among some international lawyers, are regarded to be in a grey zone of jus ad bellum. The conclusions include a summary of the main differences across the UN Charter, different UN Bodies and the Rome Statute. That leads into a discussion on the potential advantages and drawbacks that come out of these differences plus potential effects of the reciprocal influence. The key element of this discussion is that aggressive intent is missing in the Rome Statute and that the statute’s threshold aims to exclude the legal grey zone in jus ad bellum. The thesis concludes that these differences risk to weaken the prohibition of the use of force in the UN Charter and, as a consequence, that this may favour strong and aggressive nations at the expense of smaller and weaker nations.

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Paquette, Sepideh. "Recherches sur la cour royale égyptienne à l’époque saïte (664-525 av. J.-C.)". Thesis, Lyon 2, 2014. http://www.theses.fr/2014LYO20139.

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Cette thèse propose une analyse de la « cour royale » égyptienne sous la XXVIème dynastie saïte (664-525 av. J.-C.) à partir des sources majoritairement textuelles (privées et royales) et historiques. Le volume de synthèse se développe autour de trois axes principaux traitant la « cour » dans son acception sociale, telle qu’on l’entend dans la sociologie historique. La première partie est ainsi consacrée à l’étude de la cour comme la Maison du souverain afin d’éclairer l’ensemble des activités qui caractérisent la « vie de cour » et son organisation domestique et qui rendent l’espace curial « privé » ou « officiel ». La deuxième partie examine la cour dans son agencement social et en tant qu’outil de représentation et de communication : ce sont alors le protocole du palais royal et son rôle-clef dans le maintien de l’équilibre social entre les souverains saïtes et leurs sujets (système des faveurs–ḥswt) qui sont analysés. La troisième partie se concentre sur les acteurs sociaux de la Résidence du roi (les courtisans et l’entourage royal) et tente de démontrer les différentes catégories auxquelles appartiennent ces élites et de déceler les modalités de leurs accès au palais et au rang de « courtisan modèle » dans la hiérarchie de la cour. Enfin, l’enquête diachronique suivie tout au long de la synthèse permet de mieux connaître l’impact des emprunts archaïsants dans le système palatin saïte, et par conséquent, d’évaluer la continuité et/ou le changement de ce système par rapport aux modèles traditionnels de la cour pharaonique. Le volume du corpus regroupe un ensemble de données prosopographiques appartenant à plus de 130 officiers royaux. Un troisième volume est consacré à la bibliographie générale, aux annexes et index
This thesis offers an analysis of the Egyptian "royal court" under the XXVIth Saite Dynasty (664-525 BC) based on textual (private and official records) and historical sources. The synthesis develops around three main axes and deals with the "Court" in its social meaning as defined by the historical sociology. The first part, then, concentrates on the study of the court as the House of the sovereign and attempts to identify the activities which characterize the "court life", its domestic organization and which make the curial space "private" or "official". The second part examines the court as a symbol of social order and the outil of representation and communication of the monarchic authority: the protocol of the Royal palace and its key role to maintain the social balance between the Saite kings and their subjects (system of the favours ḥswt) are analyzed here. The third part focuses on the social actors of the Residence (courtiers and royal entourage) and tends to demonstrate the various categories of these elites and to reveal the modalities of their accesses to the palace and to the position of "model courtier" within the hierarchical order of the court. Finally, the diachronic study followed throughout the synthesis allows to better comprehend the impact of the Archaism on the Saite palace institution and consequently to estimate the continuity and/or the changes of this system compared to the traditional models of the Pharaonic court. The corpus includes a group of prosopographical data belonging to more than 130 royal high officials. The third volume is composed of three sections general bibliography, appendices and indexes

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42

Skagerlid, Arvid. "Process and Meaning : A Coverian Analysis of Animal Defenders International v. UK and the Procedural Turn of the ECtHR". Thesis, Uppsala universitet, Juridiska institutionen, 2021. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-435920.

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In this thesis, the legal theory of Robert Cover is employed to analyse the procedural turn of the ECtHR. The text studies how Animal Defenders International v. the United Kingdom (ADI) and subsequent case law relate to the margin of appreciation doctrine and how this can be understood from a Coverian point of view. The margin of appreciation is thus seen as a product of an interplay between paideic and imperial forces where the imperial, or world-maintaining, influences on the doctrine are the strongest. ADI and later cases are read as further accentuating the focus on the nomos of the state relative to competing nomoi already at work in the case law of the procedural turn. The thesis is closed with an amalgamation of Cover’s ideas with the democratic theory of Jacques Derrida which results in a discussion on what a Coverian re-evaluation of the approach outlined in ADI could look like.

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43

Waters, Roderick-Pascal. "La "sprezzatura" : enjeux et concepts". Thesis, Paris, EHESS, 2019. http://www.theses.fr/2019EHES0011.

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Dans le "Livre du Courtisan" (Venise, 1528), Baldassare Castiglione (1478-1529) évoque « une certaine "sprezzatura", qui cache l'art et qui montre que ce que l'on a fait et dit est venu sans peine et presque sans y penser », d'où « dérive surtout la grâce », tant « chacun sait la difficulté des choses rares et bien faites, si bien que la facilité en elles engendre une grande admiration » (I, XXVI, trad. Pons). Nous en proposons d'abord une analyse conceptuelle en contexte, qui nous mène à en élaborer les termes structurants : grâce et beauté, nature et travail. Puis, par un examen généalogique, nous entreprenons une traduction de la grâce théologico-anthropologique (augustinienne) en termes esthétiques, témoignant d'une profonde cohérence du système de la "sprezzatura" ; nous confrontons alors Castiglione au « naturel » antique (Horace, Cicéron, Pline l'Ancien) et à la formation de la Doctrine Classique (Boileau, Rapin, Bouhours, Gracián). Dans une enquête ensuite contextuelle, nous exposons le système de la Cour, découvrons un certain nombre de penseurs contemporains de la Beauté et de la Grâce (Ficin, Alberti, Bembo, Diacceto, Varchi, Firenzuola, Della Casa, Romei, Sardi, Accetto) et confrontons enfin la "sprezzatura" à l'univers de la "Maniera" (spécialement chez Bronzino et Giambologna). Nous concluons par quelques éléments de discussion de la "Distinction" telle que l'a conceptualisée Bourdieu.La "sprezzatura" n'est pas une simple pensée classique de l'"ars est celare artem", et ne réduit pas plus la grâce au simple lustre de la beauté ; elle constitue au contraire une dramatique de l'imminence, et fait reposer son effet sur des usages esthétiques de l'imagination qui capitalisent sur l'imaginaire chrétien de la grâce. Dès lors, la "mediocritas" que revendique Castiglione n'est pas réductible à ce qu'en laisserait penser l'amalgame avec Della Casa et Accetto : elle est un juste milieu et un point d'équilibre entre le simplement naturel et le ridicule affecté (propre à une certaine tentation du sublime). Véritablement, la "sprezzatura" « s'avance à la frontière de la générosité » (Baltasar Gracián, "El Héroe", XIII, trad. Pelegrín).Diverses Annexes sont jointes, en particulier : une enquête sur les racines du concept d'« Ange » chez Ficin et Diacceto ; une revue de différentes cours de la Renaissance italienne et de leurs valeurs tant esthétiques que culturelles
In his 'Book of the Courtier' (Venice, 1528), Baldassare Castiglione (1478-1529) touches on 'a certain Recklessness ('sprezzatura'), to cover art withall, and seem whatsoever [the Courtier] does and says to do it without pain, and (as it were) not minding it', of which 'grace is much derived', 'for in rare matters and well brought to pass every man knows the hardness of them, so that a readiness therein makes great wonder' (I, XXVI, modern-spelling Hoby translation). Our study begins with a contextual analysis of 'sprezzatura''s main concepts : grace versus beauty, nature and artlessness versus labour. From a genealogical point of view, we then offer a fresh aesthetical translation of Augustine's theological (and anthropological) concept of grace, which turns out to strongly support 'sprezzatura''s conceptual frame ; we thereupon investigate Castiglione's relationship to the 'classical' value of artlessness, as found both among Ancients (Horace, Cicero, the Elder Pliny) and Moderns (Boileau, Rapin, Bouhours, Gracián). Setting back the focus on context, we then expound the inner workings of the Court, become acquainted with a number of contemporary theorists of Beauty and Grace (Ficino, Alberti, Bembo, Diacceto, Varchi, Firenzuola, Della Casa, Romei, Sardi, Accetto), and set 'sprezzatura' within the realm of 'Maniera' (especially Bronzino and Giambologna). Conclusions are eventually drawn while discussing Bourdieu's concept of 'Distinction'.We hold that 'sprezzatura' should not be reduced to the classical scheme of 'ars est celare artem', neither does it shrink grace to the mere lustre of beauty ; much to the contrary, it accounts for the very drama of imminence, thus making an aesthetical use of imagination inspired by the Christian understanding of grace. Neither should the 'mediocritas' claimed by Castiglione be reduced to its lesser self, inspired by the likes of Della Casa and Accetto : it strives for a perfect balance and a virtuoso equilibrium between the merely natural and the ridicule of 'affettazione' (which may be linked to the pursuit of the sublime). Truly, 'sprezzatura' 'reaches to the edge of generosity' (Baltasar Gracián, 'El Héroe', XIII, personal translation).Various Appendices are attached, especially : an enquiry into the roots of the concept of 'Angel' wielded by Ficino and Diacceto ; a review of various courts of the Italian Renaissance outlining their main aesthetical and cultural values

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44

Tamouza, Ahlem. "Les cultures dans la jurisprudence de la Cour européenne des droits de l'homme". Thesis, Paris 3, 2019. http://www.theses.fr/2019PA030024.

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La diversité culturelle interétatique ainsi que diverses cultures nationales et sociétales sont régulièrement invoquées par la Cour européenne des droits de l’Homme. Un constat de récurrence et de diversité des références aux cultures dans la jurisprudence européenne conduit à poser la question de savoir comment la Cour utilise les cultures dans l’exercice de son office. L’objectif est donc de découvrir, à partir d’une analyse de discours, les contours et la raison d’être d’« usages des cultures » en droit européen des droits de l’Homme. Divers usages peuvent, d’abord, être relevés. Par exemple, la Cour prend en compte des intérêts culturels sociétaux, interprète la Convention à la lumière de la culture sociétale, ou encore mobilise les cultures pour justifier certains choix juridictionnels. Bien que divers et inconstants, les usages identifiés ont pour caractéristique de s’écarter d’une méthode de contrôle habituelle. Ils viseraient le prononcé d’un choix intermédiaire ou d’une solution qui n’auraient pu être présentés à l’issue d’un raisonnement habituel. S’ils semblent, de ce fait, opportunistes et procéder de l’exercice d’un pouvoir discrétionnaire, les usages des cultures ont cependant la particularité de pouvoir renforcer la motivation des jugements – et ainsi de compenser le manque en légitimité qu’un choix discrétionnaire entrainerait. Une certaine valeur argumentative peut, en effet, être reconnue aux références aux et à la prise en compte des cultures. Finalement constitutif de l’exercice de l’office du juge, le recours aux cultures est apparu utile dans le contrôle juridictionnel et opportun au regard de la réception des jugements rendus par la Cour
The inter-State cultural diversity as well as the various national and societal cultures are regularly invoked by the European Court of Human Rights. The diversity and the recurrence of the references to cultures in the legal precedents lead to the question of how the Court uses national and societal cultures in the exercise of its function. Thus, the purpose is to shed light on the characteristics and the raison d’être of the “uses of cultures” in European human rights law. First, a discourse analysis unveils a variety of uses in the Court’s reasoning. For instance, it shows the Court takes into account cultural interests, interprets the Convention in the light of the cultural context, and invokes cultures to account for its own decisions. Secondly, the common feature of the diverse uses of cultures appears to be their exceptional nature. While using cultures, the Court does not follow a usual method of monitoring. Hence, it uses cultures exceptionally to deliver a decision different from the one that would have been taken following a regular reasoning. In that respect, the uses of cultures appear to stem from the exercise of a discretionary power that can be regarded as a threat to the European judge’s legitimacy. However, the references to and the consideration of cultures display the special capacity of having an argumentative power. Initially considered as a component of the Court’s reasoning, the uses of cultures ultimately deem to be relevant in the motivation of the Court’s discretionary decisions

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45

Ashfaq, Muhammad. "The crime of aggression : a critical historical inquiry of the just war tradition". Thesis, University of St Andrews, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/10023/13671.

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Why has international society been unable to develop political and judicial collective-security arrangements to limit external aggression? The thesis argues that efforts to limit aggression in moral and legal theory have created an unjust order in which great powers have used these theoretical traditions to reinforce their power in the global order. The thesis argues that is not a new development but can be found in one of the oldest traditions of moral reflection on war, the just war tradition. To substantiate this point, the thesis critically surveys the philosophers of the ancient Greek, Roman, Medieval Christian Renaissance, and early modern theorists of just war and demonstrates that their just war ideas contain assumptions about exclusion, identity and power reflecting their cultural superiority which underlie the practices and theories of the leading states and justifications of their aggressive wars. The thesis connects these moral reflections to the emergence of modern international law and the European pluralist international society of states based on mutual respect for sovereignty and the norm of non-intervention, highlighting how justifications of its colonial aggression against non-Europeans established an unjust solidarist order against them which persists in the post-Cold War era. To conclude it presents suggestions for improvement in the current pluralist international arrangements to address the issue of aggression.

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46

Carré, Benoît. "Pensions et pensionnaires de la monarchie : de la grâce royale au système de redistribution de l'Etat au XVIIIe siècle". Thesis, Lille, 2018. http://www.theses.fr/2018LIL3H001.

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Pensions et pensionnaires de la monarchie : de la grâce royale au système de redistribution de l’État au XVIIIe siècle La question des pensions et des pensionnaires de l’État est abordée à partir d’un corpus de sources centré sur les archives de la Maison du Roi, du Trésor royal et du Comité des pensions de l’Assemblée nationale constituante. Les mécanismes d’attribution et de distribution des pensions royales permettent de redécouvrir les contradictions de la monarchie d’Ancien Régime, prises entre la permanence de traditions anciennes et les exigences de l’État moderne. En revenant sur les tentatives répétées et inabouties de réformer et de rationnaliser un objet de dépenses dont le poids n’a cessé de peser sur les finances royales, la thèse invite à s’interroger sur ces formes de distributions utilisées par le pouvoir comme un instrument de domination politique et social, mais dont les aspects financiers et comptables ont été inégalement maîtrisés. L’histoire de la gestion des pensions royales au XVIIIe siècle offre une étude de cas particulièrement documentée qui permet d’illustrer le développement de la bureaucratie moderne, révélant une administration imaginative dans sa manière de réformer les pensions de l’État mais freinée par les intérêts contradictoires du régime. C’est finalement la crise politique de 1789 qui a permis de clarifier et de réformer un système de grâces royales devenu le symbole des abus de la cour aux yeux de l’opinion publique. En séparant les pensions de cour des pensions de l’État, en créant un droit à la pension pour les serviteurs de l’État là où l’Ancien Régime ne connaissait qu’un système de récompenses fondé sur l’usage et l’esprit de clientèle, le Comité des pensions de l’Assemblée nationale constituante a posé, en 1790, les bases du premier système de retraite de la fonction publique d’État
Pensions & pensioners of the French monarchy : from royal favour to State redistribution system in the eighteenth century The issue of State pensions and pensioners is tackled on the basis of a corpus of sources found among the archives of the Maison du Roi (Royal Household), the Trésor royal (Royal Treasury) and the Comité des pensions (Pensions Committee) of the Assemblée nationale constituante (National Constituent Assembly). An analysis of the attribution and distribution mechanisms of the Royal pensions reveals the contradictions of the Ancien Régime monarchy: the preservation of ancient traditions versus the requirements of a modern State. The repeated and unsuccessful attempts to reform and rationalize an object of expenditure whose weight has not ceased to weigh on the royal finances is demonstrated here. The thesis invites us to question these forms of distribution used by the power as an instrument of political and social domination, but whose financial and accounting aspects have been unequally controlled. The history of the royal pensions management in the 18th century offers a particularly well-documented case study that illustrates the development of modern bureaucracy. It reveals an inventive administration in its way of reforming State pensions while constrained by conflicting interests of the regime. It was finally the political crisis of 1789 that clarified and reformed a system of royal liberalities that became the symbol of abuses of the Court in the eyes of public opinion. In 1790, by separating Court pensions from State pensions, by creating an entitlement to pension for State servants where the Ancien Régime knew only a system of rewards based on custom and clientelism, the Comité des pensions of the Assemblée nationale constituante laid the foundation for the first pension system of the State Public Service

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47

Courtat, Thomas. "Promenade dans les cartes de villes - Phénoménologie mathématique et physique de la ville - une approche géométrique". Phd thesis, Université Paris-Diderot - Paris VII, 2012. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00714310.

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Nous nous intéressons à la phénoménologie des villes en nous limitant à la géométrie induite par le squelette de leur réseau de rues. C'est une étude à volonté synthétique, fonctionnelle et interdisciplinaire qui vient s'ajouter aux travaux qui ont été menés à grande cadence depuis le début du XXème siècle par des urbanistes, sociologues, géographes, statisticiens, physiciens. Nous cherchons à montrer que la rue, en tant qu'alignement cohérent de segments de rues peut être considérée comme structure élémentaire de la ville. Quelle quantité d'information est donnée par la géométrie du réseau routier ? Dans quelle mesure contraint-il nos échanges ? Comment le paysage urbain actuel est-il déterminé par son évolution le long d'axes de circulation et d'éléments structurants ? Nous présentons un cadre mathématique permettant de considérer la carte d'une ville comme un continuum géométrique défi ni par la topologie d'un graphe planaire. Nous superposons à ce graphe une structure d'hypergraphe pour manipuler aisément la notion d'axes ainsi qu'une représentation multi-échelles de la ville. En dépit d'une grande diversité apparente de formes, nous montrons que le réseau de rues d'une ville se soumet à un certain nombre de lois générales qui laissent des traces sur le plan de la ville. Nous proposons des modèles de croissance et de morphogénèse de la ville, implé- mentant l'idée que l'évolution de la ville suit une logique d'extension / division structurée de l'espace et reproduisant les signatures observées sur les plans de villes réelles. La compréhension des mécanismes régulateurs de la ville nous permet de proposer des algorithmes fonctionnels dont le temps de calcul est très intéressant. Ainsi nous présentons un algorithme reconstituant les rues à partir de segments de rues ; la notion de centralité simple dont le calcul sur une carte permet une analyse hiérarchique de celle-ci, met en valeur les axes de trafic principaux et en évidence les zones mal desservies ; un algorithme permettant d'approximer rapidement le plus court chemin entre deux points aléatoires ; un algorithme prenant appui sur le Spectral Clustering pour produire des segmentations morphologiques de cartes et retravaillons l'identi cation de modèles de mosaïques aléatoires pour les substituer à un réseau urbain particulier dans la résolution par équivalents statistiques de grands problèmes d'optimisation.

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48

Martin, Céline N. C. "Protection(s) régionale(s) des droits humains en Asie : vers une cour asiatique des droits humains ?" Thesis, Aix-Marseille, 2019. http://www.theses.fr/2019AIXM0517.

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La naissance du régionalisme asiatique des droits humains n’est pas un mythe. Il est vrai que l’Asie se distingue par l’absence d’un mécanisme régional officiel. Pourtant, malgré des contextes diversifiés et complexes, émane de la plupart des États asiatiques une reconnaissance au moins formelle des droits humains fondamentaux. Les proclamations dans les constitutions, la création –pas encore généralisée– d’institutions nationales des droits humains en témoignent, ainsi que l’acclimatation à l’examen périodique universel, même si ce dernier semble être préféré aux procédés plus intrusifs des comités onusiens… et même si des violations massives de droits humains ont encore lieu. En fait, les éléments d’un régionalisme des droits humains apparaissent en Asie. À l’intérêt croissant que portent à ces droits les associations d’États à vocation économique, notamment l’ASEAN – dont l’attractivité s’élargit –, s’ajoute la transnationalisation des mouvements de la société civile. L’expérience grandissante de la Commission intergouvernementale de l’ASEAN et l’interaction des facteurs interétatiques avec les facteurs transnationaux de changement créent une dynamique, qui fait que la mise en place d’une cour asiatique des droits humains semble n’être plus aujourd’hui qu’une question de temps
The birth of human rights regionalism in Asia is not a myth. Although Asia distinguished itself with the absence of a formal regional mechanism for the protection of human rights, its relevance shall not to be questioned. Evolving within various challenging contexts, most Asian States formally recognise fundamental human rights while tolerating domestic and international enforcement mechanisms. Thus, a preference is given to constitutions and their courts, NHRIs and UPR against most intrusive mechanisms such as the UN committees. Nevertheless, elements of a human rights regionalism are rising upon Asia’s economic associations increasing interest in human rights – such as the ASEAN – and the civil society broadening interest for transnational movements. A comparative analysis into the Asian States relationships with these mechanisms will reveal worrying signs of massive human rights violations. However, acknowledging the continuous recognition of human rights as well as the growing experience of the ASEAN Intergovernmental commission, it is believed the enactment of an Asian human rights court is now only a matter of time

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49

Castiglione, Julia. "L'oeil et la main ˸ juger la peinture à Rome à l'orée du XVIIe siècle. Giulio Mancini, courtisan et théoricien". Thesis, Paris 3, 2019. http://www.theses.fr/2019PA030063.

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Juger les tableaux, évaluer leur qualité, estimer leur prix relève de nos jours d’une expertise spécifique, aux mains d’acteurs vers lesquels se tournent les salles de ventes, les musées ou les propriétaires de collections. À Rome au XVIIe siècle, différents groupes s’affrontent pour s’approprier cette compétence, notamment en vue d’accéder au rôle de conseiller à la cour des grands collectionneurs. Alors qu’émerge progressivement un marché des tableaux et que la circulation des œuvres s’amplifie, savoir estimer leur valeur devient une capacité essentielle. Si l’évaluation du prix est traditionnellement un rôle dévolu aux peintres, qui s’estiment les uns les autres au sein de leur corporation, l’émergence de critères commerciaux nouveaux tend à saper l’autorité de la profession en matière de jugement. Cette recherche s’intéresse au processus de captation de cette expertise, qui se détache du savoir-faire des peintres au profit de courtisans spécialisés dans le conseil en matière de peinture. Cette compétence dévolue aux gentilshommes est théorisée par Giulio Mancini dans son traité Considerazioni sulla pittura. En croisant ce texte et la transcription de certains de ses traités inédits, il s’agira de voir comment ce jugement artistique s’intègre plus largement à une culture courtisane partagée. À la croisée de l’histoire, de l’histoire de l’art et de la littérature, cette recherche entend analyser ce processus historique de formalisation d’un jugement artistique s’autonomisant par rapport à la pratique, à la lumière des discours qui l’ont rendu possible et de la reconfiguration des critères de valeur des œuvres d’art
Judging paintings, assessing their quality and estimating their price is nowadays considered a specific expertise acquired by agents to whom auction houses, museums or collection owners turn. In Rome during the seventeenth century, different groups compete to appropriate this skill, especially in order to become advisers to great collectors. As a market of paintings gradually emerges and the circulation of works grows, knowing how to estimate their value becomes an essential ability. While price evaluation is traditionally the prerogative of painters, who value each other within their corporation, the emergence of new commercial criteria tends to undermine the profession's authority in terms of quality assessment. This research focuses on the development of this expertise, which is remarkably different from the painters' know-how and favors courtiers specialized in painting advice. Giulio Mancini theorized this skill in his treatise Considerazioni sulla pittura. By crossing this text and the transcription of some of his unpublished treatises, the thesis shows how this artistic judgment is integrated within a broader, shared courtesan culture. At the crossroads of history, art history and literature, this research proposes to analyze the historical process of formalization of artistic judgment, thus not only shedding new light on this practice, but also on the discourses that made it possible and the reconfiguration of the value criteria of works of art

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50

Le, Rouzic Louis-Marie. "Le droit à l'instruction dans la jurisprudence de la Cour européenne des droits de l'Homme". Thesis, Bordeaux, 2014. http://www.theses.fr/2014BORD0259/document.

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La protection du droit à l’instruction a fait l’objet de longues discussions lors des travaux préparatoiresà la Convention européenne des droits de l’Homme. Si l’idée d’un droit à l’instruction pour tous s’esttrès vite imposée dans l’esprit de ses rédacteurs, le respect des convictions religieuses etphilosophiques des parents, qui assurent en priorité l’éducation et l’enseignement de leurs enfants, afait l’objet de davantage de controverses. Ces hésitations expliquent la présence de ce droit à l’article 2du premier protocole additionnel à la Convention du 20 mars 1952. Son importance n’est cependantpas à négliger. Qualifié de droit matriciel, le droit à l’instruction participe à la garantie concrète eteffective des autres droits et libertés de la pensée protégés par le corpus européen. Il assure en celal’épanouissement de la personne et lui garantit le droit de se déterminer librement. Il peut donc êtrerevendiqué par tous, élève ou étudiant, et peu importe la structure fréquentée (établissement public,privé, scolaire ou supérieur). Consciente de cet enjeu décisif pour la sauvegarde d’une sociétédémocratique, la Cour européenne des droits de l’Homme a su interpréter l’article 2 du Protocoleadditionnel de manière à assurer un juste équilibre entre la marge nationale d’appréciation et lapromotion du droit à l’instruction. Pour cela, elle a mis à la charge des Etats des obligations positivesafin d’assurer à chacun la possibilité, notamment, de se servir des moyens d’instruction existants. Engarantissant ainsi l’égal accès de tous aux structures existantes, la Cour européenne des droits del’Homme a également incité les autorités étatiques à respecter les particularités de chacun. A cette fin,une obligation de neutralité leur est imposée aussi bien dans les établissements d’enseignement quedans les programmes dispensés. Aucun élève ni étudiant ne doit se sentir exclu ou stigmatisé en raisonde ses convictions propres. La garantie d’un droit universel à l’instruction implique alors la garantied’un droit à une instruction pluraliste
The Protection of the right to education has been the subject of endness debates troughout thepreparatory work on the European Convention of Human Rights. While the idea of a right to educationfor all was quite evident in the mind of the drafters of the European Convention of Human Rights, therespect for religious and philosophical convictions of parents, who come first in the education of theirchildren, has been more controversial. Theses doubts explain the inscription of this right in Article 2 ofthe Protocol to the Convention on 20 March 1952. Its importance mustn’t be overlooked. Described asa « matrix right », the right to education contributes to a concrete and effective guarantee of the rightsand freedoms protected by the European Convention of Human Rights. It ensures personal blossomingand the right to make up their own minds. Therefore, everybody can claim this right, whether it be apupil or a student, regardless of the institution (public or private school, primary school or furthereducation). Aware of this key issue to protect a democratic society, the European Court of HumanRights has interpreted article 2 of the Protocol in order to reach a fair balance between the nationalmargin of appreciation and the protection of the right to education. That’s the reason why the Courtrequires States to achieve some positive obligations especially to enable everyone to use existingeducation means. Through the guarantee to an equal access of everyone to education institutions, theEuropean Court of Human Rights also encourages national authorities to observe the distinctivefeatures of each individual. In order to do so, the authorities must remain neutral both in educationalinstitutions and their curriculum. No pupil or student must feel excluded or chastised because of hispersonal convictions. Then, securing the universal right to education implies securing the right to apluralistic education

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