Artículos de revistas: "Gas-turbines Heat resistant materials"

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Błachnio, Józef. "The Effect of High Temperature on the Degradation of Heat-Resistant and High-Temperature Alloys". Solid State Phenomena 147-149 (enero de 2009): 744–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ssp.147-149.744.

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Heat-resistant and high-temperature materials are used to manufacture components, devices, and systems operated at high temperatures, i.e. under severe heat loads. Gas turbines used in the power industry, the traction, marine, and aircraft engines, the aerospace technology, etc. are good examples of such systems. Generally, as the temperature increases, the mechanical strength of materials decreases. While making such materials, there is a tendency to keep possibly low thermal weakening. In the course of operating gas turbines, various kinds of failures/defects/ damages may occur to components thereof, in particular, to blades. Predominating failures/damages are those attributable to the material overheating and thermal fatigue, all of them resulting in the loss of mechanical strength. The paper has been intended to present findings on changes in the microstructure of blades made of nickel-base alloy due to high temperature. The material gets overheated, which results in the deterioration of the microstructure’s condition. The material being in such condition presents low high-temperature creep resistance. Any component, within which such an effect occurs, is exposed to a failure/damage usually resulting in the malfunctioning of the turbine, and sometimes (as with aero-engines) in a fatal accident. Failures/damages of this kind always need major repairs, which are very expensive.

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Chigrinova, N. M. "Stabilizing the heat-resistant phases in protective coatings of the blading of turbines in gas-pumping aggregates". Protection of Metals 42, n.º 6 (diciembre de 2006): 609–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s0033173206060142.

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3

Ugla, Adnan A., Mushtaq Ismael Hasan, Zainalabden A. Ibrahim y Dhuha J. Kamil. "Enhancing Thermal Properties of Steam Turbine Blades by Coating with Nanomaterials". Materials Science Forum 1039 (20 de julio de 2021): 281–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.1039.281.

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Heat resistant coatings are considered for the external surface Low-Pressure Steam Turbines (LPST). 410 stainless steel covered with nano heat resistant coatings consists of a heat resistant connecting layer enhanced by nanoparticles. A commercial paint was modified by using 20%wt of (titanium dioxide (TiO2) - aluminum oxide (Al2O3)) with different concentrations range (25,50,75wt% of TiO2) layers. These nano-coatings paints were airbrushed onto the surface of specimens of steam turbine blades. The test rig and experimental apparatus have been fabricated and collected to accomplish the thermal tests. The samples were subjected to heat resistance and a temperature test approximately similar to the steam turbine's operation condition temperature. The test results are used to choose the nano-coating layer with a concentration that ensures a composition's highest protective properties. The test sample with concentration (paint-(75% Al2O3+25% TiO2)) showed the highest thermal properties compares with the other cases.

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4

Strangman, T. E. y J. L. Schienle. "Tailoring Zirconia Coatings for Performance in a Marine Gas Turbine Environment". Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 112, n.º 4 (1 de octubre de 1990): 531–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2906200.

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Zirconia coatings represent an advanced materials technology that offers significant durability and performance benefits for marine gas turbines. Thin zirconia coatings offer superior resistance to hot corrosion attack from fuel (sulfur, vanadium, and sodium) and air (sea salt) impurities present in marine engine environments. Thicker zirconia coatings reduce transient thermal stresses and heat transferred into air-cooled components. This paper describes the development of zirconia coatings, applied by the electron beam evaporation-physical vapor deposition process, that are tailored to provide superior durability in a marine engine environment.

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Balitskii, Alexander, Jacek Eliasz y Valentina Balitska. "Low and high cycle fatigue of heat resistant steels and nickel based alloys in hydrogen for gas, steam turbines and generators applications". MATEC Web of Conferences 165 (2018): 05002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201816505002.

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It has been established that, at some region of hydrogen pressure and strain rate exists a maximum influence of hydrogen on the plasticity, low cycle fatigue and cyclic crack resistance of Ni-Co alloys and high nitrogen steels. The drop of plasticity of the dispersion-hardening materials within the temperature range of intense phase transformations is caused by the localization of strains on the grain boundaries due to the intense redistribution of alloying elements in the boundary regions. Moreover, the increase in plasticity observed at higher temperatures is caused both by partial coagulation of hardening phases and possible dissolution of small amounts of finely divided precipitations. The effect hydrogen on short-term strength and plasticity, high- and low-cycle durability of 15Cr12Ni2MoNMoWNb martensitic steel, 10Cr15Ni27Ti3W2BMo austenitic dispersion-hardened steel, heat resistant 3,5NiCrMoV rotor steel, 04Kh16Ni56Nb5Mo5TiAl and 05Kh19Ni55Nb2Mo9Al Ni-base superalloys in range of pressures 0–30 MPa and temperatures 293–1073 K was investigated. In the case of 15Cr12Ni2MoNMoWNb steel and 04Kh16Ni56Nb5Mo5TiAl alloy the dependence of low-cycle durability (N) and characteristics of plasticity (δ and φ) on the hydrogen pressure consists of two regions. In the first region (low pressures), the N, δ and φ abruptly drops, and in the second, the negative action of hydrogen becomes stable or decrease negligibility.

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6

Podhurska, V. Ya, I. D. Gorna, B. D. Vasyliv, R. V. Chepil y O. P. Ostash. "Long-term oxidation resistance of titanium materials for hybrid fuel cells". Uspihi materialoznavstva 2021, n.º 2 (1 de junio de 2021): 35–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/materials2021.02.035.

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Hybrid SOFC-MGT systems, which combine a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) and a gas microturbine (MGT) are capable of generating clean energy with high efficiency. Compared to large turbines in aviation and other areas of mechanical engineering and energetics, the requirements for mechanical properties of MGT materials in SOFC may be less strong, but one of the most important is resistance to long-term oxidation. For SOFC materials it is considered that oxidation resistance test duration must be not less than 1000 h. In addition, today there is a tendency to developing average-temperature (550—650 oC) SOFC modifications. Physical and mechanical properties, the long-term (1000 hours) oxidation resistance at 600 °C in particular, for a number of titanium alloys and composites depending on their chemical and phase composition and production method have been studied. These materials are promising for gas microturbines of a hybrid system “solid oxide fuel cell — gas turbine”. Cast, thermally deformed (forging, rolling), and heat-treated titanium alloys and also sintered and hot-pressed titanium composites have been investigated. They were compared to the most widely used in mechanical engineering and other industries Ti—6Al—4V alloy. It was shown that materials of the Ti—Al—X system (X = C, Nb, Mo) based on titanium MAX phases with nanolaminate microstructure have an advantage. At the same time, alloys based on titanium aluminides γ-TiAl / α2-Ti3Al in the cast state have the highest long-term heat resistance, as well as the best complex of physical and mechanical characteristics among the studied materials. Keywords: titanium alloys, chemical and phase composition, mechanical properties, long - term heat resistance, fuel cell.

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7

OHTANI, Ryuichi. "High Temperature Strength. General (Vertical) and Objective (Horizontal) R & D on Heat-Resistant Materials-Taking the Case of Superalloys for Gas Turbines." Journal of the Society of Materials Science, Japan 46, n.º 1 (1997): 2–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.2472/jsms.46.2.

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8

Berlizova, Tetiana. "Modelling and numerical analysis of structures made of single-crystal materials". Haditechnika 54, n.º 6 (2020): 22–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.23713/ht.54.6.05.

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In gas turbine construction, heat-resistant single-crystal materials have taken a strong place. Single-crystal alloy blades are used in aircraft, ships, power plants, etc. Today, the temperature of the blades exceeds the temperature of heat-resistant alloys in normal operating conditions, and they can withstand such high temperatures only with the help of an effective cooling system. In the production of single-crystal blades of a gas turbine engine, the directional crystallization method has been widely used.

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9

Pachaiyappan, R., R. Gopinath y S. Gopalakannan. "Processing Techniques of a Silicon Carbide Heat Exchanger and its Capable Properties – A Review". Applied Mechanics and Materials 787 (agosto de 2015): 513–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.787.513.

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Silicon carbides is a composite ceramic material produced from inorganic non-metallic substances, formed from the molten mass which solidifies on cooling and simultaneously matured by the action of heat. It is used in various applications such as grinding wheels, filtration of gases and water, absorption, catalyst supports, concentrated solar powers, thermoelectric conversion etc. The modern usage of silicon carbide is fabricated as a heat exchanger for high temperature applications. Leaving behind steel and aluminium, silicon carbide has an excellent temperature withstanding capability of 1425°C. It is resistant to corrosion and chemical erosion. Modern fusion reactors, Stirling cycle based gas turbines, evaporators in evaporative cooling system for air condition and generator in LiBr/H2O absorption chillers for air conditioning those systems heat transfer rate can be improved by replacing a present heat exchanger with silicon carbide heat exchanger. This review presents a detailed discussion about processing technique of such a silicon carbide. Modern known processing techniques are partial sintering, direct foaming, replica, sacrificial template and bonding techniques. The full potential of these materials can be achieved when properties are directed over specified application. While eyeing over full potential it is highly dependent on processing techniques.

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10

Cui, Huiran, Feng Sun, Ke Chen y Jiansheng Wu. "Combined Effect of Co and W on Deformation Resistance of 12Cr Heat-Resistant Steel for USC Steam Turbines". Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance 20, n.º 9 (1 de enero de 2011): 1613–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11665-010-9806-y.

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11

Varnagiris, S., S. Tuckute, M. Lelis y D. Milcius. "SiO2 films as heat resistant layers for protection of expandable polystyrene foam from flame torch–induced heat". Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials 31, n.º 5 (6 de julio de 2017): 657–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0892705717718238.

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Currently, polymeric insulation materials are widely used for energy saving in buildings. Despite of all benefits, these materials are generally sensitive to heat and highly flammable. This work discusses possibility to improve heat resistance of expanded polystyrene (EPS) foam using thin silicon dioxide (SiO2) films deposited by magnetron sputtering technique. In order to increase surface energy and adherence of SiO2 thin films to substrate EPS was plasma pretreated before films’ depositions using pulsed DC plasma generator for 40 s in argon gas. SiO2 formation was done in reactive argon and oxygen gas atmosphere. Laboratory made equipment was used for flame torch–induced heat resistance experiments. Results showed that silicon oxide films remains stable during heat resistance experiments up to 5 s and fully protects polystyrene (PS) substrate. Films are relatively stable for 30 s and 60 s and partially protect PS from melting and ignition. Scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis confirmed that SiO2 layer, which is distributed uniformly on the EPS surface, could work as a good heat resistant material.

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12

Mirkhaydarova, K. A., A. S. Tyusenkov y Rif G. Rizvanov. "Gas Corrosion of Pyrolysis Furnace Coils". Solid State Phenomena 284 (octubre de 2018): 1297–301. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ssp.284.1297.

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The dependence of the rate of gas corrosion of high-alloy steels on temperature is investigated in this article. High corrosion resistance of steels is achieved by introducing into their composition of elements that form thin and strong oxide films on its surface. The most effective alloying elements are chromium, aluminum and nickel. Steel, containing these elements, becomes resistant to gas corrosion at high temperatures. Steels, containing less chromium, are susceptible to gas corrosion to the same extent as carbon steels. The steel 310 S and 316 Ti were tested for heat-resistance. Samples of steel 310 S were cut from a new pipe and from the coil of pyrolysis furnace, which was used for 6800 hours. Tests were carried out at 500 ... 1000 °С. It is established that steel 310 S is more heat-resistant than steel 316 Ti. It is shown that the heat-resistance of steel 310 S decreases after operation in the pyrolysis furnace and has lower values than values of the new steel.

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13

Zhao, Chengzhi, Ning Li, Yihan Zhao y Hexin Zhang. "Effect of Long-Term Ageing at 600 °C on Microstructure of ZG1Cr10MoWVNbN Martensitic Heat-Resistant Steel". High Temperature Materials and Processes 37, n.º 6 (26 de junio de 2018): 539–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/htmp-2016-0202.

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AbstractA new kind of martensitic ZG1Cr10MoWVNbN heat-resistant steel has been attracted more attentions in recent years, which is mainly applied in ultra-supercritical steam turbines. The ageing property for ZG1Cr10MoWVNbN heat-resistant steel is very important because it often serves for long-time at high-temperature environment. Herein, a long-term ageing heat treatment was conducted on ZG1Cr10MoWVNbN steel at 600 °C heat for 17,000 hours. The microstructure evolution and property variation of the ZG1Cr10MoWVNbN steel were analysed before and after ageing, and also the effect of the precipitates on the mechanical properties was studied. The result showed that strength, the plastic index and impact power of the ZG1Cr10MoWVNbN steel were gradually decreased after long-term and high-temperature ageing at 600 °C due to the changes of martensite morphology and the coarsening of M23C6 carbide precipitation phase. Furthermore, fine precipitation of matrix MX carbide can also attribute to the change of mechanical properties at high temperature.

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14

Kablov, E. N., Yu A. Bondarenko, M. Yu Kolodyazhny, V. A. Surova y A. R. Narsky. "Prospects for the creation of high-temperature heatresistant alloys based on refractory matrices and natural composites". Voprosy Materialovedeniya, n.º 4(104) (12 de febrero de 2021): 64–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.22349/1994-6716-2020-104-4-64-78.

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The paper presents the scientific, technical and technological aspects in the field of creating new high-temperature materials for parts of the hot section of gas turbine engines (GTE) with operating temperatures exceeding those existing in GTE. More refractory metallic materials for the creation of new high-heat-resistant alloys used for the manufacture of rotor and nozzle blades and other parts of promising gas turbine engines based on NiAl-Ni3Al, Co-Cr-Re, Pt-Al, Nb-Si, Mo-Si-B systems have been investigated. It is shown that, depending on the composition of the selected matrix, the working temperature of heat-resistant alloys increases to 1300-1500°С, which is significantly higher than the existing nickel heat-resistant alloys.

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15

Oglezneva, Svetlana A., Maxim N. Kachenyuk, Andrey A. Smetkin y Vadim V. Savich. "Functional Gradient Heat-Resistant Materials Manufactured by Spark Plasma Sintering". Materials Science Forum 1037 (6 de julio de 2021): 464–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.1037.464.

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The objects of the study were powder samples PV-NiCr16Al6Y and PV-Ni75Al23W, intended for the formation of a sublayer in heat-shielding coatings. The aim of this work is to develop and study a sublayer with a complexly organized structure of a functionally graded material of the superalloy-sublayer-ceramic system for operation under thermal cyclic loads and high-temperature gas corrosion. Experimental samples of binding materials for heat-protective coatings (HPC) were obtained by the method of spark plasma sintering (SPS) at T = 1050 °C / 15-30 MPa / 5 min. Methods of laser diffraction, X-ray structural analysis, optical and scanning electron microscopy, X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, microdurometry were used to study powders and consolidated materials. It is shown that irregular powders contain individual particles of some components - in PV-NiCr16Al6Y powder these are particles of chromium and yttrium, in PV-Ni75Al23W - tungsten and chromium. Consolidated sublayers of such powders exhibit inhomogeneity and irregular porosity. To solve the problem of forming a homogeneous binder sublayer, mechanical alloying of the powders before sintering is proposed. It was found that MA increases the homogeneity of the structure, excludes local inclusions of unreacted particles, and increases the activation of consolidation. MA and subsequent sintering opens up wide possibilities for controlling the structure, including the porosity of the sublayers, and specifying various options for the HPC architecture. Experimental samples of HPC on an Inconel 625 substrate with a mechanically activated PV-Ni75Al23W sublayer and dioxides Zr/Y (YSZ) outer ceramics were obtained by the SPS method. A model of the architecture of a HPC made of a layered binder with different porosities is proposed.

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Orekhov, N. G., G. M. Glezer, E. A. Kuleshova y V. N. Toloraiya. "Contemporary heat-resistant and cast alloys for gas turbine blades". Metal Science and Heat Treatment 35, n.º 7 (julio de 1993): 413–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00775095.

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17

Ponosova, L. M., E. F. Okhrimenko, A. V. Kuznetsova y D. V. Rychkova. "The heat-resistant gas-generating energetic composite materials for needs of the oil industry". IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 511 (24 de abril de 2019): 012038. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/511/1/012038.

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Galinsky, Andrey A., Anton V. Ryabkov, Vladimir I. Berg y Aslan F. Zakuraev. "To the question of thermal joining of composite Al-B materials". Journal of Composite Materials 53, n.º 19 (27 de marzo de 2019): 2715–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0021998319839130.

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This work deals with the application of new approaches to welding production of modern light, strong, and heat-resistant metal composite materials in aeronautical and space technology. The objective of this article is to substantiate introduction of modern technology for welding composites in production, namely the development of argon-arc welding technology and the choice of equipment when using composites of the Al-B system for manufacturing the flame tube of the combustion chamber of an aircraft engine. Based on the study of technical literature and scientific publications, a short analysis of the existing technological processes for welding heat-resistant glass-ceramic composites was carried out. The problems arising in the process of welding aluminum composites reinforced with boron and steel fibers are considered. A modern gas tungsten arc welding based on new technological processes is offered with an example of welding in manufacturing a combustion chamber of a modern gas turbine modified engine.

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Anaz Khan, Muhammed, Annakodi Vivek Anand, Muthukannan Duraiselvam, Koppula Srinivas Rao, Ramachandra Arvind Singh y Subramanian Jayalakshmi. "Thermal Shock Resistance and Thermal Insulation Capability of Laser-Glazed Functionally Graded Lanthanum Magnesium Hexaluminate/Yttria-Stabilised Zirconia Thermal Barrier Coating". Materials 14, n.º 14 (10 de julio de 2021): 3865. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma14143865.

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In this work, functionally graded lanthanum magnesium hexaluminate (LaMgAl11O19)/yttria-stabilised zirconia (YSZ) thermal barrier coating (FG-TBC), in as-sprayed and laser-glazed conditions, were investigated for their thermal shock resistance and thermal insulation properties. Results were compared with those of a dual-layered coating of LaMgAl11O19 and YSZ (DC-TBC). Thermal shock tests at 1100 °C revealed that the as-sprayed FG-TBC had improved thermal stability, i.e., higher cycle lifetime than the as-sprayed DC-TBC due to its gradient architecture, which minimised stress concentration across its thickness. In contrast, DC-TBC spalled at the interface due to the difference in the coefficient of thermal expansion between the LaMgAl11O19 and YSZ layers. Laser glazing improved cycle lifetimes of both the types of coatings. Microstructural changes, mainly the formation of segmentation cracks in the laser-glazed surfaces, provided strain tolerance during thermal cycles. Infrared rapid heating of the coatings up to 1000 °C showed that the laser-glazed FG-TBC had better thermal insulation capability, as interlamellar pores entrapped gas and constrained heat transfer across its thickness. From the investigation, it is inferred that (i) FG-TBC has better thermal shock resistance and thermal insulation capability than DC-TBC and (ii) laser glazing can significantly enhance the overall thermal performance of the coatings. Laser-glazed FG-TBC provides the best heat management, and has good potential for applications that require effective heat management, such as in gas turbines.

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Ebina, T. y F. Mizukami. "Flexible Transparent Clay Films with Heat-Resistant and High Gas-Barrier Properties". Advanced Materials 19, n.º 18 (17 de septiembre de 2007): 2450–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/adma.200700162.

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Orlovskyi, V. "Heavy cement materials". Мінеральні ресурси України, n.º 1 (3 de junio de 2020): 48–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.31996/mru.2020.1.48-51.

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Emphasis is placed on the urgency of the problem of creating cementitious materials and solutions of high density. The analysis of scientific sources in the field of development and research of modified cement materials with high density is carried out. The application of different types of weighting impurities to well cements is considered. The advantages and disadvantages of the weighting impurities that are used in the modification of well cements are shown. The technological schemes of the most widespread ways of creation of the weighted cement materials are resulted. The assortment of weighted cement materials manufactured by the Ukrainian industry is analyzed. It is noted that improving the quality of the delineation of rocks and oil and gas horizons in exploration areas and industrial fields during the cementing of high-pressure layers and zones with abnormally high reservoir pressures is possible by the development possible and application of weighted heat-resistant cements with high technological properties on the basis of ash mixtures, as well as mixtures of standard well Portland cement PTSTI-100 and acidic ash removal of thermal power plants and barite weighing agent. Weighted and heat-resistant grouting materials with high performance properties with the use of industrial anthropogenic products have been developed and investigated. The selection of optimal recipes of new weighted cement materials was carried out. The results of the work have practical application in cementing oil and gas wells in complex mining and geological conditions in exploration areas and industrial hydrocarbon deposits.

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Sadowski, Tomasz y Przemysław Golewski. "The Analysis of Heat Transfer and Thermal Stresses in Thermal Barrier Coatings under Exploitation". Defect and Diffusion Forum 326-328 (abril de 2012): 530–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ddf.326-328.530.

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Effectiveness of internal combustion turbines in aero-engines is limited by comparatively low temperature of exhaust gas at the entry to turbine of the engine. A thermal efficiency and other capacities of turbine strongly depend on the ratio of the highest to the lowest temperature of a working medium. Continuous endeavour to increase the thermal resistance of engine elements requires, apart from laboratory investigations, also numerical studies in 3D of different aero-engine parts. In the present work, the effectiveness of the protection of turbine blades by thermal barrier coating and internal cooling under thermal shock cooling was analysed numerically using the ABAQUS code. The phenomenon of heating the blade from temperature of combustion gases was studied. This investigation was preceded by the CFD analysis in the ANSYS Fluent program which allows for calculation of the temperature of combustion gases. The analysis was conducted for different levels of the shock temperature, different thickness of applied TBC, produced from different kinds of materials.

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TERENTIEVA, V. S., A. N. ASTAPOV y L. N. RABINSKIY. "STATE IN THE FIELD OF HEAT-RESISTANT COATINGS FOR HEAT-PROOF NICKEL ALLOYS AND STEELS". Periódico Tchê Química 16, n.º 33 (20 de marzo de 2019): 561–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.52571/ptq.v16.n33.2019.576_periodico33_pgs_561_572.pdf.

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Currently, in many industries, special attention is paid to increasing the reliability and economy of the products. Solving problems requires the use of materials that can work in difficult conditions, which determines the relevance of the problem stated in the article. The purpose of the article was to conduct a critical analysis of coatings developed in Russia that are diverse in composition, technological and operational properties, from the standpoint of the possibility of using them to provide a reliable material protection system under conditions that cause high-temperature gas corrosion and surface layer erosion. The main methods of materials protection were considered in the work: thermal spraying, plasma spraying, electron beam, plasma electric arc cathode spraying, vacuum deposition, chemical-thermal treatment, diffusion coating based on aluminum. Among the more effective methods, the method of self-propagating high-temperature synthesis, the method of high-energy plasma chemistry, the methods of physical deposition in vacuum are noted. The types of coatings were also highlighted and their short characteristics were given. Particular attention was paid to heat-resistant coatings based on refractory enamels since their advantages include low cost and the possibility of applying them directly to parts. A number of technical solutions have been identified that protect the alloys from high-temperature gas corrosion and erosion under long-term operation in aircraft products at high temperatures. The results of the article may be useful for further research since individual developments are uninformative from the standpoint of solving specific problems and require expensive bench testing of the claimed technical result.

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Artamonov, E. V., A. M. Tveryakov y A. S. Shtin. "SELECTION OF TOOL HARD ALLOY FOR PROCESSING PARTS OF GAS TURBINE ENGINES". Oil and Gas Studies, n.º 4 (30 de agosto de 2018): 89–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.31660/0445-0108-2018-4-89-93.

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Bogdan, Mariusz, Józef Błachnio, Jarosław Spychała y Dariusz Zasada. "Assessment of usability of the exploited gas turbine blade heat-resistant coatings". Engineering Failure Analysis 105 (noviembre de 2019): 337–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2019.07.016.

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CHAI, Maorong, Koshi SEKIZAWA, Masato MACHIDA, Koichi EGUCHI y Hiromichi ARAI. "Preparation of Heat Resistant Microporous Ceramic Membranes for Selective Gas Permeation". Journal of the Ceramic Society of Japan 99, n.º 1150 (1991): 530–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.2109/jcersj.99.530.

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27

Bondarenko, Yu A., M. Yu Kolodyazhnyy y V. A. V. A. "Creation of high-temperature heat-resistant alloys based on refractory matrices and natural composites". Perspektivnye Materialy 2 (2021): 5–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.30791/1028-978x-2021-2-5-16.

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The scientific, technical and technological aspects in the field of creating new high-temperature materials for the hot tract parts of gas turbine engines (GTE) with operating temperatures exceeding those existing in the GTE are considered. Investigated more refractory metal materials to create new high-temperature alloys used in the manufacture of working and nozzle blades and other parts of promising gas turbine engines based on Co – Cr, Pt – Al, Nb – Si, Mo – Si – B systems. In Co – Cr alloys, heat resistance is mainly ensured by hardening the Co matrix, including dispersed precipitates of the carbide phase (TaC) and the boride phase Cr2B. In alloys of the Pt – Al system, due to the doping of Cr, Al, Ti, Re ... and precipitates of the coherently embedded Pt3Al phase. In eutectic alloys of the Nb-Si system, this is due to complex hardening of the Nb solid solution and Nb5Si3 silicide, as well as the natural compositional structure. In Mo – Si – B alloys, high strength is achieved by doping a-Mo solid solution and the formation of intermetallic phases Mo3Si, Mo5SiB2, carbides Mo2C, TiC. Compositions were selected, analysis of their smelting methods was carried out, including directed crystallization, which provides a natural compositional structure, mechanical properties at room and high temperatures, oxidation resistance were evaluated, structural features were investigated, information was provided on technological equipment and the possibility of obtaining parts in various ways. It is shown that, depending on the composition of the selected matrix, the working temperature of heat-resistant alloys can increase to 1300 – 1500 °C, which significantly exceeds the existing nickel heat-resistant alloys. It is concluded that the materials under study are promising for use in aircraft engine building and the aerospace industry.

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Yurishcheva, Anna, Alexey Astapov, Ivan Lifanov y Lev Rabinskiy. "High Temperature Coatings for Oxidation and Erosion Protection of Heat-Resistant Carbonaceous Materials in High-Speed Flows". Key Engineering Materials 771 (junio de 2018): 103–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.771.103.

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Modern approaches to the creation of single-layer and multi-layer high-temperature coatings for the protection of heat-resistant carbon-containing composite materials from oxidation and erosion in the high-speed fluxes of oxygen-containing gases are analyzed. Particularly have been outlined the heat-resistant coatings, the main components of which are either super refractory transition metal borides (ZrB2, HfB2, TiB2) with the addition of carbides (SiC, ZrC, HfC, TiC, TaC), silicides (MoSi2, TiSi2, ZrSi2, TaSi2, WSi2) and nitrides (HfN, ZrN, TiN), or refractory oxides (HfO2, ZrO2), or more complex synthetic compositions based on oxide ceramics. The results of fire gas-dynamic tests of coatings of perspective compositions are presented. The potential architecture of ultra-high-temperature coatings with high efficiency of protective action is justified.

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29

Baranov, Dmitry A., Anatoly A. Parkin y Sergey S. Zhatkin. "Analysis of Defects at Laser Welding of Heat-Resistant Alloy KhN45VMTYuBR". Defect and Diffusion Forum 410 (17 de agosto de 2021): 108–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ddf.410.108.

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The article presents the results of the impact of laser welding parameters on defect occurrence in the welded seam of the Ni-based heat-resistant alloy Kh45VMTYuBR applied for the manufacture of gas-turbine engines. On the basis of the research the authors conduct the analysis of dimensions as well as the number of pores and micro-cracks in the welded seam. The paper provides the recommendations on the selection of the laser welding mode for the heat-resistant alloy to reduce defect occurrence in a welding seam.

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30

Zhilkashinova, Almira, Madi Abilev, Alexander Pavlov, Nadezhda Prokhorenkova, Mazhyn Skakov, Alexander Gradoboev y Assel Zhilkashinova. "Ion-Plasma Spraying and Electron-Beam Treatment of Composite Cr-Al-Co-ZrO2-Y2O3 Coating on the Surface of Ni-Cr Alloy". Coatings 11, n.º 3 (11 de marzo de 2021): 321. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/coatings11030321.

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The blades of modern gas turbine engines are complex structures made of heat-resistant nickel alloys with a complex system of internal cavities. The article describes a method of strengthening samples of a heat-resistant Ni-Cr alloy by applying a composite coating (Cr-Al-Co + ZrO2-Y2O3). The alloy prototypes were fabricated by vacuum melting. An ion-plasma technology of a two-layer coating with an inner metal and an outer ceramic layer on the prepared surface of the heat-resistant alloy matrix was developed. The morphology and structure of the alloy prototypes and the investigated composite coating were studied by scanning electron spectroscopy. The total thickness of the two-layer wear-resistant coating was 17–18 μm. The thickness of the inner layer (Cr/Al/Co) is 10–11 μm and the thickness of the outer ceramic coating (ZrO2-Y2O3) is 6–7 μm. To improve the operational characteristics of the material, an electron-beam surface treatment was proposed. The research results showed a sevenfold increase in surface resistance compared with the initial state.

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31

Olbricht, J., T. Lippmann, H. Klingelhöffer, B. Rehmer y B. Skrotzki. "Mechanical characterisation of heat resistant power plant materials by creep and fatigue testing in controlled gas atmospheres". Materialwissenschaft und Werkstofftechnik 45, n.º 1 (enero de 2014): 5–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mawe.201400185.

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32

Sheykhlari, Aliakbar Fallah, Saeed Khani Moghanaki y Meisam Khodabakhshi. "Failure analysis of a heat-resistant stainless steel ring in a gas turbine burner". Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology 34, n.º 4 (abril de 2020): 1539–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12206-020-0316-z.

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33

Saprikin, A. A., Yurii P. Sharkeev, Natalya A. Saprykina, Margarita A. Khimich y Egor A. Ibragimov. "Formation of Structural-Phase State in a Cobalt-Chromium-Molybdenum Alloy by Selective Laser Melting". Solid State Phenomena 313 (enero de 2021): 50–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ssp.313.50.

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Heat resistant cobalt-based alloys have found a specific niche in the present-day mechanical engineering due to their unique properties. To begin with, cobalt-based alloys are used as corrosion, heat and wear resistant materials intended for aggressive environments and operation at extreme temperatures, e.g. blades, nozzles, swirlers, rings and other elements of turbines and internal combustion engines. Traditional molding methods applied in the mechanical engineering fail to provide necessary operational and technological characteristics of aforementioned machine parts. Owing to selective laser melting it is possible to reduce a production time and manufacturing costs for machine elements with a complex physical configuration and generate an alloy with an extraordinary structure, which is not found in traditionally combined compounds. A structure of cobalt exists in two crystal modifications: a hexagonal close-packed epsilon phase, a low-temperature phase and a face-centered cubic lattice gamma phase, a high-temperature phase. The alloy hardness is directly related to an amount of a low-temperature phase. The laser melting shortens a laser beam impact time on a powder composition due to a higher power and laser travelling speed. A high value of heat conductivity seems to be the reason for rapid solidification and cooling, which, in their turn, increase a percent of an alpha-martensite phase in an alloy and improve the hardness and wear resistance of machine parts. The reported paper summarizes studies aimed at the development of a stable phase structure three-component alloy (Сo-66 mass % Cr-6 mass % Mo) based on the cobalt-chromium-molybdenum system and mixed up via selective laser melting.

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34

Saprikin, A. A., Yurii P. Sharkeev, Natalya A. Saprykina, Margarita A. Khimich y Egor A. Ibragimov. "Formation of Structural-Phase State in a Cobalt-Chromium-Molybdenum Alloy by Selective Laser Melting". Solid State Phenomena 313 (enero de 2021): 50–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ssp.313.50.

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Heat resistant cobalt-based alloys have found a specific niche in the present-day mechanical engineering due to their unique properties. To begin with, cobalt-based alloys are used as corrosion, heat and wear resistant materials intended for aggressive environments and operation at extreme temperatures, e.g. blades, nozzles, swirlers, rings and other elements of turbines and internal combustion engines. Traditional molding methods applied in the mechanical engineering fail to provide necessary operational and technological characteristics of aforementioned machine parts. Owing to selective laser melting it is possible to reduce a production time and manufacturing costs for machine elements with a complex physical configuration and generate an alloy with an extraordinary structure, which is not found in traditionally combined compounds. A structure of cobalt exists in two crystal modifications: a hexagonal close-packed epsilon phase, a low-temperature phase and a face-centered cubic lattice gamma phase, a high-temperature phase. The alloy hardness is directly related to an amount of a low-temperature phase. The laser melting shortens a laser beam impact time on a powder composition due to a higher power and laser travelling speed. A high value of heat conductivity seems to be the reason for rapid solidification and cooling, which, in their turn, increase a percent of an alpha-martensite phase in an alloy and improve the hardness and wear resistance of machine parts. The reported paper summarizes studies aimed at the development of a stable phase structure three-component alloy (Сo-66 mass % Cr-6 mass % Mo) based on the cobalt-chromium-molybdenum system and mixed up via selective laser melting.

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35

Fukuoka, Toshimichi. "Finite Element Analysis of the Thermal and Mechanical Behaviors of a Bolted Joint". Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology 127, n.º 4 (21 de junio de 2005): 402–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2042477.

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Mechanical and thermal behaviors of the bolted joint subjected to thermal load are analyzed using axisymmetric FEM, where the effects of thermal contact resistance at the interface and heat flow through small gap are taken into account in order to accurately evaluate the variations of bolt preloads. It is expected that the numerical procedure proposed here provides an effective means for estimating the strength of such critical structures as pressure vessels, internal combustion engines, steam and gas turbines, etc. An experimental equation that can compute the thermal contact coefficient at the interface composed of common engineering materials has been proposed in the previous paper. In this study, a simple equation for evaluating the amount of heat flow through small gap is shown by defining apparent thermal contact coefficient. Accordingly, a numerical approach has been established, which can accurately analyze the thermal and mechanical behaviors of a bolted joint, by incorporating the two kinds of thermal contact coefficients into FE formulation. By use of the FE code thus developed, it is shown that only a slight difference in coefficients of linear expansion among the joint members significantly affects the variations of bolt preloads. The validity of the numerical approach is demonstrated by experimentation.

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36

UETA, SHIGEKI. "Corrosion and Heat Resistant Materials. Development of Austenitic Cast Steels for High Temperature Automobile Engine Exhaust Gas Systems." DENKI-SEIKO[ELECTRIC FURNACE STEEL] 73, n.º 2 (2002): 93–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.4262/denkiseiko.73.93.

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37

Yano, Yuki, Kazuya Wada, Takuya Aoki, Toshio Ogasawara y Shinjiro Umezu. "Fabrication and Mechanical Properties of C/C-HfC-SiC Composites". Key Engineering Materials 625 (agosto de 2014): 657–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.625.657.

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Reusable spacecraft/supersonic aircraft is research and development towards the realization of a new aerospace transportation system.Because these transport aircraft is to flight at a speed of more than Mach 5,are considering the use of scramjet engine.Because this engine uses air as an oxidant and liquid hydrogen as a fuel,the combustion gas temperature is more than 2500°C.So the combustor is required lightweight material and super-heat-resistant material.In the field of aerospace,SiC-based ceramics that is heat-resistant materials are well known as to maintain the mechanical properties at high temperatures and have a high oxidation resistance.However, this material limit as heat-resistant material is about 1600 °C .Therefore, it can not be used in an environment of scramjet engine combustor.There are the measures by metal structure to be force-cooled by refrigerant fuel,but apply is difficult because the system is complexity and very heavy. In this study use the hafnium-based super heat-resistant ceramics that is having a melting point more than 2000°C. Purpose is to develop a new technique for forming the ceramics mainly composed from Hafnium Carbide (Melting point:3950°C) that is very high melting point and have oxidation resistance by melt impregnation to inside C/C composite.In addition, implement the evaluation of changes in the organization after each process by the cross-sectional observation and strength assessment by three-point bending test.

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38

NIGMATZYANOV, V. V., V. A. POGODIN, L. N. RABINSKIY y S. A. SITNIKOV. "THE POLYMER-CERAMIC MATERIAL FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF GAS DISCHARGE CHAMBER FOR THE ELECTRIC ROCKET ENGINE". Periódico Tchê Química 16, n.º 33 (20 de marzo de 2019): 801–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.52571/ptq.v16.n33.2019.816_periodico33_pgs_801_808.pdf.

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This study discusses the creation of heat-resistant dielectric composite material based on organosilicon polymers for the manufacture of gas discharge chamber (GDC) for the electric rocket engine (ERE). A binder has been proposed that meets the high requirements for vibration resistance and electromagnetic permeability of GDC in the megahertz range of electromagnetic waves. Based on this binder filled with silicon nitride powder, GRС was designed; this product was fully tested as part of laboratory 200 kW ERE. The research of structural transformations that occur during heating of materials was carried out by synchronous thermal analysis. The material obtained in the result of the experiment, the basis of which was SiSiB®PVMQ filled with Si3N4 60% by mass, is characterized by a number of properties that are structured and described in this study. As a result of the study, it was demonstrated that the studied material is characterized by heat resistance up to 400 ºС. On the basis of these materials, the authors produced a GDC, which was tested as part of a laboratory model. It was established that the increase in mass loss over 400 °C is due to the initiation of the process of thermal degradation of the main polymer chain.

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39

Frolenkov, K. Yu. "Heat-resistant glass-ceramic coatings protecting low-alloyed steels against high-temperature gas corrosion". Protection of Metals and Physical Chemistry of Surfaces 45, n.º 4 (julio de 2009): 444–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s2070205109040121.

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40

Kravchuk, L. V., G. R. Semenov y V. A. Borovkov. "Influence of heat-resistant coatings on the state of thermal stress of model of gas turbine engine blades in nonsteady heat exchange". Strength of Materials 26, n.º 6 (junio de 1994): 418–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02209411.

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41

Trostianchyn, Andriy, Serhii Shvachko, Volodymyr Kulyk, Eduard Pleshakov, Yuriy Molkov y Taras Lenkovskiy. "Microstructure and microhardness of nickel-base heat-resistant alloys obtained by directional and equilibrium crystallization". Ukrainian journal of mechanical engineering and materials science 5, n.º 3-4 (2019): 33–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.23939/ujmems2019.03-04.033.

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In order to determine the safe operational life of the components of gas turbine engines (GTE), introductory tests of nickel-base heat-resistant alloys (NHRA) have been performed. X-ray fluorescence and X-ray diffraction analyzes, optical microscopy and Vickers hardness measurements provided data on the phase-structural state and mechanical properties of the pristine ZhS6K-VI and ZhS32-VI alloys obtained by equilibrium and high-speed directional crystallization, respectively. Almost complete compliance of the investigated materials with the certified alloys in chemical and phase composition has been found. A significant difference in the parameters of the fragments of the microstructure of the investigated alloys, which is naturally consistent with the conditions of equilibrium and high-speed directional crystallizations, was revealed. A slightly lower anisotropy of microhardness (2.8 %), measured in transverse and longitudinal sections, was found in the ZhS6K-VI alloy as compared to the anisotropy (5.1 %) in the ZhS32-VI alloy. The obtained results will be used to test a non-destructive method for determining the safe operational life of gas turbine engine components.

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42

Hong, Xu, Liang Zhiyuan, Ding Jianliang, Zhao Qinxin y Guan Shipian. "Effect of Pre-Oxidation on the Steam Oxidation of Heat-Resistant Steel T92". High Temperature Materials and Processes 37, n.º 8 (28 de agosto de 2018): 733–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/htmp-2017-0037.

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AbstractEffect of pre-oxidation on the steam oxidation of T92 heat-resistant steel at 650 °C was investigated. The results show that the mass gain and the oxide thickness of T92 sample with pre-oxidation treatment were lower than that of T92 sample after exposure in steam at 650 °C. The compact and discrete Cr-rich oxide which formed on the pre-oxidized specimen hindered ion diffusion, leading to the lower oxidation rate. The effect of pre-oxidation worked at the initial stage due to the protective Cr-rich layer formed in air gas. After a long time exposure in steam, the pre-oxidation influence decreased slowly and eventually disappeared. What’s more, the adhesion property of oxide scale was improved by pre-oxidation.

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43

Dvoretskov, R. M., A. V. Slavin, M. M. Tikhonov y I. S. Kuko. "Control of the chemical composition of heat-resistant nickel alloys upon manufacturing products from these alloys using additive technologies". Industrial laboratory. Diagnostics of materials 87, n.º 4 (23 de abril de 2021): 71–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.26896/1028-6861-2021-87-4-71-80.

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Heat-resistant alloys (superalloys) widely used for manufacturing parts of various components of aircraft engines are complex nickel-based systems which contain apart from alloying (Al, Cr, Co, Ti, Mo, W, etc.) and microalloying additives (B, Mg, REM, etc.) different amounts of the impurities (Mn, Fe, Si, Pb, As, Sn), including gas-forming (O, N, C, S) ones. The use of additive technologies (AT) in manufacturing of complex-shaped parts made of these alloys makes it possible to increase the material utilization coefficient and shorten the technological process. However, the use of AT requires real-time control of the composition of semi-products and finished products at all stages of production. Study of various stages of manufacturing parts from ZhS6K and VZh159 alloys using an AT of selective laser alloying (SLA) is carried out using analytical control systems of the laboratory of the Testing Center (TC) of FSUE «VIAM». A complex of methods for atomic emission, mass spectrometric and X-ray fluorescence determination of different groups of elements was used for the analysis of charge materials, cast bar blanks, metal-powder compositions (MPC) and synthesized parts. The results of analysis of nickel N-1u and chromium Kh99N1 used upon and after smelting of cast billets, as well as analysis of MPC of these alloys carried out by different methods are presented (gas analyzers were used to determine the gas-forming impurities). Monitoring on the chemical composition of materials throughout the process of additive manufacturing ensure their compliance with the regulatory requirements and predict the properties of finished products. The work was carried out within the framework of complex scientific direction 2.1 «Fundamental research» («Strategic directions for the development of materials and technologies for their processing for the period up to 2030»).

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44

Kubota, M., Y. Tanaka y Y. Kondo. "Fretting fatigue strength of SCM435H steel and SUH660 heat-resistant steel in hydrogen gas environment". Tribotest 14, n.º 3 (julio de 2008): 177–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tt.58.

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45

Ovchinnikov, Vasiliy P., Pavel V. Ovchinnikov, Alexander V. Melekhov y Oksana V. Rozhkova. "Challenges and their remedies while cementing production casing in high-temperature wells". Oil and Gas Studies, n.º 1 (4 de abril de 2019): 39–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.31660/0445-0108-2019-1-39-46.

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The development of the global oil industry is closely related to the exploration of new oil and gas fields through the drilling new deep and ultra-deep wells, as well as the application of modern methods of hydrocarbon production. Usage of new methods of production, increasing the depth of the wells, bottomhole temperatures and pressures sets strict requirements and restrictions for the applied plugging materials. Oil well cements must have a long time of thickening to successfully complete the cementing process, grouting stone must have high strength characteristics, heat-resistant properties at high temperatures and provide reliable isolation of the annulus, also have corrosion resistance, ensure durability of the well lining.

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46

Volkov, A. M., D. A. Karyagin, M. N. Letnikov, M. M. Bakradze y A. S. Perevozov. "Specifics of Producing Disk Blanks for Gas-Turbine Engines using Granules of Super Heat-Resistant Nickel Alloys". Metallurgist 64, n.º 3-4 (julio de 2020): 362–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11015-020-01004-w.

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47

Shaidurova, Galina Ivanovna, Igor Lvovich Vasilyev y Yakov Sergeevich Shevyakov. "Creation of the Combined Heat-Resistant Coating with Gradient Modification of Layers and Methods of its Testing". Key Engineering Materials 743 (julio de 2017): 135–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.743.135.

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Corrosion protection of equipment, apparatus and thermal-stressed metal structures (which refer to equipment of fuel and power industries) operated under conditions of chemical manufacturing processes is the prime industrial target. Corrosive medium causes changes in material structure and properties resulting in decreased strength and premature damage of equipment [1].The subject of research is the system of thermal resistant protective coating for extreme operation conditions.The objective of the study is technology development of protective organic coating with predictable properties within the long-term operation of real gas-compressor units. The research resulted in improved procedure of thermogradient coatings application with positive progress due to the modification of layers of heat-resistant paintwork materials [2].

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48

Li, Li Qing, Zhen Long Wang, Yong Feng Guo y Ji Cheng Bai. "Experimental Research on Machining Performance of Electrode Materials in Dry EDM". Materials Science Forum 532-533 (diciembre de 2006): 173–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.532-533.173.

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Electrode materials are important factors affecting machining performances (MP) of electrical discharge machining (EDM). Experiments using different electrode materials were carried out in compressed air aim to realize MP of electrical discharge machining in gas (dry EDM). Experimental results show that a minimum pulse interval exists for given parameters and tool material. Calorific performances of tool materials are main influencing factors of MP on the condition of thorough deionization. Copper achieves the best MP in the experimental tool materials. Experimental results of different workpiece materials depict that material remove rate (MRR) and surface roughness (SR) value increase with increases of discharge energy. SKD61 steel achieves the highest MRR and SR value in the experimental materials. Material holding better performance of heat resistant, such as titanium alloy (TC4), achieves the lowest MRR.

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49

Murzin, Serguei P., Nikolay L. Kazanskiy y Christian Stiglbrunner. "Analysis of the Advantages of Laser Processing of Aerospace Materials Using Diffractive Optics". Metals 11, n.º 6 (15 de junio de 2021): 963. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/met11060963.

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We considered possibilities of an application of diffractive free-form optics in laser processing of metallic materials in aerospace production. Based on the solution of the inverse problem of heat conduction, an algorithm was developed that calculates the spatial distribution of the power density of laser irradiation in order to create the required thermal effect in materials. It was found that the use of diffractive optics for the laser beam shaping made it possible to obtain specified properties of processed materials. Laser thermal hardening of parts made of chrome–nickel–molybdenum steel was performed. This allowed us to increase the wear resistance due to the creation in the surface layer of a structure that has an increased hardness. In addition, a method of laser annealing of sheet materials from aluminum–magnesium alloy and low-alloy titanium alloys was developed. Application of this method has opened opportunities for expanding the forming options of these materials and for improving the precision in the manufacturing of aircraft engine parts. It was also shown that welding by a pulsed laser beam with a redistribution of power and energy density makes it possible to increase the strength of the welded joint of a heat-resistant nickel-based superalloy. Increasing the adhesion strength of gas turbine engine parts became possible by laser treatment using diffractive free-form optics.

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50

Zhu, Dongming y Robert A. Miller. "Thermal-Barrier Coatings for Advanced Gas-Turbine Engines". MRS Bulletin 25, n.º 7 (julio de 2000): 43–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/mrs2000.123.

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Ceramic thermal-barrier coatings (TBCs) have received increasing attention for gasturbine engine applications. The advantages of using TBCs include increased fuel efficiency by allowing higher gas temperatures and improved durability and reliability from lower component temperatures. As illustrated in Figure 1, TBCs can provide effective heat insulation to engine components, thus allowing higher operating temperatures and reduced cooling requirements. Atypical two-layer TBC system consists of a porous ZrO2-Y2O3 ceramic top coat and an oxidation-resistant metallic bond coat. These TBC systems can be applied to the metal substrate either by plasma spray or by electron-beam physical vapor deposition (EB-PVD) techniques.

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