Tesis sobre el tema "Hard law"

The question of whether there is soft law in international law has been as much the subject of contemporary debate as whether or not there is private legal authority in the international society. The legal boundaries seem to be blurred by the process of globalisation and the recent shift in international law. The traditional definition of international law has been outdated as new forms of treaties has introduced new subject of law to the judicial arena. At the same time a supplementary map of law has been added to the cartography of international law, soft law. These correlating processes have comprehensive political and legal consequences at both the international and national levels. This essay examines and identifies soft law from a legal-political perspective and locates and explores private forms of legal authority on the map of contemporary international law. In respect to theory, it accounts for an interdisciplinary approach involving issues of both international law and international relations. In the process this study examines issues regarding the relative legal normativity and the blurring of legal authority in international law. The focus is on the legal character, the constitutive practices and the legal and political influence of soft law. It discusses the influence and power exerted by soft law over state actors in the international system and at the national level. The essay finds that soft law is of substantial relevance in the international ambit. To some extent a limited normative force of certain norms is recognized in soft law even though it is conceded that those norms would not be enforceable by an international court or other international organ. To say that it does not exist because it is not of the enforceable variety, might blind students of international law to another dimension of the landscape of international practice. Soft law does not translate to soft obligations in the reality of international society, and it seems to be some confusion surrounding the obligations conceived by it. The research here presented suggests that its political and legal power is substantial. The researched examples do not display any real private legal authority in soft law. This is because soft law is found to be a separate phenomenon from international law proper. However, soft law’s impact on national governments combined with the wider acceptance of the presence of private actors in the creation of soft law suggests that private power is noteworthy in comparison. In one of the studied examples, the soft law is concluded by private business representatives solely, but in requiring the status of soft law it is dependant on the recognition of the international and national legal bodies.

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O presente estudo analisa a possibilidade da imputação à Declaração Universal dos Direitos dos Animais a qualidade de Norma Jurídica. Para tanto, faz-se uma análise quanto à possibilidade das declarações internacionais serem fontes do direito internacional. Em seguida, observa-se de que maneira os documentos originados dessas declarações podem funcionar enquanto norma. O objetivo é analisar se a declaração proposta pela Liga Francesa dos Direitos dos Animais na sede da UNESCO em 1978 pode funcionar, imediatamente, como soft law e, mediatamente, como hard law. Para isso, faz-se uso do conceito de acoplamento estrutural, emprestado da Teoria dos Sistemas, para demonstrar de que maneira a interação entre os sistemas político e jurídico pode fazer surgir uma nova norma internacional, reconhecendo, para tanto, a necessidade da mudança do atual paradigma excessivamente antropocêntrico. Essa mudança é necessária para criar o ambiente social propício para criar o aumento da demanda pela ampliação da proteção animal.

The EU regulatory framework for direct taxation is composed of three interconnected elements. First, having satisfied the requirement of a unanimous vote, the EU adopted a range of directives on the basis of the general harmonisation provision (Article 115 TFEU). Therefore, a traditional hard law framework harmonising some aspects of direct taxation exists in the EU. Second, case law is an indirect method of exerting influence on the direct tax field. As long as no positive integration has been brought about, the Member States are free to regulate this sphere as they see fit. The boundaries of their regulatory freedom are imposed, however, by negative integration i.e. by the ECJ applying the Treaty rules on non-discrimination. Jurisprudence has been an influential and dominant regulatory tool. Third, corporate taxation has also been regulated through soft law. The key example of a non-legally binding instrument in the direct tax field is the Code of Conduct for Business Taxation. This thesis investigates interactions between these hard and soft law measures and draws conclusions about the future of EU direct tax regulation. To achieve these aims, two research strands are explored. First, the thesis discusses the nature of the Code. In particular, it is investigated whether the Code can be regarded as an example of a ‘pure’ soft law measure. It is argued that the nature of the Code is not as clear-cut as is officially presented. Behind soft law terminology, the Code operates as a hard law measure. Supported by an examination of the OECD anti-harmful tax competition initiative, the thesis concludes that the use of soft law in tax regulation has not been wholly successful. The introduction of legally binding solutions is restricted by the requirement of unanimity, which is difficult to attain in the expanding EU. Thus, hard law has instead been introduced through the back door, raising valid questions about regulatory legitimacy. Second, this thesis explores the relationships between hard and soft law in the wider context of EU direct tax regulation. The extent to which the Code is embedded in the broader environment of tax regulation is analysed. The Code tends to be characterised as a soft law measure situated within the regulatory environment of taxation that, for years, has been dominated by hard law instruments. At this level, interactions between ECJ jurisprudence and soft law instruments are also explored. Consequently, the thesis demonstrates that hard law and soft law are not necessarily alternative choices; both approaches can be applied simultaneously to influence one regulatory field, and both offer different strengths and values. In a field as politically sensitive as direct taxation, soft law may prove to be insufficient to bring about real change. The addition of a hard law (or legally binding) element might be necessary to secure effectiveness of regulation. This thesis proposes that the current, disingenuous hybrid regulation of direct taxes in the EU should be replaced with a more transparent hybrid, where hard law measures are openly applied and soft law is given the opportunity to regulate in parallel and to its own distinct potential.

The thesis consists of three chapters. In the first chapter we study a communicationgame played by three agents with conflicting and state independent preferences. Each possible outcome of the game uniquely corresponds to a state of the world. The objective is to construct an outcome function(mechanism) that provides the agents with incentives to take actions so that the "true" outcome is implemented. Without any hard evidence in the model communication is worthless. However, if let the agents receive evidence to prove the state with infinitesimal probability we are able to induce truthful implementation in every equilibrium. The model resembles a situation of competition among advocates and our main result demonstrates wide possibilities (and economic intuition) for information aggregation within the adversarial procedure. In the second chapter we consider a trial game between a defendant and a judge and focus on the effects of the defendant’s right to remain silent. We provide a rationale for why there is no rule against adverse inference from silence in civil procedure. The third chapter relates to corporate governance. We show that, at the initial selling of shares, a controlling founder may have adverse incentives in terms of signaling low expropriation of outside shareholders.
La tesi si compone di tre capitoli. Nel primo capitolo studiamo un gioco di comunicazione interpretato da tre agenti in conflitto con il pay-off e lo stato indipendente. Ogni possibile esito del gioco corrisponde univocamente ad uno stato del mondo. L’obiettivo e quello di costruire una funzione di risultato (meccanismo) che fornisce gli agenti, con incentivi a prendere azioni in modo che il "vero" risultato e attuato. Senza alcuna prova concreta nella comunicazione modello e privo di valore. Tuttavia, se lasciare che gli agenti ricevere le prove per dimostrare lo stato, con una probabilita infinitesimale siamo in grado di indurre l’attuazione veritiera in ogni equilibrio. Il modello assomiglia ad una situazione di concorrenza tra gli avvocati e il nostro principale risultato dimostra ampie possibilita di aggregazione delle informazioni nell’ambito della procedura di contraddittorio. Nel secondo capitolo si considera una partita di prova tra un imputato e un giudice e si concentrano sugli effetti del diritto del convenuto di rimanere in silenzio. Forniamo una giustificazione del motivo per cui non esiste alcuna norma contro inferenza negativi dal silenzio in procedura civile. Il terzo capitolo riguarda la corporate governance. Si dimostra che, al di vendita iniziale di parti, uno dei fondatori di controllo possono avere gli incentivi negativi in termini di segnalazione espropriazione basso al di fuori degli azionisti.

Defence date: 14 March 2022
Examining Board: Professor Stefan Grundmann (Humboldt University Berlin); Professor Mathias Siems (European University Institute); Professor Karin Buhmann (Copenhagen Business School); Professor Robert McCorquodale (University of Nottingham)
This dissertation examines the concept of human rights due diligence (HRDD) under international soft law and its transposition into business regulation, with a particular focus on the European Union context. It traces the evolution of HRDD – starting from the work of the United Nations to the recent contributions of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. The inquiry finds that HRDD is a concept of remarkable depth, whose features make it suitable to address human rights abuse in the globalised economy. Yet, there are also a number of practical and conceptual concerns. For instance, it is argued that the concept of HRDD features a high level of abstraction, which leads to ambiguities at the stage of implementation. In view of these findings, the transposition of HRDD into business law provides an opportunity, not only to build on the strengths of the concept, but also to counter some of its weaknesses. In addition, the thesis addresses two questions of international law concerning, first, the legality of HRDD legislation in view of its extraterritorial implications and, second, the relationship between relevant legal acts and the duties of states under international human rights law. It is held that regulators enjoy considerable leeway under international law to facilitate or require HRDD even beyond their own borders. Yet, states are presently under no international obligation to regulate HRDD processes – even though new developments are in sight. Finally, drawing on the findings of this research, the dissertation reviews Directive 2014/95/EU and Regulation (EU) 2017/821 as two precedents of HRDD legislation in the European Union. The two legal acts pursue very different strategies to promote HRDD processes with, it is argued, a varying degree of success. Through these assessments, the thesis provides a set of recommendations that may inform the transposition of the concept into business law.

This research focuses on the relationship between international investment and cultural rights, ultimately seeking to determine how to reconcile investor protection with the need to protect and promote the cultural rights of vulnerable stakeholders, such as indigenous peoples. Cultural rights, which are closely connected to the principles of human dignity and sustainable development, have attracted the attention of academics and policy-makers in recent decades, but are still far from receiving the attention and recognition that they deserve. Conversely, international investment law is much more developed and has been construed in a way that can compromise a host State's ability to regulate in order to promote and protect human rights in general, and cultural rights in particular. This research will contain two parts: the first one will be composed of three chapters, the first analysing the concept and scope of cultural rights; the second providing an overview of international investment law; and the third assessing its relationship with cultural rights. The second part of the study will deal with the hard and soft law mechanisms that can be used to influence the balance between investment and the respect for cultural rights, at the international level. This will include the analysis of voluntary corporate conduct codes (chapter 4), compliance requirements in the context of investment loans (chapter 5), as well as investor-State dispute settlement (chapter 6). Finally, conclusions will be drawn, so as to provide a deeper understanding of the most effective ways to protect and promote cultural rights in the context of foreign investment.

2010/2011
Sommario Il principio di legalità nel diritto penale sembra avere subito in tempi recenti quello che può definirsi il processo di eterogenesi dei fini. Quanto più esso ha trovato riconoscimento incontestato tra gi studiosi, affannati ad espungere le fonti secondarie, tanto più la fonte primaria ha smarrito i connotati che ne conclamavano il valore: per un verso, in attuazione del principio di uguaglianza, la generalità e l’astrattezza; per un altro verso, in attuazione del principio di garanzia statuito a vantaggio dei destinatari della norma, la descrizione precisa e pregnante del fatto illecito e delle conseguenze punitive. Se ben deve riconoscersi, come insegnato già da Aristotele, che spetta alla legge determinare “tutto quanto è possibile”, restringendo il campo della libertà ai giudici soprattutto “perché il giudizio del legislatore non è particolare, ma riguarda il futuro e l’universale, mentre il componente dell’assemblea e il giudice giocano ogni volta su casi presenti e determinati”, incorrendo così il rischio per “amicizia, odio o utilità particolare di non vedere sufficientemente la verità, ma il piacere o il dispiacere personale”, allora è evidente come e quanto la fonte legislativa tenda attualmente a distaccarsi dai suoi fondamenti. Da un lato, la perdita di autorevolezza del legislatore determina un calo generalizzato della fiducia nella legge, vista come incapace di risolvere i nodi cruciali del diritto penale; dall’altro la giurisprudenza, “approfittando” di tale situazione, tende ad affermare la sua autorità mediante la correzione in via interpretativa dei supposti errori e delle lacune dei prodotti legislativi. Questi fattori determinano dubbi in ordine al valore oggi da attribuire alla legge, la cui supremazia dovrebbe derivare, non solo formalmente dall’organo rappresentativo che la emana, ma anche sostanzialmente da alcune peculiarità che dovrebbero caratterizzarla, quali generalità, astrattezza, stabilità, determinatezza, precisione, chiarezza, imperatività e razionalità. Tutte caratteristiche queste che sono state viste consuetamente come dirette a realizzare i valori di libertà, uguaglianza e sicurezza collettiva, di cui lo Stato si è fatto garante assoluto. Inoltre, la diluizione formale e sostanziale della sovranità, determinata, sul piano esterno, dalla moltiplicazione dei vincoli internazionali e comunitari e, su quello interno, dalla tendenza a sostituire, a livello di tecnica di regolazione giuridica, il precetto autoritario col metodo della negoziazione e del bilanciamento degli interessi dei rappresentanti dei poteri socialmente forti, solleva ulteriori perplessità sulla validità del principio di stretta legalità nel campo penale. Da non dimenticare, poi, come l’erosione del dogma, sempre alla base della legalità, della rigida sottoposizione del giudice alla legge, abbia favorito l’accrescersi dello spazio interpretativo lasciato alla giurisdizione. Procedendo con ordine, occorre subito rammentare che il senso più pregnante della garanzia apprestata dalla riserva di legge, come garantita dall’art. 25 Cost., nei confronti del c.d. potere punitivo non è solo quello della possibilità data all’individuo di regolare il proprio comportamento su una previa regola generale e astratta, ma è anche e soprattutto quello derivante dalla democraticità, che appunto individua nel procedimento legislativo il migliore sistema con cui prendere decisioni politiche. La crisi della riserva di legge consegue ad una crescente incapacità della stessa di dispiegare il suo ruolo di garanzia su entrambi i piani. Tralasciando i contorni davvero fittizi che ha assunto la garanzia della libertà di autodeterminazione offerta dalla legge al cittadino, ciò che qui rileva è la qualità della legge e della legislazione, pregiudicata dalla produzione quantitativamente inflazionistica e qualitativamente sciatta da rendere nulla più che una finzione la possibilità per il cittadino di orientare il proprio comportamento sulla base di una norma sufficientemente chiara. Ma l’aspetto che più preme è quello della garanzia recata della legge in ragione della sua democraticità, definibile come contenutistica. Su questo piano tre paiono le linee di caduta della legalità: la perdita di consistenza dello stesso principio democratico tradizionale; la trasformazione del sistema delle fonti e la loro proliferazione a scapito della legge; l’alterazione dell’originario equilibrio tra la legge e il potere giudiziario. Quanto al primo aspetto ci si interroga su quali siano i reali vettori che conducono la volontà popolare a trovare espressione nella legge, se i meccanismi della rappresentanza parlamentare o non, piuttosto, le interpretazioni che di tale volontà forniscono le concentrazioni massmediatiche e più in generale i potenti gruppi economici con la loro attività lobbistica; nel campo penale poi il carattere spesso emotivamente coinvolgente delle materie oggetto di disciplina penale finisce per accrescere il ruolo dei mass media nella formazione del necessario consenso sociale. Per quanto riguarda poi le conseguenze del passaggio al sistema maggioritario, è facile constatare come all’accentuato potere della maggioranza in sede parlamentare e governativa faccia riscontro la tendenza a protrarre il processo di formazione normativa presso gli organi di garanzia, quali Corte costituzionale e Presidente della Repubblica. Il fatto è poi che la democrazia non costituisce più l’unico asse su cui si regge il sistema istituzionale. In primo luogo si assiste al diffondersi dell’opera interpretativa dei giudici, per non parlare delle decisioni della Corte Costituzionale. Infatti, sebbene la Corte Costituzionale abbia consolidato un rigoroso self restreint quanto alle questioni di costituzionalità in malam partem, ciò non ha evitato, da parte della stessa, manipolazioni di disciplina talvolta davvero innovative e creative, con effetti favorevoli per il reo. Basti all’uopo pensare alle c.d. sentenze additive di principio, con cui la Corte dichiara l’incostituzionalità di una omissione legislativa: esse, enunciando anche il principio a cui dovrà ispirarsi il legislatore se e quando deciderà di provvedere, implicano, per un verso, forti limiti al quomodo dell’eventuale disciplina legislativa e, per altro verso, conferiscono da subito al giudice il potere-dovere di tradurre sul piano operativo il principio affermato. In secondo luogo, non è possibile non prendere d’atto che alla volontà e certezza alla base della legalità di stampo illuminista, in grado quindi di controllare previamente il conflitto di interessi, si è sostituita l’idea del diritto come strumento di governance dei plurimi interessi in gioco. Alla volontà unitaria del precetto penale si sostituiscono, più che le volontà dei giudici e delle parti chiamati a confrontarsi con la fattispecie, le valutazioni che essi opereranno per rendere la disciplina coerente con gli obiettivi strategici del sistema; dunque, governance al posto di volontà prescrittiva. Questo mutamento comporta nella pratica che alla rigidità descrittiva della fattispecie penale si sostituisca l’indicazione legislativa di parametri, criteri e obiettivi di disciplina; alla certezza della decisione giuridica, sintomo di onnipotenza del diritto, è subentrato l’equilibrio che è, invece, il risultato di un diritto che riconosce la molteplicità delle forze e la conseguente difficoltà delle scelte decisionali e per questo vi appresta degli strumenti per arrivarvi. In terzo luogo, non si può non osservare come la realtà, sempre più pervasa dalla tecnologia, abbia determinato lo spostamento del baricentro normativo dall’organo parlamentare all’apparato amministrativo, con tutta la fioritura di autorità indipendenti e organi tecnici dotati di specifiche competenze comprensive di poteri normativi. Quanto al secondo piano del discorso attinente alle fonti, si può osservare come la maggior parte degli atti parlamentari aventi un contenuto provvedimentale sono quelli elaborati all’esterno attraverso la c.d. contrattualizzazione del processo di formazione della decisione normativa, mentre le poche leggi di principio spesso assumono valore simbolico o si limitano a comporre il conflitto ideologico che sta alla loro base solo grazie a formulazioni ambigue e indeterminate, tali cioè da esprimere solo in apparenza una volontà parlamentare, rimettendo, nella realtà, la decisione agli organi dell’applicazione. Ma ciò che segna la crisi della legge penale è, come noto, l’incremento delle fonti primarie di origine governativa: dopo l’alt dato dalla Corte Costituzionale all’abuso del decreto legge, si è aperta la stagione del decreto delegato. I requisiti costituzionali della delegazione legislativa hanno subito un progressivo allentamento nella prassi, ma è soprattutto con l’invenzione dei decreti delegati correttivi che si è ottenuto il risultato di un prolungamento della delega che tende a stabilizzare nel Governo il potere di normazione primaria. In questo quadro si inserisce anche il procedimento di attuazione delle direttive comunitarie, affidato appunto ad un meccanismo che fa congiuntamente ricorso alla delegazione legislativa e alla delegificazione. In ogni caso, data la quantità di direttive che ormai condizionano la fisionomia attuale dell’ordinamento, ne risulta per questa via potenziato il ruolo delle fonti primarie di origine governativa. Naturalmente si potrebbe osservare, non senza fondamento, che la crisi della legge riguarda l’ordinamento nel suo complesso, mentre il diritto penale dovrebbe esserne immune stante la riserva di legge costituzionalmente sancita in materia. Ma è altrettanto vero che il diritto penale non può ritenersi avulso dalla realtà, condividendo, in misura maggiore o minore, le sorti dell’intero ordinamento, sollecitato com’è, anch’esso, ad aprirsi al pluralismo delle fonti da fattori sia interni che esterni. Invero, se il quadro sopra descritto concerne i fattori interni della crisi del principio della riserva di legge, non si può fare a meno di notare come elementi di minaccia promanino anche dall’esterno; all’uopo occorre distinguere tra diritto comunitario e quello internazionale. Nello scenario mondiale domina ancora lo strumento convenzionale, il quale fa salva la sovranità nazionale e il ruolo del Parlamento, chiamato ad autorizzare la ratifica delle sempre più numerose convenzioni internazionali multilaterali. Tuttavia la libertà dell’organo parlamentare appare piuttosto limitata: da un lato, le convenzioni concernenti la materia penale paiono sempre più dettagliate, perché si spingono non solo a formulare modelli minuziosi di fattispecie ma, non di rado, vincolano gli Stati anche a livello del trattamento sanzionatorio; dall’altro, l’oggetto di tali atti normativi è sempre più spesso tale da imporre obblighi sempre più difficilmente eludibili dagli Stati. Si assiste pertanto ad un fenomeno di grande interesse sul piano delle fonti, caratterizzato dalla riduzione del margine di discrezionalità del legislatore nazionale di fronte ad atti convenzionali e di fatto cogenti, i quali per un verso traggono origine da organi privi di legittimazione democratica e per altro verso si rivelano dotati di una particolare autorevolezza derivante da una legittimazione fattuale fondata sulla capacità di soddisfare bisogni di tutela ovunque condivisi. Passando all’ordinamento comunitario si assiste, oltre al già menzionato meccanismo di recepimento predisposto dalla legge comunitaria annuale, sia all’estensione della competenza penale dell’Unione europea ad opera del Trattato di Lisbona, che al sempre più ampio ricorso a direttive, a loro volta sempre più stringenti e dettagliate, anche riguardo al profilo sanzionatorio, così che anche qui il ruolo della volontà parlamentare nella produzione del diritto penale risulta ridotta. Il descritto stato di crisi del principio di legalità è costretto, altresì, a fare i conti con il diffondersi, nel nostro ordinamento, di un nuovo fenomeno di natura esogena: il (o anche la) soft law, locuzione traducibile in italiano come diritto leggero, ovvero morbido, ovvero soffice, ovvero attenuato. Con tale espressione si intende far riferimento ad una moltitudine variegata di atti latu sensu normativi, accomunati dall’assenza del requisito della forza cogente, che, appunto, sembrava essere l’essenza della nozione di norma giuridica. Alla luce di tale definizione risulta allora evidente come affrontare la tematica della soft law significhi affrontare un paradosso. Innanzitutto perché all’interno di tale categoria vengono ricompresi una congerie di atti che, seppur privi di efficacia obbligatoria, dispiegano comunque degli effetti giuridici. Secondariamente, ma non certo per importanza, tale ambiguità emerge, con immediatezza dall’accostamento dell’aggettivo soft al termine law: il diritto è, infatti, per tradizione considerato hard, ossia obbligatorio. Secondo l’impostazione maggioritaria, infatti, un soft law privo di effetti legali non è law, laddove un soft law fornito di essi è sicuramente hard law. Nonostante tale posizione tradizionale prevalente, alcuni studiosi, a partire dagli anni Settanta del secolo scorso hanno cominciato, nell’ambito del diritto internazionale, a prospettare la possibilità di immaginare l’esistenza di un tertium genus di fonte di produzione del diritto, nascente in risposta alla complessità giuridica della globalizzazione. Lo sviluppo del diritto soffice testimonierebbe, in tal senso, la possibilità di ingresso nel circuito della giuridicità di soggetti nuovi, non sempre formalmente titolari delle competenze necessarie per produrre un diritto “a denominazione di origine controllata”. Ciò implica anche la creazione di un circuito giuridico che attiva logiche e processi che superano il criterio essenziale dell’obbedienza. In pratica, non si tratta solo di un percorso di perdita del carattere verticale del diritto, ma anche in un certo senso di un rimodellamento del suo criterio di legittimazione, che non è più affidato alla forma, ma piuttosto ad un contenuto o a delle modalità che sappiano riscuotere l’adesione dei destinatari, indipendentemente dalla previsione di sanzioni. Alla luce delle descritte peculiarità della normativa attenuata, tutto il sistema penale, hard law per eccellenza, sembra muoversi in una direzione antitetica a quella della soft law. In particolare, questa antinomia si appalesa in tutta la sua chiarezza ove si mettano a confronto alcune caratteristiche fondamentali delle due normative: se l’unico organo di produzione abilitato in campo penale è, ai sensi dell’art. 25 Cost., il Parlamento, in quello attenuato gli enti legittimati sono plurimi e non sono solo statali, substatali o sovranazionali, ma anche espressivi di poteri non necessariamente a carattere territoriale; mentre le norme soffici possono anche limitarsi a porre degli obiettivi, quelle penali devono essere formulate quanto più possibile in modo chiaro e preciso, indicando inequivocabilmente i comportamenti vietati; laddove i destinatari delle norme attenuate coincidono spesso con i soggetti produttori delle stesse e si indirizzano solitamente a categorie ben individuate di soggetti, le norme penali generalmente si rivolgono in maniera indifferenziata a tutti gli individui presenti sul territorio statale; se il diritto debole costituisce un diritto meramente esortativo, diretto a persuadere più che ad obbligare, risultando pertanto privo di sanzioni, all’opposto il diritto penale è il ramo dell’ordinamento giuridico più di ogni altro vincolante; la normativa leggera prescinde dal tradizionale modello delle fonti kelseniano di tipo piramidale, su cui il sistema penale si fonda, per collocarsi all’interno di un modello improntato ad una logica reticolare, senza gerarchie; la soft law è per definizione destinata ad operare in ogni ambito, da quello angusto di una singola impresa a quello sconfinato del mercato globale, mentre il diritto penale è la branca meno universalizzabile, perché simbolizza la sovranità nazionale e la cultura di ciascun popolo; infine, se il diritto penale si caratterizza per un elevato tasso di rigidità e stabilità, dati i beni giuridici che va a tutelare, all’opposto il diritto morbido si esprime con strumenti non solo flessibili, ma anche mutevoli, per meglio rispondere alla rapida evoluzione della società. Tale insanabile antinomia tra diritto soffice e diritto penale pare però, ad un’attenta analisi del panorama giuridico attuale, più astratta che reale, ove solo si consideri quanto detto in apertura sulla crisi dei principi di legalità e della riserva di legge e sulla progressiva alterazione di alcuni tratti peculiari del diritto penale.
XXIV Ciclo
1984

Diante da complexidade da problemática ambiental, emergiu a necessidade de atuação do direito ambiental internacional, através da criação de um compilado de normas imperativas, capazes de efetivar a tutela e proteção do meio ambiente, limitando a atuação do Poder Público e dos particulares. Contudo, o direito ambiental internacional precisou recorrer não só às normatizações hard law, que são as normas burocráticas e obrigatórias, mas também as normatizações soft law, as quais conseguem ser modificadas de forma simplificada ou complementadas posteriormente, consideradas um direito flexível e capaz de acompanhar as mudanças e necessidades ecológicas. No Brasil, para que haja validade dos tratados e das convenções internacionais pactuados, é necessário o referendo da ordem constitucional brasileira, haja vista que é essa ordem que dispõe sobre a admissibilidade da ordem internacional no direito interno. No direito brasileiro, a Emenda Constitucional 45, de 2004, inseriu o § 3º do art. 5º, não pacificando o entendimento hierárquico das normas internacionais em matéria de direitos humanos, aqui incluído o direito ambiental. Tal situação também não se encontra solucionada pelo Supremo Tribunal Federal, órgão competente para julgar os conflitos decorrentes do direito interno e do direito internacional, podendo-se apenas considerar por uma votação, da quase maioria, pela supralegalidade da norma internacional internalizada no ordenamento brasileiro. Ainda, os tratados pactuados em âmbito do Mercosul não possuem nenhum privilégio para adentrar no ordenamento brasileiro, bem como não há uniformização das legislações ambientais nos países membros, tampouco, um tribunal capaz de fiscalizar e sancionar os Estados não cumpridores, o que dificulta a efetividade de suas normas.
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Given the complexity of environmental issues, there emerged the need for cooperation of international environmental law through the creation of mandatory rules compiled, capable of effecting the guardianship and protection of the environment by limiting the actions of the government and individuals. However, the international environmental law needed to appeal not only to hard law norms, which are the bureaucratic rules and compulsory, but also the soft law norms, which can be modified in a simplified form or complemented later considered a right flexible and able to follow changes and ecological needs. In Brazil, there is validity to treaties and international conventions agreed upon, it s necessary the Brazilian constitutional referendum, given that it is this order that provides for the admissibility of the international order in the law. Under Brazilian law, Constitutional Amendment 45, 2004, entered the § 3 of art. 5, do not pacify the hierarchical understanding of international standards on human rights, environmental law included here. This situation has also not been resolved by the Supreme Federal Court, a court competent to judge disputes arising from domestic law and international law, can only be considered for a vote, almost the majority of the international standard for supra-legal internalized in the Brazilian legal system. Still, the treaties agreed upon within the framework of Southern Common Market (Mercosul) have no privilege to enter into the Brazilian legal system, and there is no standardization of environmental laws in member countries, nor a court able to monitor and sanction the non-compliant States, which hinders the effectiveness of its standards.

FUNDAÇÃO DE APOIO À PESQUISA DO ESTADO DO RIO DE JANEIRO
A presente tese é primordialmente um trabalho de filosofia do direito. Não obstante, também pode ser encarada como uma contribuição para o estudo filosófico sobre a natureza das regras prescritivas (e do uso diretivo ou prescritivo da linguagem), englobando: uma investigação sobre as regras e suas notas características e contingentes e um estudo sobre as diferentes maneiras por meio das quais elas podem integrar o raciocínio prático dos seus destinatários. Para não usar a linguagem de férias, as regras serão discutidas dentro do cenário do positivismo conceitual. O objetivo é mostrar alguns dos principais problemas que devem ser enfrentados quando se pretende levar as regras a sério. Trata-se de uma incursão nas fontes filosóficas dos casos difíceis do direito, quando encarado como um sistema de regras.
The present thesis is primarily an exercise in philosophy of law. However, it can also be viewed as a contribution to the recurring philosophical investigations about the nature of prescriptive rules (and the directive or prescritive use of language in general), encompassing: an inquiry about rules and their characteristic and contigent marks, and a research of several ways by means of which they can play a part in the practical reasoning of its addressees. In order not to use language on holiday, the discussion about rules will be held on the stage set up by conceptual positivism. The aim is to point out some of the main problems that must be faced when rules are taken seriously. In a nutshell, the thesis is an incursion into the philosophical sources of hard cases, when law is conceived as a system of rules.

Soft law is a common feature of international governance, occupying a grey zone between the realms of politics and law. The multifaceted concept can refer to vague provisions or norms generally, but is most useful when defined as international instruments adopted in a non-binding form. Whilst the advantages and appeal of soft law have been widely studied, with its effects explored in both International Relations (IR) and International Law (IL) scholarship, states' behaviour on commitment to soft law per se has remained underexplored. It is often assumed that its non-binding status upon adoption makes commitment to soft law a relatively inconsequential endeavor, at least in comparison to hard law. In this thesis, incorporating insights from public international law into rationalist IR approaches, I argue that soft law instruments can have important effects over time and bring substantial costs for states to bear. This is particularly the case for soft law instruments 'hardening' through domestic law, treaties or customary international law, increasing the sovereignty and implementation costs attached to commitment. I further argue that those potential costs of soft law are taken into account by states when making decisions on commitment. Depending on the importance and likelihood of the costs foreseen, states can craft their commitment to mitigate these costs or block them from arising. Empirical evidence for the place of the costs of soft law in states' decision-making on commitment is offered through an in-depth case study of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, with a focus on the opposition it faced upon adoption - an unusual occurrence for a UN declaration in the field of human rights. Recognizing the potential costs of soft law and their impact on state commitment helps to bridge theory and practice regarding the creation of non-binding instruments and sheds light on challenges raised by the use of soft law by states and non-state actors at the frontiers of international law-making.

Concept désormais incontournable pour les entreprises dans la gestion, souvent corrélative, des risques juridiques et du risque de réputation afférents à leurs activités économiques, ainsi que dans la définition de leurs stratégies commerciales et concurrentielles, la Responsabilité Sociale des Entreprises (RSE) participe activement de l’abolition des frontières, d’ores et déjà poreuses, entre normativité d’origine publique et normativité d’origine privée. Dans un contexte concurrentiel mondialisé, elle met, dès lors, l’accent sur la nécessaire adaptation des instruments juridiques classiques à l’évolution d’une configuration normative complexe et ce, à l’échelle globale. Se faisant, la RSE fait l’objet d’un dialogue compétitif sans cesse renouvelé, entre pouvoirs publics nationaux et internationaux d’une part et pouvoirs privés économiques d’autre part. En ce sens, le droit économique contemporain, par capillarité normative et transfrontalière, n’est donc pas figé dans la durée, pas plus qu’il n’est cadenassé dans l’espace des frontières nationales
Now being an unavoidable concept for companies in managing their, often correlated, legal and reputation risks attached to their economic activities as well as in defining their commercial and competitive strategies, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) actively participates in abolishing boundaries, already permeable, between public normativity and private normativity. In a globalized competitive context, it subsequently underlines the necessary adaptation of classical legal instruments to the evolution of complex normative systems at a global scale. In that matter, CSR is subject to a constantly renewed competitive dialogue between national and international public authorities and private operators. Therefore, economic law is neither frozen in time nor locked inside national borders space

German companies or German-based subsidiaries of international businesses may become subject of, or otherwise involved in, investigations by German or foreign regulatory or law enforcement authorities. In the context of such investigations, it is not unusual for the concerned company to face informal requests from German or foreign regulatory and law enforcement authorities for voluntary cooperation. Oftentimes, such requests focus on the transfer of electronic data for investigatory purposes, and such data typically relate, in whole or in part, to individuals (e.g. employees, suppliers and customers). In these and other cases, compliance of German companies or German-based subsidiaries with informal requests from regulatory and law enforcement authorities may itself entail a compliance risk or even constitute a breach by the corporate entity of the German data protection laws resulting in criminal prosecution, administrative sanctions, or damage claims and other actions by third party individuals. This article outlines the scope of application of the German Federal Data Protection Act, introduces the applicable statutory provisions, and discusses the relevant considerations in the context of an informal request by a regulatory or law enforcement authority for voluntary cooperation in the context of global investigations, in particular where a German-based entity faces requests from authorities abroad.

O objetivo deste trabalho é investigar o desenvolvimento da mecânica racional newtoniana, particularmente acompanhar sua inauguração com os Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica e a subseqüente recepção do programa pela filosofia continental, no século XVIII, por alguns intelectuais e cientistas. Utiliza-se a metodologia dos programas de pesquisa científica como referencial epistemológico na caracterização e descrição do programa, e também a abordagem historiográfica que ela implica. Epistemologicamente, procura-se escrutinar e precisar o sentido da noção de núcleo duro, em particular sua aplicação ao programa newtoniano de mecânica racional, mediante a análise detida do que Lakatos concebeu como o núcleo duro do mencionado programa, as leis dinâmicas e da gravitação apresentadas nos livros I e III dos Principia. O núcleo do programa da mecânica racional newtoniana é pensado por Newton como axiomas ou leis do movimento (Axiomata sive leges motus). Essa caracterização das hipóteses fundamentais da mecânica newtoniana aponta para sua centralidade, o que aparentemente confirma a idéia fundamental de Lakatos de que um programa de pesquisa é caracterizado pelo seu núcleo duro. A questão que motiva este ensaio pode ser formulada nos seguintes termos: dado que, segundo Lakatos, o núcleo duro é o componente conceitual (caracterizado metodologicamente) que define os contornos da prática científica em determinado campo, primeiro, não seria o núcleo duro estruturado através da correlação com outros componentes da teoria de racionalidade de Lakatos, em particular da heurística positiva? Segundo, as suposições compartilhadas pelos partidários de um programa de pesquisa possuirão alguma característica distintiva (epistemológica) que legitime sua proteção em relação à refutação? Por fim, aplicada à história da ciência, esta noção metodológica resiste a um escrutínio historiográfico?
The aim of this paper was to investigate the development of Newtonian rational mechanics, in special to analyze our rise with the publication of Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica and the consequent program reception by the continental philosophy. Was used the methodology of scientific research programs like epistemological framework in the programs characterization and description, and too the historiography approach entangled by it. Epistemologically the aim is to scrutiny and to particularize the notion of hard core, specially in your application to Newtonian rational mechanics program, through the analyze of Lakatos conception of referred programs hard core: the dynamics laws of motion and the law of gravitation , presented in books I and III of Principia. To summarize, the question which motive this paper can be formulated in the following way: accepted the supposition that the hard core is the conceptual component which define the demarcation of the scientific practice in a established scope stability, first, the hard core will be not reducible to the others components of Lakatos´ theory of scientific rationality, like a face of positive heuristics? Second, will have the shared suppositions in a scientific program any distinctive characters (epistemological) which legitimate the protection of them face the refutation? At last, applied to the History of Science, this epistemological notion resist against a historic scrutiny?

This thesis examines responses to the problem of stock market short-termism ('SMST'). SMST is defined as investors preferring short-term financial returns over potentially more profitable longer-term investment opportunities. Such short-termism may result in serious real-world consequences. Company executives appear to respond to short-term pressures in ways that jeopardize the long-term sustainability of listed companies negatively impacting investors and other stakeholders including employees, customers and the community at large. This thesis provides an original contribution to the academic literature via an in-depth examination of all significant regulatory and financial industry efforts meant to reform SMST in major capital markets after the global financial crisis of 2007-2009. I hypothesize that the extensive discussion of the SMST issue has generated substantial reforms. Based on an analysis of the implemented reforms, I reveal that the anticipated surge of SMST reform has not occurred. I then explore why the widespread SMST discussion has not resulted in greater reform efforts. This examination reveals the complex nature of the SMST problem and the evidentiary issues inherent in viably identifying and measuring the harms of SMST. However, I determine that there is probable cause for concern justifying SMST reform measures. Further, I conclude that SMST issues arise because investors are biased towards short-term returns when calculating risk. This bias is evident in share pricing, meaning that share prices are not a reliable indicator of fundamental corporate value. Based on this conclusion, an original dual pathway for SMST reform is proposed. This dual pathway indicates that SMST reform measures must either: (1) reduce the actual or perceived excessive discounting of future returns by investors (i.e. make share prices better reflective of long-term value); or (2) cut-off the transmission mechanisms of SMST into the listed company (i.e. sever the link between share prices and corporate decision-making). Assessing the reforms against this dual pathway reveals that few of the reforms are conceptually effective. Of the few reforms that are conceptually effective, most are relatively 'light' touch. A 'light' touch approach may not be problematic, however, as such measures are easier to implement than 'hard' law. In the case of regulatory reforms, a 'light' touch approach provides scope for flexibility to minimize the many potential harms associated with 'hard' law measures. Consequently, this thesis concludes that SMST reform is more likely to occur if reformers pursue a 'lighter' touch approach meant to reduce excessive discounting of future returns and 'nudge' capital markets away from their harmful short-termism focus.

Esta dissertação tem como tema a guinada pragmática do juiz norte-americano Richard A. Posner e a aplicação de sua teoria da adjudicação pragmática aos casos difíceis. Para identificar o contexto em que se deu esta virada, apresentaremos em breve síntese a origem do pragmatismo nos Estados Unidos da América, suas implicações filosóficas e jurídicas para os paradigmas duais modernos, e sua influência no realismo jurídico. A virada linguística e da pós-modernidade darão forma a um neopragmatismo, cuja tônica será uma espécie de antifundacionalismo e antiteoria que será adotada por juristas a partir do final da década de 1980. Apresentado este cenário, adentrar-se-á ao trabalho de Richard Posner, destacando-se sua ascensão no movimento da Análise Econômica do Direito até que, influenciado por fragmentos das teorias enunciadas no primeiro capítulo e pelas críticas lançadas à redução do direito ao formalismo econômico, proporá uma releitura das possibilidades e dos limites da aplicação da economia ao direito, adotando uma abordagem mais abrangente e interdisciplinar, próxima ao pragmatismo jurídico. O pragmatismo de Posner terá como pilares a rejeição à autonomia do direito e a problemática da objetividade jurídica, fundamentada no consenso e na indeterminação mitigada do direito, que o levará a defender a impossibilidade de respostas certas aos casos difíceis e a incapacidade da filosofia moral auxiliar o direito. Posner oferecerá daí, uma visão própria de pragmatismo e razão prática, que constituirá o pragmatismo cotidiano e à teoria da adjudicação pragmática, sua relação com os métodos de outras áreas do conhecimento, com o formalismo e a concepção de razoabilidade, bem como a sua aplicação a um caso difícil. No terceiro e último capítulo deste trabalho, serão examinadas as dificuldades da proposta pragmática de Posner apontadas na crítica de Ronald Dworkin, sobretudo sobre o papel da objetividade no direito, a importância da filosofia moral na definição dos fins jurídicos e o perigo da transformação do empreendimento jurídico em um consequencialismo de regras.
This work proposes de analysis of the pragmatic turn of the American judge, Richard A. Posner and application of his theory of pragmatic adjudication to difficult cases. To identify the context in which this turn is given, we present in brief outline the origins of pragmatism in the United States of America, its philosophical implications and legal paradigms for modern dualisms, and its influence on legal realism. The linguistic turn and postmodernism will form a neo-pragmatism, whose keynote will be a kind of antifoundationalism and anti-theory that will be adopted by jurists from the late 1980\'s. Presented this scenario, we will enter into the work of Richard Posner, highlighting its emergence as a pioneer of the movement of Economic Analysis of Law until, influenced by fragments of the theories set out in the first chapter and reviews posted by the reduction of the right to economic formalism, propose a review of the possibilities and limits of application of economics, law, adopting a more comprehensive and interdisciplinary approach, the next legal pragmatism. The pillars of Posner\'s pragmatism will be the rejection of the autonomy of law and legal issues of objectivity, based on consensus and mitigated indeterminacy of law, which will lead to the adoption of the no-right answers thesis to difficult cases and the inability of moral theory to provide a solid basis for legal judgments. Posner then, offer a particular vision of pragmatism and practical reason, which constitute the everyday pragmatism and the theory of pragmatic adjudication, its relation with the methods of other areas of knowledge, with legal formalism and the concept of reasonableness, and its application to a difficult case. In the third and final chapter of this study will examine the difficulties of Posner\'s pragmatic proposal outlined in the critique of Ronald Dworkin, especially on the role of objectivity in the law, the importance of moral philosophy in defining the legal purposes and the danger of transformation of the enterprise legal in a rule-consequentialism.

Thesis (M.A.)--Georgia State University, 2007.
Title from file title page. Andrew Altman, committee chair; Peter Lindsay, Timothy Renick, committee members. Electronic text (55 p.) : digital, PDF file. Description based on contents viewed Oct. 29, 2007. Includes bibliographical references (p. 52-55).

Le sport européen est à la veille d'un bouleversement quant à sa prise en compte par le droit de l'UE et par le droit de la Convention européenne des droits de l’homme. Le constat du chevauchement de normes et de référentiels juridiques différents produisant des effets sur les sanctions infligées au « sportif citoyen européen » conduit à la répétition de difficultés relatives à la violation des principes d'égalité de traitement et d'intégrité des compétitions sportives. Cette thèse démontre la nécessité d'une européanisation des sanctions infligées au « sportif citoyen européen », et propose une réflexion sur les instruments juridiques de droit souple et de droit dur - existants ou à exploiter - susceptibles de répondre à cet objectif d'européanisation. L'originalité des travaux réside d'abord dans la réalisation d'enquêtes de terrain, puis dans le développement et les modifications à venir d'instruments de droit souple ou de droit dur existants, aux fins de combattre les atteintes aux principes précités en contribuant, de diverses façons, à l'européanisation des sanctions dans le domaine des activités sportives
European sport is on the verge of an upheaval as to its consideration by EU law and by the law of the European Convention on Human Rights. The finding of overlapping standards and different legal frameworks producing effects on the sanctions on the "European citizen athlete" leads to the repetition of difficulties relating to the infringement of the principles of equal treatment and of integrity of sport competitions. This thesis demonstrates the need for Europeanisation of sanctions imposed on the "European citizen athlete", and develops a reflection on the legal instruments of soft law and hard law - existing or to be developed - that may be of interest to meet that objective of Europeanisation. The originality of the work primarily lies in conducting field surveys, and secondly in the development and future changes in instruments of soft law or hard law existing for the purpose of combating violations of these principles, by contributing in various ways, to the Europeanisation of sanctions in the field of sports

La première partie de cette étude permet de démontrer que, pour de multiplesraisons, l’assimilation des notions d’ordre public et d’impérativité sociétaires produit desrésultats insatisfaisants. Afin d’accéder à la connaissance du contenu normatif de l’ordre publicsociétaire, une définition restrictive du concept, permettant de le distinguer de la notioninsaisissable d’impérativité, doit donc être proposée.Selon une approche volontairement restrictive, l’ordre public sociétaire peut être défini commeun contenant notionnel ayant pour fonction de protéger, par des règles contraignantes, desvaleurs ou intérêts essentiels du droit des sociétés ; telle est la mission singulière qu’il convientde lui attribuer afin de permettre l’identification des règles de droit, absolument insusceptiblesde dérogation conventionnelle, qu’il contient. In fine, les contours d’un régime juridique adapté,permettant le rayonnement aussi bien dans le temps que dans l’espace de ses prescriptionsessentielles, peuvent être dessinés
The first part of the study shows that, for many reasons, the assimilation of thenotions of public order and corporate imperative produces unsatisfactory results. In order toaccess knowledge of the normative content of corporate public policy, a restrictive definition ofthe concept must therefore be proposed, allowing it to be distinguished from the elusive notionof corporate imperative.According to a purposefully restrictive approach, corporate public policy can be defined as anotional container whose function is to protect, by means of binding rules, essential values orinterests of corporate law; this is the singular mission that should be assigned to it in order toenable the identification of the rules of law, which are absolutely insusceptible to conventionalderogation, which it contains. Finally, the framework of an adapted legal system, which allowsthe influence of its essential prescriptions in time as well as in space, can be drawn

En prenant l’exemple des entreprises pétrolières multinationales, cette thèse tente de clarifier l’état actuel du concept de responsabilité sociale des entreprises, qui, d’un point de vue juridique, relève du « soft law», et à dessiner la frontière entre le « hard law » et le « soft law», dans le but de mettre en lumière la différence entre les fonctions de ces deux types de droit et de dissiper les attentes irréalistes envers le concept de responsabilité sociale des entreprises. S’alignant avec cette logique, les contextes de la responsabilité sociale des entreprises ont d’abord été explorés, y compris l’évolution et les controverses autour de ce concept, ainsi que les instruments qui le sous-tendent et le mettent sur un pied solide, lesquels représentent certaines caractéristiques communes (diversité, flexibilité, inclusion des valeurs pionnières, etc.) pour être acceptés et engagés par les entreprises. Par ailleurs, a aussi été analysée la tendance au durcissement des règles nationales en cette matière, qui peut être constatée dans les pays développés et dans certains pays en développement. Puis, trois sujets, à savoir l’environnement, les droits de l’Homme et la lutte contre la corruption, ont été choisis et traités, pour, d’une part, exposer comment le « hard law » agit sur eux, ses faiblesses tant dans les pays en développement que dans les pays développés, et ses effets sur les performances réelles des entreprises pétrolières multinationales, et, d’autre part, déployer la contribution de la responsabilité sociale des entreprises sur ces thèmes. Enfin, les dynamiques de la responsabilité sociale des entreprises ont été recherchées. Certaines parties prenantes, comme les gouvernements, les investisseurs socialement responsables, les concurrents ou les ONG, ont un potentiel conséquent pour pousser les entreprises pétrolières multinationales à adopter une approche socialement responsable, tandis que certaines parties prenantes, comme les consommateurs responsables, restent un facteur faible pour la prise de décision de ces entreprises
Examining the example of multinational oil companies, this article tries to make clear the actual situation of the concept of corporate social responsibility, which from legal perspective belongs to soft law, and to draw a line between hard law and soft law, aiming to highlight the difference in functions of these two laws and to dispel unrealistic expectations of corporate social responsibility. Along these lines, this article firstly explores the context of corporate social responsibility, including its evolution, controversies around it, and the underpinning instruments that put it on a solid footing. These instruments represent a couple of common characteristics (diversity, flexibility, inclusion of pioneer values, etc.) that make them accepted by companies as commitment. Furthermore, both developed countries and some developing countries have seen a trend to strengthen national-level rules in this area. Secondly, three subjects, i.e., environment, human rights and anti-corruption, are selected and analyzed to show how hard law functions, its weaknesses in both developing countries and developed ones, and its effects on the actual performance of multinational oil companies, and also to explore what contribution the corporate social responsibility can make. Finally, the dynamics of corporate social responsibility is discussed. Some stakeholders, such as government, socially responsible investors, competitors and NGOs, have great potential to push multinational oil companies to adopt a socially responsible approach, while some other stakeholders, such as responsible consumers, remain a weak factor in the decision-making of these companies

The present article develops the legal concept of subcontracting on the frame of public procurement, according to the new Peruvian Public Procurement Law.Thus, different topics are treated: the differences between the outsourcing contract, derivative contract and subcontract; the new parameters that regulate subcontract; relevant aspects to consider for subcontracting on the frame of the new Public Procurement Law; and the lack of responsibility on the subcontractor towards the administrative entity.
El presente artículo desarrolla la figura jurídica de la subcontratación en los procesos de contratación pública, según la nueva Ley de Contrataciones con el Estado – Ley N° 30225. Así, se desarrollan temas como: las diferencias entre contrato de aprovisionamiento, contrato derivado y subcontrato; los nuevos parámetros bajo los cuales se circunscribe la figura de la subcontratación; aspectos que deben considerarse para la aplicación de la figura de subcontrato bajo la Ley Nº 30225; y, la falta de responsabilidad del subcontratista frentea la Entidad por la prestación brindada.

The very-high-energy gamma-ray emission of the hard spectrum BL Lac source 1H1914-194 has been studied with Fermi-LAT data covering a nearly ten-year period between August 2008 until March 2018 in the energy range of 300 MeV to 870 GeV. The mean flux has been determined as 8.4 x 10-9±3.5 x 10-10 photon cm-2 s-1. The data processing has been done with the Enrico software using the Fermi Science Tools (v10r0p5) and the Pass 8 version of the data, performing binned analysis in order to handle the long integration time. The lightcurve shows that the source has to be considered as variable in the given time period for a three-month binning. It gives furthermore evidence for at least one quiet and active period lasting slightly over 1.5 years each. Even these shorter periods show a weak variability. The significance of the source has been determined as σ = 57.5 for a one-year period. The spectral analysis of three different time periods have been fitted by PowerLaw2, LogParabola and PLExpCutoff functions resulting in LogParabola being slightly favored in most of the cases. However, the test statistic are not showing enough significance that may lead to an unambiguous preference. The data from the analysis has been implemented in a multiwavelength view of the source, showing that the analysis is in agreement with the data coming from the Fermi catalogs. The overall emission of 1H1914-194 has been modelled with theoretical frameworks based on a one-zone Synchrotron Self Compton (SSC) model providing an acceptable description of the SED.

L’obiettivo della ricerca è quello di studiare le contaminazioni tra diversi livelli di governance nel settore dell’anticorruzione. Anzitutto, ci si soffermerà sugli effetti che le convenzioni internazionali e più in generale gli strumenti prodotti nella sfera sovranazionale hanno determinato sul diritto anticorruzione italiano. A ben vedere, questa contaminazione tra diversi livelli di regolazione si realizza non solo attraverso strumenti cogenti ma anche, e soprattutto, attraverso strumenti flessibili come raccomandazioni e linee guida. Il diritto anticorruzione rappresenta un laboratorio di contaminazioni non solo a livello verticale tra sfera sovranazionale e nazionale, ma anche a livello orizzontale. Alla delimitazione del campo della ricerca alle interazioni tra pubblico e privato corrisponde il capitolo II: in esso si dà conto del fatto che, in materia di prevenzione del rischio di corruzione, i confini tra sfera pubblica e sfera privata sono sempre più sfumati. Infine, nel capitolo III, si cerca di trovare un filo conduttore tra le varie forme di contaminazioni regolatorie analizzate, inserendole entro un più ampio ciclo in cui si susseguono regulation e enforcement. Ci si chiede se e in che misura questo ciclo sia effettivamente virtuoso: in particolare, se un processo di law-making improntato ai criteri della flessibilità, della partecipazione dei soggetti interessati e della continua valutazione della sua efficacia, sia effettivamente idoneo a prevenire fenomeni corruttivi.
The aim of the research is to study interaction between different levels of governance in the anti-corruption sector. Firstly, the domestic law, especially in the anti-corruption field is strongly influenced by international instruments. The Italian system, for example, starts out from the Anti-Corruption Law, Law No. 190 (the so called "Severino Law", approved by Parliament on 6 November 2012, entering into force on 28 November 2012, and implemented by several regulations). This Law was adopted to implement the UN Convention against Corruption. Secondly, the research aims to study interaction between public and private sector: fundamental concepts for corruption prevention, such as risk management, have been borrowed from one sector to another. Finally, there many players in the anti-corruption sector who are able to create rules (lawmakers, stakeholders, Authorities): the question is if they are part of a virtuous circle in which regulation and enforcement are closely linked. In order to prevent corruption, the law-making process must be based on specific criteria such as flexibility, stakeholder participation and ongoing evaluation of its effectiveness.

L’obiettivo della ricerca è quello di studiare le contaminazioni tra diversi livelli di governance nel settore dell’anticorruzione. Anzitutto, ci si soffermerà sugli effetti che le convenzioni internazionali e più in generale gli strumenti prodotti nella sfera sovranazionale hanno determinato sul diritto anticorruzione italiano. A ben vedere, questa contaminazione tra diversi livelli di regolazione si realizza non solo attraverso strumenti cogenti ma anche, e soprattutto, attraverso strumenti flessibili come raccomandazioni e linee guida. Il diritto anticorruzione rappresenta un laboratorio di contaminazioni non solo a livello verticale tra sfera sovranazionale e nazionale, ma anche a livello orizzontale. Alla delimitazione del campo della ricerca alle interazioni tra pubblico e privato corrisponde il capitolo II: in esso si dà conto del fatto che, in materia di prevenzione del rischio di corruzione, i confini tra sfera pubblica e sfera privata sono sempre più sfumati. Infine, nel capitolo III, si cerca di trovare un filo conduttore tra le varie forme di contaminazioni regolatorie analizzate, inserendole entro un più ampio ciclo in cui si susseguono regulation e enforcement. Ci si chiede se e in che misura questo ciclo sia effettivamente virtuoso: in particolare, se un processo di law-making improntato ai criteri della flessibilità, della partecipazione dei soggetti interessati e della continua valutazione della sua efficacia, sia effettivamente idoneo a prevenire fenomeni corruttivi.
The aim of the research is to study interaction between different levels of governance in the anti-corruption sector. Firstly, the domestic law, especially in the anti-corruption field is strongly influenced by international instruments. The Italian system, for example, starts out from the Anti-Corruption Law, Law No. 190 (the so called "Severino Law", approved by Parliament on 6 November 2012, entering into force on 28 November 2012, and implemented by several regulations). This Law was adopted to implement the UN Convention against Corruption. Secondly, the research aims to study interaction between public and private sector: fundamental concepts for corruption prevention, such as risk management, have been borrowed from one sector to another. Finally, there many players in the anti-corruption sector who are able to create rules (lawmakers, stakeholders, Authorities): the question is if they are part of a virtuous circle in which regulation and enforcement are closely linked. In order to prevent corruption, the law-making process must be based on specific criteria such as flexibility, stakeholder participation and ongoing evaluation of its effectiveness.

In examining the role of the �legal rule� in Indonesian law, and in particular environmental law related to water quality management, this thesis questions the often expressed view that laws in Indonesia are sound, they merely fail to be implemented. It proposes that this appraisal of the situation does not take a sufficiently deep assessment and that a cause for non-implementation lies within the drafting of the laws themselves. It is argued that the ineffective system for environmental protection in Indonesia can be related to a failure to recognise the role of the �legal rule� in environmental law. A proposition presented in this thesis is that the arrangements for environmental law making in Indonesia lacks a strong rule foundation and, for this reason, it is not capable of producing shared understandings by lawmakers about producing and reproducing environmental law as legal sub-system. Another central proposition is that Indonesian environmental law has a form and style, which negates the role of the legal rule in environmental management and control. Despite the changes brought by reformasi, the central position of the legal rule in environmental law and, indeed, the necessary rule foundation to the development of the legal system, has yet to achieve full recognition. If this situation is related to the system of water quality management and pollution control in Indonesia, it can be seen that environmental improvement will not be achieved until underlying issues concerning the structure, form and style of environmental law making are addressed.

La dialectique entre contrats d’Etat et développement durable existe, malgré une antinomie apparente. Elle s’appuie sur une interaction particulière qui s’est construite depuis l’origine, à travers les contrats d’Etat, instruments conventionnels singuliers et autour des nécessités politiques et économiques de l’époque, avec en toile de fond l’impératif de développement.Face aux évolutions sociales successives et l’absence d’arsenal juridique adapté, les contratsd’Etat se sont développés de façon spécifique entre dépendance, indépendance,interdépendance, hétéronomie et autonomie. En droit international des affaires, c’estprécisément à partir du contrat conçu comme un instrument normatif singulier et à travers sesinteractions avec le contexte extracontractuel au sein duquel il est amené à opérer quel’existence d’un droit du développement durable en matière de contrats d’Etat doit êtrefondée. Cela nécessite une autre vision du droit, sans cesse renouvelée et davantageappropriée aux réalités de notre siècle
Common discussion points between sustainable development and State contracts exist, despite many visible contradictions. They are based on a particular interaction, built up from the beginning through State contracts, which are highly specific agreements and around political and economic necessities of the time, with the notion of development merely as a requirement in the background. Confronted with successive social changes and the lack of an appropriate judicial framework, State contracts developed in a particular way between dependence, independence, interdependence, heteronomy and autonomy. In international business law, the existence of a sustainable development law related to State contracts must be based precisely on contracts, seen as instruments able to set norms, and must benefit from contracts’interactions with a non-contractual environment. That requires another vision of law, constantly renewed and more adapted to current realities

O presente trabalho tem por objetivo apresentar uma discussão sobre a indeterminação do Direito. Para tanto, serão analisados os preceitos do realismo jurídico e os pensamentos de Herbert L. A. Hart. O pensamento de Holmes e a sociologia jurídica de Pound abriram caminho para o realismo jurídico norteamericano e serviram de fundamento para autores considerados realistas, como Jerome Frank e Llewellyn, entre outros. Um dos fortes argumentos do realismo jurídico se encontra no fato de os juízes primeiro decidirem e posteriormente buscarem, na norma, o fundamento de suas decisões, chegando ao extremo, como defendido por Jerome Frank, de colocar um alto grau de pessoalidade nas decisões, expressa pela famosa frase, que o julgamento depende daquilo que os juízes comerem no café da manhã. Hart, da mesma forma que o realismo, também defende a indeterminação do direito, no entanto, a defende com base na textura aberta da linguagem. Esta discussão busca apresentar dois posicionamentos coincidentes no que se refere à indeterminação, mas divergentes quanto às causas originárias.
This thesis aims to discuss the indeterminacy of law through the lenses of the legal realism movement and the thoughts of H. L. A. Hart. The insights and works of Holmes and Pound opened the way for American legal realism and were used as building blocks for the work of legal realists such as Jerome Frank and Karl Llwellyn, among others. One of the best known points of legal realism is that judges first arrive at their decision through non-legal means and then seek, in the legal material, the basis for justifying their decisions. According to the legal realists the legal material can justify just about any decision arrived at through non-legal means. Jerome Frank placed a high degree of subjectivism in the legal decisions, going as far as explaining how judges decide based on what they had for breakfast. Hart, as the legal realists, also defends the indeterminacy of law. However, according to him law’s indeterminacy is due to the open texture of language. The present work will investigate the position of the realists and H.L. A. Hart about the indeterminacy of law. Even though they converge on the indeterminacy thesis, they disagree about its root causes.

Safety and health is a basic human need and when not met, exacts costs that prevent societies from realizing development goals. Injury is increasing as a leading cause of death and disability. As the result of advances in public health knowledge and safety engineering technology, accidents and other injury events are often preventable. Injuries result from identifiable determinants and conditions that create exposure to identifiable hazards. By controlling hazards, the toll of injury can be reduced.
International trade and investment can create conditions that increase or diminish the global injury burden. International institutions and national governments face the question of how to protect safety and health rights and reduce the injury burden in a world of increasingly global business activity. International institutions do not yet provide comprehensive regulation for exported harms. In common law nations, liability through formal law plays an important role in regulating conditions that can lead to injury. In such nations, private law can play an important role in filling segments of the regulatory gap relating to exported harms.

Tese de Doutoramento em Ciências Sociais, na especialidade de Estudos Estratégicos
Esta investigação procura contribuir humildemente para a teoria de estratégia, teorizando e autonomizando o conceito de «geofinança» como o poder financeiro internacional, sendo um meio de guerra não convencional e irregular, com capacidade ofensiva e defensiva eficaz, em especial na gestão de conflitos através de abordagem indireta; um tal poder revela características de Hard e Soft power e corresponde à prossecução do interesse nacional, conferindo a perceção de ações desenhadas com objetivos geopolíticos e geoeconómicos, assente em três pilares (atuação em rede do sistema financeiro internacional, a moeda internacional como fonte de estabilidade financeira e a sensibilidade da rede do sistema à informação). Identificam-se as variáveis geofinanceiras que imprimem força ao poder da geofinança na defesa do interesse nacional; são elas a lei, a moeda internacional e as reservas de moeda internacional, o interesse nacional revertido na política monetária e cambial, a dívida externa, o investimento e o património financeiro internacional, a Soft e Hard law, a capacidade de Soft power e a cultura geofinanceira. Sugere-se ainda, para facilitar o pensamento geofinanceiro, um modelo operacional cujas funções pretendem a correlação das sete variáveis geofinanceiras. E, baseando-se na teoria da estratégia militar, desenha o processo estratégico geofinanceiro –– identificando mecanismos numa lógica de ação estratégica que explora tanto o elemento surpresa como o elemento movimento. Esta contribuição para o pensamento estratégico geofinanceiro pode gerar benefício na cooperação entre os atores dos sistemas financeiros locais e regionais para um posicionamento estratégico dinâmico internacional.
V Abstract This research aims to contribute to the body of knowledge, notably to strategy theory. The contribution to geofinancial strategic thought suggests, furthermore, that theorisation could generate advantages and benefits. Theoretically, “geofinancial strategy” is an autonomous concept that belongs with theory related to international financial power, in that it represents a non-conventional and irregular means of war, with efficient offensive and defensive capabilities, notably in the management of conflicts through an indirect approach. This is concerned with how power reveals both Hard and Soft characteristics, and how power corresponds to the prosecution of the national interest generating the perception that actions have been designed and developed with geopolitical and geoeconomical objectives. It is based on three pillars: the arquitecture of the Internacional Financial System (IFS) network, international currency as a source of financial stability, and the sensitivity of the financial network to the data that potentially affects the IFS. The current research identifies variables that act to support the powerful geofinancial system: international currency and foreign reserves, national interest reverted into monetary and foreign exchange policy, foreign debt, foreign investment portfolio, Soft and Hard law, the capacity of Soft Power, and geofinancial culture. In addition, the thesis proposes an operational model that correlates the seven geofinancial variables and, supported by strategic military theory, designs a geofinancial strategic process to identify mechanisms that, within the logic of strategic action, explores elements of surprise and movement. Co-operation among actors of local and regional financial systems and the dynamic international strategic positioning of actors, may benefit from this research
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Det finns många studier på hur främmande arter påverkar en arts återinförsel, men det finns fåsom har gjorts om infödda arters påverkan. Atlantlax (Salmo salar) kunde en gång i tidenmigrera från Vänern i Sverige till Klarälven på den norska sidan. Det kan den inte idag, menidag talas det om att återinföra laxen till Klarälven i Norge så att den kan utföra hela sinmigrationsrutt igen. I den älven har laxen en gång i tiden koexisterat med sina konkurrenterharr (Thymallus thymallus), och öring (Salmo trutta) men idag är frågan hur denkonkurrensen mellan dessa tre arter kan komma att påverka återinförseln av lax. För att få enbättre bild av hur utgången för en potentiell återintroduktion kan se ut, så var syftet meddenna undersökning att ta reda på mot vilken art dessa tre arter främst riktade sinaaggressionsbeteenden mot. I akvarieförsök med juvenila individer av dessa tre arter harundersökningarna tagit plats och aggressiva beteenden filmades när arterna var i olikakombinationer. Resultatet visade att harr var den mest aktiva av de tre arterna och lax denminst aktiva, samt att lax blev dominerad utav både harr och öring. Resultatet i denna studietyder på att en återintroduktion av lax kan innehålla svårigheter, men i naturen är ett habitatmer komplext än i ett akvarium vilket kan ge ett annat resultat som kanske gör enåterintroduktion mer framgångsrik.
There are many studies about how the effects from exotic species could affect a reintroductionof a species, but there are only a few that have been made about the effects from nativespecies. The Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) could historically speaking, migrate from lakeVänern in Sweden to the River Klarälven in Norway. Today it cannot do this, but there is anongoing discussion about reintroducing the salmon to the Norwegian side of River Klarälven,so it once again can swim along its entire migration route. In that river, the salmon used tocoexist with its competitors, grayling (Thymallus thymallus) and trout (Salmo trutta), buttoday the question is how competition between these three species could affect thereintroduction of salmon. To get a better understanding of the outcome of a possiblereintroduction, the purpose of this study was to ascertain which species these three speciesmainly directed their agonistic behavior towards. The study took place in aquariums withjuvenile individuals of the three species. Agonistic behavior was filmed when the specieswere together in different combinations. The results show that grayling is the most active ofthe three species, while salmon is the least active, and salmon was dominated by both graylingand trout. The results from this study indicates that a reintroduction of salmon might befraught with problems, but in nature a habitat is more complex than in an aquarium, whichmeans that in nature the results could be different, which might make a reintroduction moresuccessful.

The observation that different effectors can execute the same movement suggests functional equivalences and abstract representation of action in the CNS. A common motor invariant is the coupling between speed and curvature of limb movements (the 2/3 power law), which is resilient to different sensorimotor contexts. Accordingly, this broad concept proposed a unique and universal internal model which is consistent for all different conditions and it considers same neural representation for all individual behaviors, while based on recent research there are important cognitive, neural, and behavioral variabilities among individuals due to differences in the developmental stage, training or pathologies, etc. Studies showed that studying subjective values is important as they inform us about the decision process in adopting a motor strategy. When subjects face multiple choices, due to the large extrinsic (the lack of visible salient target to reach) and intrinsic (the whole body multi-joint system) redundancy, we can extract different but consistent motor behaviors which define motor style. In order to study these differences, our purpose in this study is to verify the consistency of movement features during a drawing task performed with either hand, by different subjects, and in a pathological population. In the first step, we tested the effect of manual dominance and movement speed on motor performance consisting of an elliptical drawing task. We hypothesize that movement parameters extracted from the task can be categorized either as global and abstract representations within the CNS that are limb-independent or specific limb-dependent representations. Accordingly, the results indicate that the kinematics parameters are differently affected when drawing at different peeds with the non-dominant compared to the dominant hand. Movement duration, velocity-curvature covariation, and maximum velocity were not significantly affected by the hand used, while geometrical features were strongly limb-dependent. However, intra-trial analysis performed over the successive drawing movements reveals a significant effect of the hand side on the variability of the velocity-curvature relationship and maximum velocity. The effects of end-effectors on the movement components suggest differentiated neural strategies, according to a pattern that does not go from the most abstract component to the less abstract, as implied by the idea of hierarchical organization of motor control. In the following analysis, we aim to investigate the existence of an IMS or different motor styles according to the limb-dependency strategies we found in the first step. The results revealed a new aspect of behaviors that would extend our perspective on the previous results. Notably, examining the subject separately some showed a higher difference in the non-dominant relative to the dominant hand for various parameters such as duration which was categorized as an abstract motor component. This finding showed that a drawing task led the subjects to adopt different strategies according to controlling end-effector dependent (spatial) and abstract parameters (temporal) of movement, suggesting the existence of idiosyncratic strategies influencing motor planning due to a clear spatial-temporal trade-off. Finally, we aimed to compare the motor components of drawing movement between dyslexic and healthy children. Dyslexia is distinguished by specific problems dealing with learning to read accurately, which has been generally explained in terms of phonological deficits that are accompanied by sensorimotor deficits. Compared to healthy children, temporal representation and timing organization of children with dyslexia were characterized respectively by increased movement duration and higher asymmetry. Their geometrical features were distinguished by a circular shape, and smaller ellipse size when producing an elliptical movement.

Syftet med denna undersökning har varit att studera och utvärdera om den variation som finns i anmälningsbenägenheten bland revisorer beror på individuella egenskaper och attityder. Vi ville även studera om anmälningsbenägenheten varierar beroende på vilka brott som avses.

För att uppnå detta har vi utifrån en egen teorimodell ställt upp ett antal hypoteser. Dessa hypoteser bygger på befintliga teorier men även på egna antaganden och idéer samt har sin utgångspunkt i att anmälningar om brottsmisstanke gjorda av revisorer är förhållandevis låg i förhållande till den ekonomiska brottslighetens utbredning samt att revisorer i tidigare undersökningar uppgett stora skillnader i tolkningen av lagen.

Då de data undersökningen genererat inte håller för statistisk analys har vi inte kunnat utföra statistiska tester utan istället fokuserat på en beskrivning av materialet och de svaga trender som synts. I vår undersökning verkar variablerna straffrättslig kompetens, branscherfarenhet, skadeståndsrisk och sanktionssystem påverka revisorn i hans avvägande om anmälan ska göras.

Detta öppnar upp för en diskussion och vidare studier angående lagens otydlighet och verksamma åtgärder för lagens efterlevnad. Enligt vår mening har de disciplinära åtgärderna, upphävande av godkännande eller auktorisation, erinran samt varning, som Revisorsnämnden kan utdöma störst effekt på revisorn. I dagsläget utnyttjas inte detta för att visa allvaret i lagregelns betydelse. Vi anser även att en översyn och revidering av lagens mening kan komma att bli aktuell då tolkningssvårigheterna av denna är stor enligt revisorerna.

Determining whether stoning for adultery and hand-amputation for theft were practiced in pre-Islamic Arabia represents the first phase in exploring the origins and evolution of these penalties in Islamic law. Should both punishments prove to predate Islam, then it would appear the Qur'an broke with stoning and confirmed amputation of the hand. An extensive survey of pre-Islamic, Near Eastern legal materials in search of parallel penalties has thus been attempted in this thesis. Remarkably, not only stoning and hand-amputation, but nearly the entire range of Islamic adultery and theft legislation have pre-Islamic parallels. The nature of these parallels, however, does not conform to the paradigm of 'borrowing' from 'foreign' sources. Rather, Arab customary law---a major contributor to Islamic law in general---appears to have diverged from an ancient Semitic 'common source' once shared with other Near Eastern cultural entities. Most major elements of Islamic criminal law, including stoning and hand-amputation, therefore represent the culmination of an ancient Semitic common law.

It has been suggested by some commentators that the ‘real’ damage (as opposed to that pleaded) in the cases of Rees v Darlington Memorial Hospital NHS Trust [2004] 1 AC 309 and Chester v Afshar [2005] 1 AC 134 was the claimant’s lost autonomy. Arguments have consequently been put forward that lost autonomy either already is or should be recognised as a new form of actionable damage in medical negligence cases. Given the value placed on respecting patient autonomy in medical law and bioethics, it might be thought that such a development should be welcomed. But if lost autonomy is accepted as a new form of damage in negligence, it will not be confined to the two scenarios that were present in those cases and it may be inconsistent with other established negligence principles. This thesis considers whether lost autonomy ought to be recognised as a new form of damage in negligence and concludes that it should not. A close textual analysis of Rees and Chester is undertaken in order to determine whether a ‘lost autonomy’ analysis actually provides the best explanation of those two cases. I then look at how the concepts of autonomy and harm should be understood to determine whether, ethically speaking, to interfere with someone’s autonomy is to cause them harm. The final part of the thesis considers important doctrinal tort law considerations that have been overlooked in the medical law literature. I argue that the nature of autonomy means that it cannot coherently be considered actionable damage within the tort of negligence and that recognising a duty of care to avoid interfering with people’s autonomy would be inconsistent with the restrictive approach the courts take to recovery for psychiatric injury and economic loss. My ultimate conclusion is that the benefits of allowing such claims do not outweigh the undermining of established principles that would ensue if lost autonomy were recognised as a form of actionable damage in negligence.

Sverige intar en särställning, tillsammans med övriga nordiska länderna, genom att det krävs revisionsplikt i samtliga aktiebolag oavsett storlek. I dag är obligatorisk revision ett aktuellt och omtalat ämne när det gäller huruvida revisionsplikten i små aktiebolag bör avskaffas.

Syftet med uppsatsen är att studera revisionens funktioner utifrån revisionspliktens betydelse i små aktiebolag. För att uppfylla uppsatsens syfte skapade vi en egen teori om revisionens funktioner. Denna teori innefattas av tre funktioner; den kvalitetssäkrande funktionen, övervakningsfunktionen och utvecklingsfunktionen. Dessa funktioner har vi studerat och analyserat ur ett historiskt perspektiv, utifrån normgivarna, ur ett internationellt perspektiv samt utifrån vår empiriska undersökning där vi utgått från intressentmodellen.

Anledningen till denna uppdelning är att beskriva funktionernas framträdande genom århundradena och analysera hur de påverkats historiskt, hur funktionerna påverkas av lagstiftningen och de olika normgivarnas rekommendationer idag, samt internationell påverkan för att visa på variationer i olika länder och kulturer. En empirisk undersökning har även genomförts och analyserats för att påvisa hur revisionens funktioner kan påverka intressenternas beslut och vilken betydelse de har. Empirin har insamlats genom telefonintervjuer med hjälp av en intervjuguide.

Genom att studera och analysera revisionens funktioner ur dessa fyra perspektiv får vi en rikare prövning av vår teoretiska uppfattning om revisionens funktioner samt en validering av våra definitioner. Uppsatsens slutsats ger indikationer på att revisionsplikten i små aktiebolag är av betydelse för intressenterna, men dock inte oersättlig.

The purpose of this essay is to elucidate if there is a liability to damages for cardholders, in case of unauthorized use of bankcards, in the event a liability for payment, according to 34 § the Swedish Law concerning Consumer Credits, should not be established between card issuer and cardholder. The purpose is also to elucidate if card issuing companies, in the event a liability for payment is established between card issuer and cardholder, have any possibility to get a larger sum than is allowed by 34 § the Swedish Law concerning Consumer Credits, by demanding damages from the cardholder. Finally there is a judgement of how a court could do if it wanted to hold a cardholder liable to damages because of unauthorized use of bankcards.

The thesis presents a case study of New Zealand's Alcoholism and Drug Addiction Act 1966 - a civil commitment law used to detain alcoholics and drug addicts for up to two years in state-certified residential treatment facilities. The thesis positions itself as a call for legislative reform. The central argument is that the Act is an anachronistic and potentially draconian piece of social legislation which has no place on the modern-day New Zealand statute book. In the first part of the thesis, Chapter 1 introduces the research, outlines the structure and methodology of the thesis, and locates the study within a wider tradition of scholarship on the management of people with alcohol problems. Chapter 2 summarises the analytical framework that is used to evaluate the Act, attaching particular importance to both the philosophical traditions and the practical strategies of harm minimisation and therapeutic jurisprudence. Chapter 3 gives a positivist reading of the legislation : outlining the evolution of the Act, essaying its major provisions, and noting the efforts that have been made to refine or reform the statute since it was passed in the mid-1960s. Chapter 4 draws on the limited amount of data available to describe how the Act is currently operating 'on the ground'. In the second part of the thesis, the Alcoholism and Drug Addiction Act is put into a comparative context by describing examples of similar-type statutes that exist in two other jurisdictions. Chapter 5 focuses on the New South Wales Inebriates Act 1912; Chapter 6 focuses on the Swedish Act on Care of Addicts in Certain Cases 1989. The final part of the thesis builds a case for reform of the Alcoholism and Drug Addiction Act. Chapter 7 identifies various practical and clinical problems with the Act, which mean that the statute does not work in instrumental terms. It is submitted that the Act cannot be said to make better provision for the care and treatment of alcoholics. Chapter 8 highlights several legal and philosophical difficulties with the Act, which mean that the legislation does not work in value terms. It is submitted that the Act is offensive to the right to refuse treatment and fundamentally conflicts with the principles of individual autonomy and informed consent. Chapter 9 proposes three options for reforming the Act, expressing a preference for the outright repeal of the statute. Finally, Chapter 10 draws conclusions from the preceding discussion, and speculates on the likelihood that the recommended reforms will be implemented.