Tesis sobre el tema "Herbal teas"

Three commercially available herbal tea preparations (Weightless, Female Toner, and PMS) and one single ingredient herbal preparation, Chaparral (Larrea tridentata), were sequentially extracted with solvents of decreasing polarity (water, methanol and chloroform) and the crude extracts obtained screened for toxic/mutagenic potentials using the brine shrimp (Artemia sp.), mouse acute toxicity, Salmonella/microsomal mutagenicity, and chicken embryo bioassays. The crude aqueous extract from Weightless Tea was very toxic to brine shrimp larvae and had a cathartic action in mice at the highest concentration tested. While Weightless tea crude water extract was not mutagenic to Salmonella typhimurium TA100 at the concentrations tested, three chromatographic isolates obtained from a silica Gel 60 column were mutagenic to the test organism. Two of these isolates were detoxified after inclusion of a microsomal activation system. The teratogenic potentials of these isolates are unknown as the results obtained from the chicken embryo bioassay were not conclusive.

Thesis (MTech(Food and Nutrition))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2010
Oxidative stress had been linked to the development of certain chronic diseases, but can be delayed or prevented by the consumption of dietary antioxidants. Fruits, vegetables, wholegrains and beverages, such as, teas are the major dietary antioxidant contributors. The majority of South Africans do not consume adequate daily servings of fruits and vegetables, neither sufficient minimally processed grains nor wholegrains. One way to incorporate antioxidants in the South African diet is by adding antioxidant-rich foods or beverages to recipes as ingredients. The objective of this study was to determine the effect on the total antioxidant capacity (TAC) of substituting water with rooibos herbal tea in soup recipe formulations. Rooibos is a proudly South African beverage rich in antioxidants. Soup is a readily available and relatively inexpensive meal item regularly consumed during the winter months in South Africa. Three popularly consumed soups in the City of Cape Town Metropolitan Municipality namely chunky vegetable, butternut and chicken noodle were selected for the experimental study. The water in each of the soup recipe formulations (control) was substituted with fermented and unfermented / “green” rooibos (experimental recipe formulations). The study was of comparative nature as the results (i.e. the TAC as the factor investigated) of three different soup recipe formulations on fluid manipulations of each (with fermented and unfermented rooibos) was compared to the control soup recipe formulations of each (no fluid manipulation). The results (i.e. the TAC) of the three prepared control and experimental soup recipe formulations were also compared to that of the raw soup mixtures of each of the soup recipe formulations to determine the effect of thermal processing on each. The main variable identified in the preparation of the soup recipe formulations that may impact the TAC (the dependent variable) and needed to be controlled was the heat application. Other variables that may influence the results were the soup recipe formulation ingredients, the prepreparation of the raw ingredients, the standing time of ingredients before use and the equipment used. Before determination of the heat applications and the fixed time allocations of the soup recipe formulations to ensure recipe standardisation, the pre-preparation procedures of the raw recipe ingredients were also standardised.

Thesis (MTech (Biomedical Technology))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2015.
The increase in antibiotic resistant bacterial and fungal infections and the prevalence of oxidative stress-related conditions including cancers, cardiovascular diseases and diabetes has led to a consensus among pharmaceutical companies, clinicians and researchers that novel antimicrobial and antioxidant approaches are needed. These should be ideally efficacious, non toxic, easily accessible and affordable. There has been an increased interest in the identification of medicinal plants that possess both these bioactivities in an intrinsically related manner, allowing the simultaneous prevention of these ailments. Two South African herbal teas, rooibos and honeybush have been associated with a long history of medicinal use, hence their consideration for the current study. Numerous studies have been performed to evaluate the antioxidant activities of these South African herbal teas, however limited information about their antimicrobial activity currently exists.
National Research Foundation

Thesis (MSc Food Sc)--Stellenbosch University, 2015.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The sensory profiles and the phenolic composition of C. genistoides, C. longifolia, C. maculata and C. subternata, used for commercial production of honeybush tea, were determined with the aim to develop quality control tools, such as sensory wheels and statistical models to predict the basic taste and mouthfeel modalities using compositional data. Optimum fermentation parameters for C. longifolia in terms of aroma and flavour development were determined by investigating eight temperature/time regimes (80°C and 90°C for 8, 16, 24 and 32 h), using descriptive sensory analysis (DSA). Fermentation at 80°C/24 h or 90°C/24 h significantly reduced the negative sensory attributes present and produced a tea of good sensory quality. Previously, 80°C/24 h and 90°/16 h were shown to deliver optimum quality for the other three Cyclopia species. A large sample set (N = 150) consisting of C. genistoides, C. maculata and C. subternata, harvested during three production years (2010, 2012 and 2013), as well as C. longifolia harvested in 2013, was used to develop sensory wheels. All the samples were produced by fermentation at the two optimum fermentation temperature/time regimes of each species. The plant material was sourced from different production regions and plantations to ensure inherent plant variation was accommodated. The “characteristic” and generic sensory profile of honeybush was defined as a “fynbos-floral”, “woody”, “fynbos-sweet” aroma and flavour, with a sweet taste and slightly astringent mouthfeel. Species-specific sensory profiles were also identified. Cyclopia genistoides had a strong “rose geranium” flavour and a perceptible bitter taste, whereas C. longifolia had a similar sensory profile to that of C. genistoides, however, C. longifolia’s “rose geranium” flavour was less prominent and its bitter taste not perceptible. Cyclopia maculata and C. subternata were both described as having “caramel” and other “sweet-associated” notes and a slightly astringent mouthfeel. These results were used to develop a generic sensory wheel for both aroma and flavour, as well as similar wheels for each of the four Cyclopia species. Each sensory wheel reflects the relative intensity of the sensory attributes, while prevalence of the major attributes were accommodated in accompanying bar graphs. Sorting was investigated as a rapid profiling technique to serve as an alternative to the standard profiling method, descriptive sensory analysis (DSA). Instructed sorting was identified as a possible rapid sensory profiling tool for the honeybush industry, especially when samples need to be classified according to a selected list of sensory attributes. Uninstructed sorting can be used when the aim is to categorise a group of samples freely according to similarities and thus determine the natural grouping of samples within a broader sample set. The phenolic content of the respective four Cyclopia species differed qualitatively and quantitatively. Of the compounds quantified only four compounds were present in all four species, i.e. hesperidin, vicenin-2, mangiferin and isomangiferin. A larger number of compounds were present in three out of four species. The predictive value of the phenolic compounds towards the intensity of the taste and mouthfeel attributes (sweet, sour, bitter and astringent) was investigated using Pearson‟s correlation analysis, partial least squares regression (PLS) and step-wise regression analysis. Potential “candidate predictors” for taste and mouthfeel attributes were identified such as the xanthones, mangiferin and isomangiferin, being responsible for bitter taste and astringency.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die sensoriese profiel en fenoliese samestelling van C. genistoides, C. longifolia, C. maculata en C. subternata, waarvan heuningbostee geproduseer word, is bepaal om gehaltebeheer hulpmiddels te ontwikkel soos sensoriese wiele en statistiese modelle wat die fenoliese samestelling kan gebruik om die basiese smaak en mondgevoel eienskappe van infusies te voorspel. Die optimum fermentasie parameters vir C. longifolia in terma van aroma- en geurontwikkeling is bepaal deur agt temperatuur/tyd kombinasies (80°C en 90°C vir 8, 16, 24 en 32 h) te ondersoek met behulp van beskrywende sensoriese analise (BSA). Fermentasie by 80°C/24 h of 90°C/24 h het „n beduidende afname in die negatiewe sensoriese eienskappe veroorsaak en tot die ontwikkeling van tee met ʼn goeie sensoriese kwaliteit gelei. Die fermentasie parameters, 80°C/24 h en 90°/16 h, is voorheen aangedui as die optimale kondisies vir die ontwikkeling van „n goeie kwaliteit tee vir die ander drie Cyclopia spesies. 'n Groot stel monsters (N = 150), bestaande uit C. genistoides, C. maculata en C. subternata en ge-oes gedurende drie produksiejare (2010, 2012 en 2013), sowel as C. longifolia ge-oes in 2013, is gebruik om die sensoriese wiele te ontwikkel. Die twee optimum fermentasie temperatuur/tyd kombinasies van elke spesie is gebruik om die monsters te produseer. Plantmateriaal afkomstig van verskillende produksiegebiede en plantasies is versamel ten einde te verseker dat die monsters „n betekenisvolle hoeveelheid inherente variasie dek. Die generiese en "karakteristieke" sensoriese profiel wat met heuningbos geassosieer word, is gedefinieer as 'n "fynbos-blomagtige", "houtagtige", "fynbos-soet" aroma en geur, met 'n soet smaak en effense vrank mondgevoel. Spesies-spesifieke sensoriese profiele is ook geïdentifiseer. Cyclopia genistoides het 'n sterk "roos malva" geur en „n merkbare bitter smaak. Die sensoriese profiel van C. longifolia is soortgelyk aan dié van C. genistoides, maar sy "roos malva" geur was minder prominent en 'n bitter smaak was nie sensories waarneembaar nie. Beide C. maculata en C. subternata het waarneembare "karamel" en ander "soet-verwante" eienskappe, asook 'n effense vrank mondgevoel getoon. Die volle stel data is uiteindelik gebruik om 'n generiese sensoriese wiel vir heuningbostee, asook spesies-spesifieke sensoriese wiele vir elk van die vier Cyclopia spesies saam te stel. Die onderskeie sensoriese wiele weerspieël die relatiewe intensiteit van elk van die sensoriese eienskappe, terwyl die voorkoms-frekwensie van die onderskeie sensoriese eienskappe in gepaardgaande kolomgrafieke geillustreer is. Sortering, 'n vinnige profileringsmetode, is as alternatief tot die standaard profileringsmetode, beskrywende sensoriese analise (BSA), ondersoek. Gestrukteerde sortering is geïdentifiseer as 'n moontlike hulpmiddel vir die heuningbosbedryf om die sensoriese profiel van heuningbos te bepaal, veral wanneer „n groot aantal monsters vinning geklassifiseer moet word volgens 'n lys geselekteerde sensoriese eienskappe. Ongestrukteerde sortering kan gebruik word wanneer die doel is om „n groot aantal monsters vrylik te kategoriseer volgens hul sensoriese ooreenkomste of verskille. Die fenoliese saamestelling van die vier Cyclopia spesies het kwalitatief en kwantitatief verskil. Slegs vier van die gekwantifiseerde verbindings was teenwoordig in al vier spesies, naamlik hesperidien, visenien-2, mangiferien en isomangiferien. Meer verbindings was egter teenwoordig in drie van die vier spesies. Die voorspellingswaarde van die fenoliese verbindings tot die intensiteit van die smaak en mondgevoel eienskappe (soet, suur, bitter en vrank) is ondersoek met behulp van Pearson se korrelasie, gedeeltelike kleinste-kwadrate regressie (PLS) en stapsgewyse regressie analises. Potensiële "kandidaat voorspellers" vir die smaak en mondgevoel eienskappe, soos die xantone, mangiferien en isomangiferien, verantwoordelik vir 'n bitter smaak en vrank mondgevoel, is geïdentifiseer.

Thesis (Msc Food Sc (Food Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The consumption of herbal teas is an increasing phenomenon among tea consumers globally. However, herbal teas that are not pre-treated to reduce their microbial load are a health risk to consumers, in spite of their potential health-promoting properties. The aim of this study was to develop a steam pasteurisation treatment to reduce the microbial load on Lippia multiflora Moldenke (Verbanaceae) tea leaves, a herbal tea from Ghana, identify the bacteria present, and to evaluate the effect of the steam treatment on the bioactive constituent of the leaves. An HPLC method was developed and optimised for the identification and quantification of verbascoside, the major antioxidant compound of L. multiflora herbal infusion. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was used to confirm the presence of the compound in the infusion. Ascorbic acid was used as a stabilising agent during the quantification process to prevent the degradation of verbascoside. The hot water infusion of L. multiflora was compared to those of Aspalathus linearis (rooibos) and Cyclopia spp. (honeybush) on the basis of their soluble solids and total polyphenol contents, as well as on their antioxidant activities. In addition to verbascoside, another compound with the same parent and fragment ions as verbascoside was present in the infusion. A 100 ml infusion of L. multiflora had significantly (P < 0.05) higher soluble solids and total polyphenol contents, and antioxidant activities than those of rooibos and honeybush. The rooibos infusion showed significantly (P < 0.05) higher soluble solids and total polyphenol contents as well as antioxidant activities than honeybush. On the basis of soluble solids, rooibos showed a significantly (P < 0.05) higher total polyphenol content and a lower ferric-reducing activity than L. multiflora. Both teas, however, did not differ significantly with respect to the DPPH antioxidant activity. The effect of steam pasteurisation on the microbial load of L. multiflora herbal tea leaves was evaluated. Five samples of the tea were steam pasteurised at 99.8°C for 2.5 min and five samples were unpasteurised. Microbial enumeration was conducted in duplicate on potato dextrose agar (PDA), plate count agar (PCA), violet red bile agar (VRBA), yeast peptone dextrose agar (YPDA), and de Man Rogosa Sharpe agar (MRS). Morphologically distinct colonies were isolated, sub-cultured and their Gram reaction recorded. These bacteria were identified to the species level using 16S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) sequence data. Most of the bacteria identified belonged to the genus Bacillus. One species each from the genera Pantoea and Kocuria were also identified, but only the Bacillus species survived the steam treatment. Coliform bacteria detected prior to pasteurisation were not detected after steam treatment. Steam pasteurisation reduced the microbial load from 104 to 102 cfu.g-1. The effects of the steam pasteurisation on the soluble solid, total polyphenol, and the active compound contents of L. multiflora, as well as the antioxidant activities were studied. Pasteurisation did not significantly (P > 0.05) change the soluble solids, total polyphenol and active compound contents, or the antioxidant activity. Steam pasteurisation is potentially an effective method to treat L. multiflora herbal teas prior to consumption. However, the steam treatment should complement good agricultural and hygienic practices rather than replace them as some bacteria can survive this treatment. The identification and quantification of verbascoside in L. multiflora infusion, as well as the relatively higher antioxidant contents compared to rooibos and honeybush should provide the basis for future studies on the therapeutic application of this herbal tea. Also, verbascoside could potentially form the basis for future quality control of L. multiflora.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Daar is 'n wêreldwye toename in die verbruik van kruietee. Kruietee wat egter nie vooraf-behandelings ontvang om die mikrobiese lading te verlaag nie kan, ten spyte van moontlike gesondheidsvoordele, ook 'n potensiële gesondheidsrisiko vir verbruikers inhou. Die doel van hierdie studie was om 'n stoompasteurisasie-behandeling te ontwikkel wat die mikrobiese lading op Lippia multiflora teeblare, 'n kruietee van Ghana, te verlaag. Verder is die teenwoordige bakterieë geïdentifiseer en die effek van 'n stoombehandeling op die bio-aktiewe komponente in die teeblare is ook geëvalueer. 'n Hoë-druk vloeistof-chromatografie metode is ontwikkel en ge-optimiseer vir die identifikasie en kwantifisering van verbaskosied, 'n hoof antioksidant komponent in L. multiflora kruie aftreksels. Vloeistof chromatografie, gekoppel aan in-lyn massa spektroskopie is ook gebruik om die teenwoordigheid van die komponent in die aftreksel te bevestig. Tydens die kwantifiseringsproses is askorbiensuur as 'n stabiliseringsagent gebruik om die degradasie van verbaskosied te voorkom. Die warm water aftreksel van L. multiflora is vergelyk met die van Aspalathus linearis (rooibos) en Cyclopia spp. (heuningbos) in terme van hul opgeloste vastestof- en totale polifenol inhoude, asook hul antioksidant aktiwiteite. 'n Ander komponent buiten verbaskosied, maar met dieselfde ouer en fragment ione, was ook in die aftreksel teenwoordig. 'n 100 ml L. multiflora aftreksel het beduidend (P < 0.05) meer opgeloste vastestowwe, totale polifenole en antioksidant aktiwiteit getoon as rooibos en heuningbos. Rooibos het weer beduidend (P < 0.05) meer opgeloste vastestowwe, totale polifenole, en antioksidant aktiwiteit as heuningbos. In terme van opgeloste vastestowwe het rooibos 'n beduidende (P < 0.05) hoër totale polifenol inhoud en laer ferriet-reduserende aktiwiteit as L. multiflora. Beide tee het egter nie beduidend verskil ten opsigte van hul antioksidant aktiwiteit nie. Die effek van stoompasteurisasie op die mikrobiese lading van L. multiflora kruieteeblare is geëvalueer. Vyf teemonsters is gestoompasteuriseer by 99.8°C vir 2.5 min en 5 verdere monsters is nie gepasteuriseer nie. Mikrobe-tellings is in Mikrobe-tellings is in v duplikaat op potato dextrose agar (PDA), plate count agar (PCA), violet red bile agar (VRBA), yeast peptone dextrose agar (YPDA), en de Man Rogosa Sharpe agar (MRS) gedoen. Morfologies onderskeibare kolonies is geïsoleer, her-gekweek en hul Gram status genotuleer. Hierdie bakterieë is daarna tot op spesie-vlak geïdentifiseer deur 16S ribosomale DNS (rDNS) volgorde bepalings. Die meerderheid van die geïdentifiseerde bakterieë behoort tot die genus Bacillus en een spesie elk van die genera Pantoea en Kocuria is ook geïdentifiseer. Slegs Bacillus spesies het egter die stoompasteurisasie behandeling oorleef. Kolivorme bakterieë wat voor pasteurisasie waargeneem is was afwesig na die stoom behandeling. Stoompasteurisasie het ook die mikrobiese lading van 104 na 102 kve.g-1 verminder. Die effek van stoompasteurisasie op die opgeloste vastestowwe, totale polifenole en die aktiewe-komponent inhoud van L. multiflora, asook die antioksidant aktiwiteit is bestudeer. Pasteurisasie het die opgeloste vastestowwe, totale polifenole, aktiewe komponente en die antioksidant aktiwiteit nie-beduidend (P > 0.05) verander. Stoompasteurisasie kan potensieël 'n effektiewe metode wees vir die behandeling van L. multiflora kruietee voor verbruik. Die stoombehandeling moet egter saam met goeie landbou- en higiëniese praktyke gebruik word eerder as om dit te vervang aangesien sommige bakterieë hierdie stoombehandeling kan oorleef. Die identifikasie en kwantifisering van verbaskosied in L. multiflora aftreksels, asook die hoër antioksidant inhoud vergeleke met rooibos en heuningbos verskaf moontlikhede vir verder navorsing in die terapeutiese aanwending van hierdie kruietee. Verbaskosied kan ook moontlik die basis vorm vir toekomstige kwaliteitskontrole van L. multiflora.

Thesis (MTech (Consumer Science: Food and Nutrition))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2011.Includes bibliographical references (leaves 139-156).
Oxidative stress has been implicated in the development of a number of chronic degenerative diseases. These diseases can often be prevented by dietary and lifestyle changes. One major dietary aspect is increasing the intake of plant foods, such as fruit and vegetables as they are rich in the major nutrient and nonnutrient antioxidants. The South African population does not have an adequate intake of fruit and vegetables and many barriers have been noted against increasing the intake of these foods. Other avenues should therefore be sought to increase the antioxidant intake. One such avenue is to use a basic food item consumed often as an antioxidant carrier to increase the antioxidant intake. Much interest has developed in functional foods and their therapeutic effects as well as the use of nutraceuticals in food product development and food fortification. Tea and its polyphenols, due to the antioxidant properties, is a potentially viable option for nutraceutical and functional food use. Rooibos and honeybush herbal teas, native to South Africa, can be potential nutraceutical sources to increase antioxidant levels of food due to their unique polyphenol content. The objective of the study was to increase the total antioxidant capacity (TAC) of a basic food item consumed regularly by most South Africans, such as brown bread through fluid manipulation using rooibos, honeybush and black teas respectively, as the replacement fluid for water in a standardised bread recipe formulation. The TAC of these experimental breads were compared to the TAC of the bread produced with no fluid manipulation (control bread) and a commercially processed bread (reference bread). The experimental breads were prepared using 2% weight per volume (w/v) and 5% (w/v) concentration levels for rooibos, honeybush and black tea respectively. To ascertain the TAC of the experimental breads, the fluorescein(FL)-based oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORACFL) method was used. The hydrophilic (H)-ORACFL assay was used as the teas contain polyphenols which favour a water environment. The results indicated that the H-ORACFL of the control bread using water as the fluid and the commercial reference bread was significantly different (p < 0.05 for each) to all the experimental bread formulations besides for the 2% (w/v) honeybush experimental bread formulation. The 2% (w/v) honeybush experimental bread formulation was therefore not considered for the consumer acceptance testing. There was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in the H-ORACFL of the 2% (w/v) rooibos and black tea experimental bread formulations, but the H-ORACFL of the 5% (w/v) black tea experimental bread formulation was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than that of the 5% (w/v) rooibos experimental bread formulation. This particular experimental bread formulation had a “golden-orange” colour with a pungent smell due to the increase in rooibos concentration. The 5% (w/v) black tea experimental bread formulation, however, had noted negative sensory attributes of being densely textured with a very dark colour and a pungent and overpowering taste of black tea. These sensory attributes and TAC results lead to the rooibos experimental breads containing 5% (w/v) (as bread A) and 2% (w/v) (as bread B) chosen for the consumer acceptance testing and rooibos being a proudly South African product. The participants (n = 85) of the consumer acceptance testing participated voluntarily and were regular bread consumers. The sample was mostly female (57.6%), in the age group of 18 to 24 years (54.1%), with an education level of between three to four years post-matric/-grade 12 (71.7%) and single, living on their own without children (76.4%). They also represented a sample which had characteristics of a healthy lifestyle. Most participants perceived themselves as being of an optimal body weight (55.2%) and the majority was non-smokers (74.1%), physically active (63.5%), having no family history of chronic disease (69.4%) and not consuming dietary supplements (70.5%). Three sensory attributes of the experimental breads were rated for the acceptance testing and included appearance/colour, flavour/taste and texture/mouthfeel. Both the experimental bread formulations was accepted favourably regarding the above-mentioned sensory attributes. The three liking acceptance categories, ‘neither like nor dislike’ (neutral response), ‘like’ and ‘like very much’ were the most commonly indicated by the participants which also resulted in the experimental breads being rated as fair, good and very good according to the development scores. Although both breads were very similarly scored, there was a trend for bread A to be rated slightly higher regarding the above-mentioned sensory attributes. The acceptance category, ‘like’/good was scored the highest for bread A according to the sensory attributes of appearance/colour (56.5%), flavour/taste (55.3%) and texture/mouthfeel (50.6%). There was no significant association/difference (p > 0.05 for each) between the participants’ demographic characteristics and their overall acceptance of the experimental breads. Most of the participant biographic characteristics also had no significant (p > 0.05 for each) impact on the sensory attribute acceptance of the experimental breads. Although the majority (75%) of the participants consumed rooibos, there was no significant (p > 0.05) association/difference between the participants’ tea consumption and their acceptance of the experimental breads. Although most participants (64%) had no awareness of functional foods, most indicated willingness to purchase foods with added health benefits (93%) and to pay more for foods with added health benefits (73%). These results indicated a general acceptance of bread with functional food characteristics and the possibility of purchasing such products with added health benefits and even at a higher price premium.

Thesis (MTech (Consumer Science: Food and Nutrition))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2016.
Background: The different types and forms of rooibos and the ways in which it is prepared and flavoured for consumption influences its total polyphenol content and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and hence depends on its consumer practices. Design: Phase 1 of the study entailed the selection and preparation of different rooibos types and forms; rooibos brewed for different times; and with different household and commercially added flavourings to determine the total polyphenol content, TAC, flavonol and flavanol content; and subsequent identification of the optimal cup of rooibos based on the first two biochemical parameters. For Phase 2 a questionnaire was used to obtain information on the profile of the adult rooibos herbal tea consumer, as well as of those consuming the optimal cup of rooibos. Results: The following prepared rooibos samples delivered the higher biochemical parameter content: green / unfermented (type representative); green / unfermented leaves and powdered extract (form representatives); that brewed for 10 minutes or longer; and those with added honey. The optimal cup of rooibos was identified as the one brewed for 10 minutes or longer. The older respondents and those with a lower level of education consumed a higher daily amount of rooibos (p < 0.05) and those who brewed rooibos in a teapot consumed the optimal cup (p < 0.05). However, very few respondents consumed the advised number of cups per day (< 1%) and the identified optimal cup (15.9%). Conclusions: Rooibos consumers in this study did not consume it in sufficient amounts and did not brew it for long enough to fully gain from its attributed health benefits.

Thesis (MSc (Chemistry and Polymer Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2006.
Honeybush (Cyclopia spp.) is indigenous to South Africa and consists of more than 20 species of which only a few are used to make a herbal tea with a unique aroma and sweet taste. The aroma of unfermented and fermented honeybush tea differs considerably, indicating that changes take place in the chemical composition of the aroma during the fermentation process. Using a sample enrichment probe (SEP) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), the chemical composition of the aroma of unfermented and fermented C. genistoides, was analyzed and the resulting aroma profiles were compared. A total of 74 compounds were identified in the unfermented honeybush aroma, comprising, inter alia, a large number of saturated and unsaturated alcohols, aldehydes and methyl ketones that were found to be either absent, or present in lower relative concentrations, in the aroma of fermented honeybush. Most of these compounds, including 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one, identified as one of the major constituents of unfermented honeybush, are probably responsible for its grassy, hay-like aroma. In the aroma of fermented honeybush 70 compounds were identified, of which 36 were found to be terpenoids. These compounds are probably responsible for the pleasant sweet aroma of the fermented honeybush. For instance, the major aroma constituent in the fermented honeybush, α-terpineol, is known to have a delicately floral and sweet odour. Other terpenoids occuring in significant quantities in the fermented honeybush, are linalool, cis and trans linalool oxide, nerol, geraniol, 2,6-dimethyl-1,7-octadien-3,6-diol, hexahydrofarnecyl acetone and phytol. These terpenoids are known to have sweet, sweet-woody en floral odours that probably contribute to the overall sweet aroma of the fermented honeybush. In the aroma of the unfermented honeybush a total of 25 terpenoids was identified, of which geranyl acetone, β-ionone, and dihydroactinidiolide are the most significant, since they are present in higher relative concentrations compared to the same terpenoids in the fermented honeybush. These three terpenoids have overall woody and even slightly green odours which contribute to the typical aroma of the unfermented honeybush. The terpenoids present in the aroma of unfermented and fermented honeybush belong to the following compound classes: • Terpenes • Terpene alcohols • Terpene aldehydes • Ketoterpenes • Terpene ethers • Terpene lactones Apart from the terpenoids present in the aroma of unfermented and fermented honeybush, the following classes of compounds are also present: • Aliphatic hydrocarbons (saturated) • Aliphatic alcohols (saturated and unsaturated) • Phenols • Aliphatic aldehydes (saturated and unsaturated) • Aliphatic ketones (saturated and unsaturated) • Aliphatic carboxylic acids (saturated) • Esters (methyl esters, ethyl and higher esters and aromatic esters) • Furane compounds • Lactones The present research was done to compare the chemical composition of the aroma of unfermented and fermented honeybush of one particular species, namely C. genistoides, to obtain an understanding of the evolution and/or disappearance of volatile compounds during fermentation that ultimately could help to identify compounds or compound types and their precursors responsible for its unique sweet aroma.

Market demand for the fynbos-derived honeybush (Cyclopia spp.) tea is on the rise, and there is an urgent need for better conservation of wild Cyclopia populations and for a shift to sustainable cultivation. Rooibos is another popular fynbos product that underwent exponential market growth over the last two decades but this resulted in large-scale conversion of pristine mountain fynbos to intensively-used crop lands. Adopting a conservation agriculture approach in expanding indigenous products will help in conserving biodiversity and ecosystem processes in this global biodiversity hotspot. Conservation agriculture of indigenous fynbos products grown in the Cape Floristic Region (CFR) should follow five main principles in order to maximise biodiversity conservation alongside agriculture. These principles are: 1) maintain high diversity at all levels, 2) conserve soil structure and processes, 3) conserve and restore natural ecosystem processes, 4) promote ecosystem stability and self-perpetuation, and 5) maintain natural areas as sources of ecosystem components. Given the negative ecological consequences of the industrialisation of the rooibos industry, it would be in the interest of biodiversity conservation, and even of agriculture, to apply these principles to honeybush cultivation. In order to prevent further fynbos habitat loss, cultivation of honeybush could be catalysed on old fields rather than in ploughed or cleared fynbos. Here I compare germination, growth and survival of two species (Cyclopia intermedia E.Mey. and C. subternata Vogel) between different land use types (ploughed lands, old fields and intact fynbos) and treatments (cleared and uncleared) in the Langkloof, Eastern Cape, over one year. Plots of each land use type were subject to each of these two treatments, although the ploughed plot constituted only a cleared treatment. Growth was highest on ploughed land, while survival and growth were lowest in uncleared fynbos. Cleared fynbos had the lowest germination success in both species, with the other sites and treatments coming out roughly the same. These results show that although ploughed lands give highest yields, growth and survival on old fields without ploughing is comparable with that on ploughed lands and is therefore a feasible alternative. Understanding the recruitment dynamics of honeybush is imperative for adequate conservation of wild populations. Furthermore, understanding this ecological aspect of the genus will help in developing the honeybush industry as a sustainable, agroecological market that uses semi-natural populations for production. Although Cyclopia species are early-successional species that germinate after fire, recruitment of Cyclopia pubescens Eckl. & Zeyh. continues throughout the inter-fire period. Cyclopia pubescens populations near Port Elizabeth were described according to their age structure and plant densities to discern possible density-dependent recruitment effects. Results showed that dense stands for the most part do not support high post-fire recruitment. This gives insight into suitable planting densities for new or restore populations and into management guidelines for remnant populations of threatened species. This thesis highlights important issues facing the honeybush industry. Mainstreaming biodiversity conservation into honeybush production is achievable, given that the industry is still relatively young, but this will require further research and strong market leadership.

Herbal teas and fruit juices used in our regular diet may have importance in the protective treatment of some infectious diseases. In this study, selected dietary beverages were investigated for their antioxidant capacities and antimicrobial activities against Proteus mirabilis, a well known bacteria in urinary tract infections. Herbal teas
sage (Salvia fruticosa Mill), anise (Pimpinella anisum L.), rosehip (Rosa canina L.), camomile (Anthemis arvensis L.) and fruit juices
grape (Vitis vinifera L.), orange (Citrus sinensis L.), peach (Prunus persica L.), and pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) were chosen as samples of regular diets. Selected fruit juices and aqueous infusion tea extracts, lyophilised to dryness, were used throughout this study. Antioxidant capacities of the extracts were carried out by using 2,2&rsquo
-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) radical scavenging (ABTS) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging (DPPH) methods along with the determination of total phenolic compounds in the extracts. Antimicrobial activities of extracts were determined by disc diffusion test, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) methods. Among the herbal teas, sage infusion extract has displayed the highest radical scavenging capacity with ABTS EC50 value of 5.152 mg/mL, DPPH EC50 value of 0.072 mg/mL and with its high phenolic content of 0.411 mg/mg gallic acid equivalence. Among the fruit juices pomegranate has revealed significantly high DPPH EC50 and TEAC values 0.924 mg/mL and 0.552 mmol/g, respectively. Peach juice has been found with the highest total phenolic amount of 0.067 mg/mg gallic acid equivalent. Antimicrobial activities of herbal teas were correlating with antioxidant capacity studies, whereas sage infusion tea extract exhibited 3 mg/mL of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and 6 mg/mL of minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC). Rosehip was also found as an effective antimicrobial agent with a minimum inhibitory concentration value of 3 mg/mL. In the meantime, there was no significant difference in the zone inhibition of herbal tea infusion extracts. In case of fruit juices grape and pomegranate may be effective antimicrobials in P. mirabilis infections with 0.75 mg/mL MIC and 6 mg/mL MBC, respectively at the same time both juices revealed significantly high inhibition zones with 11 mm.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2013.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The present study employed a two-phased approach to investigate the possible mechanisms involved in the chemopreventive properties of rooibos (Aspalathus linearis) and different honeybush species (Cyclopia spp.) in vitro. In the first phase, the effect of unfermented methanol and aqueous herbal tea extracts against the growth parameters (cell viability, proliferation and apoptosis) of normal (CRL 7761); premalignant (HaCaT); and malignant (CRL 7762) skin cells was evaluated and compared to green tea extracts. The predictive potential of polyphenol content (total polyphenol and flavanol/proanthocyanidins) and antioxidant properties (ABTS; ORAC; FRAP and LPO) in the biological activity of extracts in cells was also assessed. Of the herbal teas, the methanol extract of rooibos was the most active and it inhibited the growth of skin cells presumably by inducing mitochondrial dysfunction via membrane depolarisation. At lower concentrations, this activity was associated with inhibition of cell proliferation that was selective for cancer cells whilst higher concentrations induced apoptosis that was more prominent in premalignant cells. The strong antioxidant properties of the extracts implicated the role of pro-oxidative polyphenol/iron interactions involving monomeric flavonoids and polymeric proanthocyanidins in the cytotoxic effects of rooibos. The strong relationship between total polyphenolic and flavanol/proanthocyanidins content, antioxidant properties and reduction of cell viability indicated that these parameters (polyphenols and antioxidant properties) can serve as predictive tools for the cytotoxic effects of rooibos in vitro. The aqueous extracts of honeybush species, although weaker, displayed similar effects to rooibos extracts in cells with C. genistoides being the most effective at selectively inhibiting the proliferation of cancer cells whilst the pro-apoptotic activity of C. subternata and C. intermedia was more prominent in premalignant cells. The underlying mechanisms are also likely to result from pro-oxidative mechanisms resulting from polyphenol/iron interactions that mainly involve polymeric flavanol-like proanthocyanidin compounds in honeybush. In contrast, the methanol extracts exhibited weaker cytotoxic effects and protected cancer cells from going into apoptosis. The cytoprotective effects of honeybush species are possibly mediated by the major monomeric compounds such as mangiferin and hesperidin through antioxidant mechanisms that result in reduction of oxidative stress. Due to the possible dual role of the monomeric and polymeric compounds in the honeybush extracts, the total polyphenolic content of these herbal teas may not be a good indicator of biological activity in vitro. However, as aqueous extracts displayed high flavanol/proanthocyanidins content and exceptional activity in the ABTS assay, these parameters may be considered as indicators of cytotoxicity. On the other hand, methanol extracts, particularly from the xanthone-rich species (C. genistoides and C. longifolia) which exhibited the weakest cytotoxic effects, were more active in the ORAC thus this assay may be a useful predictor for cytoprotective activity. In the second phase, an in vitro UVB/HaCaT model which used IL-1α as a biomarker for early inflammation was developed and validated with known anti-inflammatory compounds, dexamethasone and ibuprofen. It was used to determine the specific mechanisms involved in the modulatory effects of the herbal tea extracts against inflammation. Rooibos extracts and the aqueous extract of honeybush enhanced the cytotoxic effects of UVB in the model and exhibited indirect anti-inflammatory effects as they removed icIL-1α containing cells via apoptosis. In contrast, methanol extracts of honeybush exacerbated icIL-1α by protecting UVB stimulated cells from undergoing apoptosis. In conclusion, methanol extract of rooibos and aqueous extracts of honeybush species may be useful in protecting the skin after UVB exposure. These herbal tea extracts may block initiation and delay the promotion stage during skin carcinogenesis by removing premalignant cells via apoptosis and preventing onset of inflammation. In contrast, due to their cytoprotective effects, methanol extracts of honeybush may be more effective at preventing oxidative stress in skin before UVB exposure. Future studies should focus on the effects of extracts and polyphenolic fractions on the oxidative status of the cells and development of biomarkers of chemoprevention that can be utilised in vivo and in human skin.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In hierdie studie word moontlike velkankerwerende eienskappe van rooibos (Aspalathus linearis) en ‘n aantal heuningbos (Cyclopia spp.) spesies deur twee afsonderlike benaderings bestudeer. Die eerste benadering ondersoek die effek van die kruietee op groeiparameters van velselle [lewensvatbaarheid, groei en dood van normale selle (CRL 7761), vroeë kankerselle (HaCaT) en kankerselle (CRL 7762)]. Tydens eksperimente is die moontlikheid om polifenoolinhoud (totale polifenole, en flavanol/proantosianidiene verhouding) en antioksidant-eienskappe te gebruik om die biologiese funksies van die ekstrakte in die selle te voorspel, geevalueer. Die metanolekstrak van rooibos het die groei van selle die effektiefste gestop, moontlik deur depolarisasie van die mitokondriale membraan. By lae konsentrasies van die ekstrak is die groei van kankerselle selektief gestop, terwyl vroeë kankerselle die sensitiefste by hoër konsentrasies was. Die hoë antioksidant-aktiwiteit van die rooibosekstrak kan moontlik ‘n rol speel in die indusering van sitotoksiese effekte in die selle en kan toegeskryf word aan die pro-antioksidant aktiwiteit van die polifenole weens hul interaksie met yster. ‘n Spesifieke funksie word vir die monomeriese flavonoïede en die polimeriese proantosianidiene geïmpliseer. Die sterk verwantskap tussen die totale polifenoolinhoud, flavanol/proantosianidien inhoud en antioksidant aktiwiteit met die verlaging in selgroei, maak hul relevante parameters van die voorspellingsmodel. Die waterekstrakte van heuningbos induseer ook soortgelyke maar swakker effekte met die induksie van kankersel dood, met C. genistoides die selektiefste en C. subternata en C. intermedia die aktiefste spesies wat die groei van die vroeë kanker selle inhibeer. Die onderliggende meganismes betrokke blyk ook aan ‘n pro-oksidant effek toe geskryf te wees, waartydens spesifieke polifenool/yster interaksies betrokke is. In teenstelling met rooibos, beskerm die metanolekstrak van heuningbos kankerselle teen seldood, wat moontlik verband hou met die antioksidant-eienskappe van die hoof monomeriese polifenole, mangiferien/isomangiferien en hesperidien. Vanweë die dubbele rol van die monomeriese polifenole en polimeriese verbindings in heuninghbosekstrakte is die totale polifenol inhoud nie ‘n goeie indikator van die biologiese aktiwiteit in vitro nie. Daarenteen is die flavanol/proantosianien inhoud en die hoë aktiwiteit in die ABTS antioksidanttoets goeie indikators om seldood te voorspel. In teenstelling hiermee het die metanolekstrakte van die xantoon-ryke spesies (C. genistoides en C. longifolia) ‘n baie lae effek op seldood, maar ‘n hoë aktiwitiet in die ORAC toets getoon, wat ‘n goeie rigtingwyser is om die beskermende effek in selle te voorspel. Met die tweede benadering is die anti-inflammatoriese eienskappe en die onderliggende meganismes van die kruietee ondersoek in ‘n UVB/HaCaT selmodel. Intrasellulêre interleukin 1α (IL-1α) is as merker gebruik en die model is geëvalueer deur bekende anti-inflammatoriese verbindings soos dexamethasone en ibuprofin te gebruik. Die metanolekstrak van rooibos en die waterekstrak van heuningbos het die toksiese effek van UVB in die model verhoog deur selle met verhoogde vlakke,van icIL-1α te verwyder deur middel van die induksie van seldood. Die metanolekstrak beskerm die selle teen die oksidatiewe skade wat deur UVB geïnduseer word en verwyder nie selle met hoë IL-1α vlakke nie. Ter opsomming blyk dit dat die metanolekstrak van rooibos en die waterekstrak van heuningbos moontlik gebuik kan word om die vel te beskerm teen die induksie van icIL-1α en sodoende die inisiëring van kanker te blokkeer en ook die promosie van kanker te vertraag. Die beskermende effek van die metanolekstrak kan moontlik aangewend word om die oksidatiewe skade wat deur UVB veroorsaak word teen te werk deur dit aan te wend voordat blootstelling plaasvind. Toekomstige studies behoort verdere karakterisering van die polifenoolsamestelling van die ekstrakte in te sluit en hul effek op die oksidatiewe status en anti-inflammoriese effekte van selle te bepaal ten einde sekere merkers te identifiseer vir vel studies in vivo.

Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Technology: Biomedical Technology In the Faculty of Health and Wellness Sciences At the Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2012
Human and experimental animal studies have shown that biomarkers of oxidative damage are elevated in subjects with certain diseases or risk factors. Consequently, it is hypothesized that oxidative stress plays an important role in the pathogenesis of these diseases and that dietary intake of, or supplementation with antioxidants may be protective or be useful therapeutic targets. This study was designed to investigate the modulatory effect of Camellia sinensis (Chinese green tea), Aspalathus linearis (rooibos herbal tea) and the two commercial supplements on the antioxidant status of the liver and kidney of tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BHP)-induced oxidative stress male Wistar rats. Rooibos and green tea are beverages well-known for their antioxidant content. Based on the specific beverage consumed, sixty male Wistar rats were randomly assigned into six groups, i.e. fermented rooibos (FRT), unfermented rooibos (URT), Chinese green tea (CGT), rooibos supplement (RTS), Chinese green tea supplement (GTS) and control (CTL). The animals had free access to the respective beverages and standard diet for 10 weeks, while oxidative stress was induced during the last 2 weeks via intraperitoneal injection of 30 μM of t-BHP per 100 g body weight. Among all the beverage and/or supplement preparations, the commercial rooibos supplement had the highest total polyphenol content and antioxidant activity while fermented rooibos, as previously shown, had a lower antioxidant content and potency when compared to its unfermented counterpart. The ability of these beverages and/or supplements to modulate the antioxidant status in tissues was organ specific and varied according to the assessment method. When considering the liver, the intake of unfermented rooibos, Chinese green tea and the commercial rooibos supplement significantly (P<0.05) restored the t-BHP-induced reduction and increased the antioxidant status with regards to oxygen radical absorbance capacity and trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) levels. All the beverages and/or supplements also significantly (P<0.05) enhanced the renal antioxidant capacity as assessed by the TEAC assay. In what may be an indication of decreased oxidative stress, all the beverages were associated with a general decline in activities of the antioxidant enzymes which reached significant levels in renal superoxidase dismutase activity. Generally, the beverages did not impact significantly on lipid peroxidation (LPO) although there were differing trends in the two LPO markers assessed. While thiobarbituric acid reactive substances levels showed a declining trend in both tissues, the conjugated dienes were generally elevated. In conclusion, this study confirms Camellia sinensis and Aspalathus linearis as well as their two supplements as good sources of dietary antioxidants and results demonstrated that rooibos and green tea improved the liver and kidney antioxidant capacity of oxidative stress-induced rats. Their impact on antioxidant status in rats was shown to vary between organs and according to the method of assessment. Hence multi-method, multi-organ assessment may be a more informative approach in in vivo antioxidant studies.

Staphylococcus aureus is one of the major causes of food-borne pathogenesis. Antibiotic consumption for these pathogens has been increasing year by year world-wide. In order to decrease the use of synthetic antibiotics, fresh fruits and dry herbs consumed as beverages in regular diets were examined as potential natural antibiotics for the treatment of food based infections against Staphylococcus aureus. Herbs consumed as tea infusions including Pimpinella anisum L. (anise), Anthemis arvensis L. (camomile), Rosa canina L. (rosehip), Salvia fruticosa Mill (sage) and fresh fruit juices including Vitis vinifera L. (grape), Citrus sinensis L. (orange), Prunus persica L. (peach) and Punica granatum L. (pomegranate) were selected as samples of hot or cold consumed beverages in our daily diets. Extracts of fresh fruit juices were prepared in methanol, on the other hand, tea infusions of herbs were filtered and lyophilized. Antioxidant capacities of the plant samples were investigated by radical scavenging methods, namely 2&rsquo
2-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) as well as determination of total phenolic and flavonoid contents. Furthermore, antimicrobial activities of plant samples were determined by minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration methods along with disc diffusion method. Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacities (TEAC) of the herbal tea infusions obtained by ABTS radical scavenging method were ranged between 48.38 ±
1.242 and 715.73 ±
4.265 (&mu
mol Trolox equivalent (TE)/g of extract) while, TEAC values of fresh fruits juices were between 26.86 ±
0.217 and 73.55 ±
0.973 (&mu
mol Trolox equivalent (TE)/g of extract). Moreover, EC50 values of the tea infusions obtained by DPPH radical scavenging method were ranged between 0.05 ±
0.001 and 1.53 ±
0.004 (mg/mL) while, EC50 values of the fruit juices were 1.6 ±
0.014 and 2 ±
0.093 (mg/mL). Total phenolic content of the plant samples tested in this study were varied from 1.383 (&mu
g gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/mg of extract) to 159.167 (&mu
g gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/mg of extract) and total flavonoid content varied from 0.111 (&mu
g quercetin equivalent (QE)/mg of extract) to 201.15 (&mu
g quercetin equivalent (QE)/mg of extract). Sage, orange and grape displayed higher antimicrobial activities with values of 1.5, 6 and 6 mg/mL minimum inhibitory concentrations and 1.5, 24 and 24 mg/mL minimum bactericidal concentrations, respectively. Inhibition zone diameters of sage, orange and grape were found to be 9, 9 and 11 mm.

Lietuvoje vaistinių arbatų suvartojimas mažėja jau ketvirtus metus iš eilės, kai tuo tarpu išsivysčiusiose Pasaulio šalyse susidomėjimas augaliniais vaistiniais preparatais didėja. Taip pat Lietuvoje stebima ir vaistinių augalų arbatų asortimento kaita. Arbatų, registruotų kaip tradiciniai augaliniai preparatai, vaistinėse ženkliai mažėja, o maistinių arbatų daugėja. 2014 metų duomenimis Lietuvos Respublikos Valstybiniame vaistų registre yra užregistruotos tik 25 vaistinės arbatos, iš kurių 13 yra mišiniai ir 12 - vienkomponentės arbatos. Šio darbo tikslas - ištirti vaistinių augalų arbatų asortimentą ir pardavimų tendencijas Lietuvos vaistinėse. Siekiant tikslingai atlikti analizę, išsikelti uždaviniai: atlikti literatūros apie vaistinių augalų arbatas analizę, ištirti Lietuvos vaistinėse parduodamų vaistinių augalų arbatų asortimentą, vaistinių augalų arbatų paklausos priklausomybę nuo sezono, nustatyti, kurios vaistinių augalų arbatos yra populiariausios. Tiriamasis darbas - tai vaistažolių arbatų pardavimų Lietuvos vaistinėse aprašomoji analizė, kuriai pasirinktas 2012 metų laikotarpis, surašant kiekvieno mėnesio arbatų pardavimus pasirinktose vaistinėse nuo sausio iki gruodžio imtinai. Atlikus analizę, nustatyta, kad daugiausia (57,85 proc.) yra parduodama „Acorus Calamus“ gaminamos arbatų produkcijos. Arbata fasuota filtro paketėliuose yra 1,71 proc. populiaresnė nei palaida (biri) arbata. Nustatyta, kad nors ir ne ženkliai, tačiau daugiau parduodama vienkomponenčių... [toliau žr. visą tekstą]
Consumption of medicinal tea in Lithuania has been falling for already four years in a row, while the developed world interest in herbal products is increasing. It is also observed that the range of medicinal plant teas is changing in Lithuania. Teas that are registered as traditional herbal medicines, are significantly decreasing in pharmacies, while nutrient teas are increasing. According to 2014 data from the State Register of Medicinal Products of the Republic of Lithuania there are registered only 25 medicinal teas, out of which 13 are mixtures and 12 - single-component teas. The aim of this scientific work is to explore a range of medicinal herbal teas and their sales trends in Lithuanian pharmacies. In order to carry out targeted analysis, the work deals with these tasks: to make the literature analysis on medicinal plant teas, to examine the range of medicinal plants teas sold in the Lithuanian pharmacies, to investigate the medicinal herbal teas elasticity of demand from season, to determine which medicinal plant teas are the most popular. This research work includes the descriptive analysis of the herbal teas sales in Lithuanian pharmacies, for which the period of 2012 was selected; the sales of teas in selected pharmacies were investigated each month from January to December. The analysis showed that the majority (57.85 percent) of sold teas are of “Acorus Calamus” producer. Tea, bagged in sachet filter, is 1.71 percent more popular than loose tea. It was also... [to full text]

Dissertation (PhD)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis provides the first scientific evidence on the cancer modulating properties of two unique South African herbal teas, rooibos (Aspalathus Iinearis) and honeybush (Cyclopia intermedia) utilizing in vitro as well as in vivo carcinogenesis assays by: • Demonstrating the in vitro antimutagenic activity of aqueous extracts of the herbal teas against the metabolic activated mutagens, 2-acetylaminofluorene (2- AAF) and the mycotoxin, aflatoxin B1 (AFB,) as well as, to a certain extent, against the direct acting mutagen, hydrogen peroxide, utilizing the Salmonella typhimurium mutagenicity assay. • Increasing the activity of hepatic drug metabolizing enzymes, glutathione Stransferase alpha and UPD-glucuronosyl transferase, and reduced the oxidative stress by stabilizing the level of reduced glutathione (GSH) resulting in an increased hepatic reduced to oxidized glutathione ratio (GSG:GSSG). No toxic effects were noticed in rats consuming the herbal teas for 10 weeks as their sole source of drinking fluid. • Demonstrating the ex vivo modulation of 2-AAF- and AFB1-induced mutagenesis by sub- cellular hepatic fractions of rats consuming the herbal teas in the Salmonella mutagenicity assay. Hepatic cytosolic fractions protected against mutagenesis of both mutagens, while the microsomal fractions exhibited a reduced capacity to metabolize AFB1 to its active mutagenic metabolite. • Providing evidence for the in vivo modulation of tumour promotion using the liver as well as the two-stage skin carcinogenesis animal models. The unprocessed herbal teas arrested proliferation of the placental form of glutathione-Stransferase (GSTP+) altered cells as well as reduced the total number of enzyme altered foci in the liver of rats. Topical application of polyphenolic fractions of the various herbal teas prior to 12-0-tetra-decanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) tumour promotion, reduced tumour formation in mouse skin initiated with 7,12-dimethylbenz[ ajanthracene (DMBA). The protective effect was illustrated by a decreased tumour incidence, a reduction in tumour volume as well as a delayed onset of tumour development. The f1avanol/proanthocyanidin content of the fractions could playa major role in the protection against skin tumour promotion. • Proposing possible mechanisms whereby rooibos and honeybush herbal teas could exert their cancer modulating properties with respect to in vitro and ex vivo antimutagenicity, in vivo oxidative status and reduced tumour promotion. • Providing evidence that the herbal teas mimic the cancer modulating properties of green and black teas although differences exist, presumably due to differences in the polyphenolic constituents. • Suggesting that rooibos and honeybush herbal teas may play an important role as chemopreventive agents in the modulation of cancer.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis bevat die eerste ondersoek na die effek van waterige en polifenoliese ekstrakte van rooibos (Aspalathus Iinearis) en heuningbos (Cyclopia intermedia) op verskeie aspekte van kankerontwikkeling. Die twee kruietees is uniek aan Suid-Afrika en kan 'n belangrike rol speel in die voorkoming van kanker. Verskillende in vitro so wei as in vivo studies het die volgende getoon: • Antimutageniese aktiwiteite teen die metabolies-geaktiveerde mutagene, 2- asetielaminofluoreen (2-AAF) en die mikotoksien, aflatoksien B1 (AFB1) in die Salmonella fyphimurium mutagenisiteitstoets. 'n Beperkte mate van beskerming is ook verleen teen die oksidatiewe mutageen, waterstofperoksied, sonder metaboliese aktivering. • Verhoogde aktiwiteite van die fase II ensieme, glutatioon S-tranferase alfa en UDP-glukuronidase, wat liggaamsvreemde verbindings metaboliseer. Die kruietees verlaag die oksidasietoestand soos weerspieel word deur 'n toename van gereduseerde glutatioon tot die geoksideerde vorm in die lewer van rotte wat 10 weke hierdie kruietees gedrink he!. Die kruietees het geen toksiese uitwerking op die rotte gehad nie. • Antimutageniese aktiwiteite van subselluiE~re fraksies van die lewer teenoor 2- AAF en AFB1 in die Salmonella toets. Die sitosolfraksie van die rotlewer bied beskerming teen die ge"induseerde mutagenese van beide mutagene, terwyl die mikrosomale fraksie ook die metaboliese aktivering van AFB1 na die aktiewe mutageniese metaboliet verminder. • In vivo modulering van kankerpromosie met behulp van bekende rotlewer en muisvel kankerontwikkelingsmodelle. In die lewermodel het die ongeprosesseerde kruietees beide die ontwikkeling en getal van GSTP+ fokusse onderskeidelik vertraag en verminder. In die geval van die velkankermodel het aanwending van polifenoliese fraksies van die kruietees beskerming gebied teen die ontwikkeling van velkankers by muise. Die aantal en grootte van die tumors het afgeneem terwyl die verskyning daarvan ook vertraag is. • Verskeie meganismes waardeur rooibos- en heuningboslee moonllik kanker kan moduleer word voorgeslel. Verskille in die polifenoliese sameslelling asook hul onderskeie konsenlrasies kan 'n belangrike rol speel in die kankerveranderende effekle van die lees. • Oal gereelde inname van rooibos- en/of heuningboslee moonllik 'n belangrike rol kan speel in die voorkoming van dieel- en omgewings-geYnduseerde kankers.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2015.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Chronic inflammation is suggested to contribute to cancer development and therefore a potential target for chemoprevention. In the skin, keratinocytes and macrophages play an integral part in acute and chronic inflammation, with interleukin 1-α (IL-1α) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) as key cytokines governing this process. Green tea (Camellia sinensis) and the South African herbal teas, rooibos (Aspalathus linearis) and honeybush (Cyclopia spp.) displayed antiinflammatory effects in mouse and human skin. To further investigate the antiinflammatory properties of green tea and the herbal teas, rooibos and honeybush (C. subternata and C. maculata) herbal teas, suitable cell culture models were developed and validated utilising human keratinocytes (HaCaT) and monocyte (THP- 1) derived macrophages. Aqueous extracts of the green tea and unfermented herbal teas were prepared and their chemical composition determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the antioxidant activity characterised utilising different antioxidant assays. Green tea and rooibos exhibited similar antioxidant activities while C. maculata displayed the lowest overall antioxidant activity of all the extracts, despite possessing the highest mangiferin level, the major polyphenol in honeybush. The modulation of cytokine release was studied in (i) an UVB-induced pre-exposure HaCaT model monitoring the accumulation of IL-1α and (ii) a LPS stimulated THP-1 macrophage model monitoring the TNF-α release, utilising both a pre-exposure and co-exposure extract regimens. In the pre-exposure HaCaT inflammatory model the UVB-induced IL-1α was decreased by the green tea extract while a far weaker response was obtained with the rooibos extract. Both the honeybush extracts displayed a significant effect in the reduction of IL-1α with C. subternata exhibiting a slight increased protection at a lower extract concentration. In the pre-exposure THP-1 derived macrophage model, green tea and the herbal tea extracts inhibited TNF-α release in a dose dependent manner in the absence of an overt loss in cell viability and apoptosis at lower extract concentrations, suggesting a typical anti-inflammatory effect. In the co-exposure model, the different extracts also exhibited an anti-inflammatory effect at the lowest concentrations in the absence of apoptosis while at higher extract concentrations the effect was masked by a decrease in cell viability and increased apoptosis. C. maculata exhibit differential effects when considering the inhibition of cytokine production and, depending on the cell model, either exhibited a weaker or stronger effect when compared to C. subternata and rooibos. Phenolic diversity of the different teas is likely to explain the differential effects in the antioxidant assays and cell culture models with respect to the regulation of the production of the inflammatory markers. Proposed mechanism for the anti-inflammatory effects include the modulation of oxidative stress via various pathways and the subsequent down regulation of nuclear factor kappa β (NFκB) and activated protein-1 (AP-1) which are key regulators of cytokine production governing the inflammatory response.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Kroniese inflammasie van die vel kan bydra tot die ontwikkeling van kanker en is dus ’n potensiële area om te teiken in die voorkoming van velkanker. Keratinosiete en makrofage speel ’n integrale rol in akute en chroniese inflammasie van die vel en TNF-α en IL-1α is die belangrikste sitokiene wat hierdie proses inisieer. Dit is bekend dat ekstrakte van groen tee (Camellia sinensis) en die Suid-Afrikaanse kruietees, rooibos (Aspalathus linearis) en heuningbos (Cyclopia spp.) ‘n anti-inflammatoriese effek op die vel van muise en mense het. Om die anti-inflammatoriese aktiwitieit van groen tee, rooibos en 2 heuningbos kruietees (C. subternata en C. maculata) verder te ondersoek en te definieer is geskikte selkultuurmodelle ontwikkel en gevalideer deur gebruik te maak van menslike keratinosiete (HaCaT) en monosiet (THP-1) afgeleide makrofage. Water ekstrakte van groen tee en ongefermenteerde kruietees is voorberei en die chemiese samestelling deur hoë druk vloeistof chromatografie (HDLC) bepaal. ‘n Verskeidenheid van antioksidant bepalingstoetse is gebruik om die antioksidant aktiwiteit van die ekstrakte te meet. Groen tee en rooibos het soortgelyke antioksidant aktiwiteite getoon, terwyl C. maculata die swakste algehele aktiwiteit getooon het, ten spyte van die teenwoordigheid van hoёr vlakke van mangiferin, die belangrikste polifenoliese verbinding in heuningbos. Modulasie van sitokiene is verder bestudeer in (i) ’n UVB-geïnduseerde vooraf-blootstelling HaCaT model, waartydens akkumulering van IL-1α gemonitor is en (ii) ‘n lipopolisakkaried (LPS)-gestimuleerde THP-1 makrofaag model, waar die vrystelling van TNF-α gemonitor is. Vir die THP-1 model is beide die voor en gelyktydige blootstelling benaderings vir die ekstrakte met LPS gebruik. In die keratinosiet model, waar die selle aan ekstrakte blootgestel is voor UVB bestraing, is IL-1α beduidend verlaag deur die groen tee ekstrak, terwyl ’n swakker reaksie gesien is met rooibos. Beide heuningbos ekstrakte het ’n beduidende invloed in die vermindering van IL-1α getoon, waar C. subternata ’n effense verhoogde beskerming teen selsterfte by ‘n laer ekstrakkonsentrasie toon. Blootstelling van die makrofage aan al vier ekstrakte voor LPS stimulasie (vooraf-blootstelling), het gelei tot inhibisie van TNF-α vrystelling op ’n dosis afhanklike wyse en die afwesigheid van apoptose en selsterftes by lae ekstrak konsentrasievlakke. Hierdie waarnemings dui op ’n tipiese antiinflammatoriese effek. In die gelyktydige-blootstelling model verlaag al die ekstrakte TNF-α vrystelling teen die laagste ekstrak konsentrasievlakke, in die afwesigheid van apoptose en met geen effek op seldood nie. Hoёr ekstrak konsentrasievlakke het sitotoksisiteit en verhoogde apoptose getoon, dus was die anti-inflammatoriese effek gemaskeer. C. maculata toon ‘n variërende effek met betrekking tot antioksidant aktiwiteit en die bekamping van sitokien produksie, afhangend van die model wat bestudeer is. Die verskeidenheid fenoliese verbindings teenwoordig in die verskillende tee ekstrakte is waarskynlik die rede vir die effekte wat waargeneem is tydens antioksidant toetsing en selkultuurmodelle. Die anti-inflammatoriese meganismes wat deur hierdie studie voorgestel word sluit die modulasie van oksidatiewe stres via verskeie metaboliese paaie in. Modulasie van oksidatiewe stres lei tot af-regulering van kernfaktor-kappaB (NF-κB) en aktiveerderproteïen- 1(AP-1), wat sleutel reguleerders van sitokien produksie tydens inflammatoriese respons is.

Thesis (PhD (Chemistry and Polymer Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Honeybush tea, also known as “South Africa’s sweetest tea”, is a herbal tea made from the leaves and twigs of Cyclopia spp., indigenous to the fynbos biome in the Western and Eastern Cape provinces of South Africa. The pleasant sweet aroma and taste of fermented honeybush, its low tannin content and the absence of caffeine have led to widespread interest in the commercial cultivation and processing of honeybush tea since the mid-1990s. Although more than 20 species of honeybush grow in the wild, only a few species are commercially exploited for the manufacture of tea. Currently the more prominent species are C. intermedia, C. subternata, C. genistoides, and C. sessiliflora. The present research contributes to a comprehensive honeybush research programme being conducted at the Agricultural Research Council (ARC) Infruitec-Nietvoorbij in South Africa. The first phase of the present study, using C. genistoides as representative species, was aimed at developing the necessary methodology for the analysis of extremely low concentrations of honeybush volatiles. A high-capacity headspace sample enrichment probe was applied successfully in conjunction with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to analyse the volatile organic compounds present in dry or infused unfermented and fermented honeybush. A total number of 255 volatile compounds were identified in unfermented and fermented honeybush, the majority of which are terpenoids (138; 54%) comprising mostly terpenes, terpene ketones, terpene alcohols and terpene ethers. Of the other compound classes, the aldehydes are the largest group, followed by esters, hydrocarbons and ketones. The stereochemistry of the identified compounds was determined whenever possible. This is the most comprehensive chemical characterisation of the volatile compounds in a South African herbal plant reported to date. A comparative study of green and fermented honeybush showed that the same compounds are, to a large extent, present in both, albeit in different relative concentrations. Not all of the identified honeybush volatiles are necessarily odour-active compounds contributing to the overall typical honeybush aroma. An important aspect of this research was thus the identification of the 46 odour-active compounds in fermented honeybush by means of gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC-O), using detection frequency and aroma extract dilution analysis methods. Fifteen of these compounds, mainly terpenoids, were singled out as the most intense individual contributors to the honeybush aroma based on consideration of all the relevant GC-O data. The odours of certain compounds, i.e. (6E,8Z)-megastigma-4,6,8-trien-3-one, (6E,8E)-megastigma- 4,6,8-trien-3-one, (7E)-megastigma-5,7,9-trien-4-one, 10-epi- -eudesmol, epi- -muurolol and epi- - cadinol, were perceived by GC-O assessors as typically honeybush-like. The quantitative GC-MS data of seven different Cyclopia samples (including four different species and variants thereof) were compared with respect to all the volatile components and particularly with respect to the odour-active compounds. Interesting variations were found in the concentrations of certain odour-active compounds in the various samples. The quantitative data obtained for the odour-active honeybush volatiles and data obtained from the sensory analysis of eight Cyclopia samples (including four different species and variants thereof) were subjected to statistical analysis and interesting associations between compounds with certain sensory aroma attributes were established. The present study has made a major contribution to the scientific knowledge regarding one of South Africa’s most popular indigenous herbal teas.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Heuningbostee, wat ook bekend staan as “Suid-Afrika se soetste tee”, word gemaak van die blare en takkies van Cyclopia spp. wat inheems is en voorkom in die fynbosbioom van die Wes- en Oos-Kaapprovinsies van Suid-Afrika. Die aangename soet smaak en aroma van gefermenteerde heuningbos, die lae tannnien-inhoud en die feit dat die tee kafeïenvry is, het gelei tot belangstelling in die kommersiële verbouing en prosessering van heuningbostee gedurende die 1990s. Meer as 20 heuningbosspesies kom in die natuur voor, maar slegs ‘n paar spesies word kommersieel verbou vir die vervaardiging van heuningbostee waarvan C. intermedia, C. subternata, C. genistoides en C. sessiliflora tans die belangrikste spesies is. Die navorsing maak deel uit van ‘n omvattende heuningbos navorsingsprogram wat onder leiding staan van die Landbounavorsingsraad Infruitec- Nietvoorbij in Suid-Afrika. In die eerste fase van die huidige studie is die nodige analitiese metodologie ontwikkel vir die monsterneming en analise van die vlugtige organiese verbindings wat in uiters lae konsentrasies in heuningbos voorkom, deur van ‘n verteenwoordigende spesie, C. genistoides, gebruik te maak. ‘n Sogenaamde “sample enrichment probe” (SEP) is ontwikkel en suksesvol in kombinasie met gaschromatografie-massaspektrometrie (GC-MS) aangewend vir die analise van die vlugtige verbindings aanwesig in die bodamp van sowel droë plantmateriaal as infusies van ongefermenteerde en gefermenteerde heuningbos. ‘n Totaal van 255 vlugtige verbindings is geïdentifiseer, waarvan die meeste hoofsaaklik terpenoïede is (138, 54%) en terpene, terpeenketone, terpeenalkohole en terpeeneters insluit. Die ander verbindingsgroepe, waarvan die aldehiede die grootste groep is, sluit in esters, koolwaterstowwe en ketone. Indien haalbaar, is die stereochemie van die geïdentifiseerde verbindings ook bepaal. Hierdie studie is die mees omvattende chemiese karakterisering van die vlugtige verbindings in ‘n Suid-Afrikaanse kruieplant wat tot dusver onderneem is. ‘n Vergelykende studie het getoon dat ongefermenteerde en gefermenteerde heuningbos tot ‘n groot mate dieselfde verbindings, hoewel in verskillende relatiewe konsentrasies, bevat. Nie al die geïdentifiseerde vlugtige verbindings in heuningbos is noodwendig aroma-aktiewe verbindings wat ‘n bydrae tot die algehele tipiese heuningbosaroma lewer nie en daarom was die identifisering van die 46 aroma-aktiewe verbindings in geferementeerde heuningbos deur gebruik te maak van gaschromatografie-olfaktometrie (GC-O) deur middel van deteksiefrekwensie en aroma ekstrak verdunningsanalise, ‘n belangrike aspek van die navorsing. Na oorweging van al die tersaaklike GC-O data is 15 van hierdie verbindings, hoofsaaklik terpenoïede, uitgesonder as die verbindings wat die belangrikste bydrae tot die heuningbosaroma lewer. Die reuke van sekere van die verbindings, nl. (6E,8Z)-megastigma-4,6,8-triën-3-oon, (6E,8E)-megastigma-4,6,8-triën-3-oon, (7E)-megastigma-5,7,9-triën-4-oon, 10-epi- -eudesmol, epi- -muurolol, en epi- -cadinol, is deur sommige van die GC-O paneellede as tipies heuningbosagtig beskryf. Die kwantitatiewe GC-MS data van sewe verskillende Cyclopia monsters (insluitende vier verskillende spesies en variante daarvan) is vergelyk met betrekking tot al die vlugtige verbindings, asook veral met betrekking tot die aroma-aktiewe verbindings. Interessante variasies in die konsentrasies van sekere aroma-aktiewe verbindings is in die verskillende monsters waargeneem. Die kwantitatiewe data van die aroma-aktiewe heuningbosverbindings en data verkry uit die sensoriese analise van agt Cyclopia monsters (insluitende vier verskillende spesies en variante daarvan), is onderwerp aan statistiese analises waaruit interessante assosiasies tussen verbindings met sekere sensoriese aroma-eienskappe waargeneem is. Hierdie studie lewer ‘n groot bydrae tot die wetenskaplike kennis aangaande een van Suid- Afrika se mees populêre inheemse kruietees.

Tea consumption has been increased, especially in Germany, as consumers are more concerned about health taking care for the people at different ages. Consumers are more careful of what they are consuming, and increasingly consuming the products which are originally come from nature. Herbal tea industry became more attractive and shows opportunities to the firms as well as consumers. A study about factors that can persuade or motivate consumer's intention to buy herbal tea from Thailand can help the entrepreneurial herbal firm or marketers in Thailand, or tea importer in Germany to realized the importance of factors influences consumer purchasing intention of Thai herbal tea in Germany, and it affect to consumer's decision making. Descriptive research was employed in the research methodology of this study as it helps answering research questions related to consumer attitude towards herbal tea, and relationship between each studying factors in this study. This research provides result from studying and analyzing the problems based on research objectives in order to investigate factors that influences consumer intention to purchase herbal tea, especially herbal tea from Thailand, which is the country that consume many different kinds of herbs in each day. The research had been done through questionnaire survey from 115 respondents from the range of age 21to 60 years old German consumers, who are living in the area of Mainz, Frankfurt, and Wiesbaden. The quantitative data was analyzed using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) to measure the relationship between variables and how it affects to purchasing intention of a consumer; the analysis of linear regression, correlation, and one-way ANOVA had been applied. Based upon the results of this study, several suggestions can be made to increase consumer perception and purchase intention of herbal tea from Thailand. First, the producers should pay attention on product quality as it is the factor that impacts their decision the most compared to other factors. Second, the word herbal tea from "Thailand" should be promoted on the package as well as its attribute because consumers trust that the quality of Thai herbal tea is good, and healthy.

Thesis (MTech (Food Technology))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2015.
Rooibos iced tea (RIT), as one of the products of Rooibos is fast becoming very popular as a beverage in society due to the benefits of the phenolic compounds that are associated with this herbal tea. Some of the commercially available products have been found to contain, if any, lower contents of the major phenolic compounds, namely aspalathin and its oxidation products, iso-orientin and orientin. Their presence is considered as indicators of a good quality product. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of ultraviolet-C (UV-C) light as an alternative treatment to heat treatment on the shelf life, pH, phenolic composition, colour and microorganisms associated with Rooibos. Two formulations of RIT were used in order to determine the efficacy of the UV-C on the shelf life whilst three formulations were used for the physicochemical analysis. Only one formulation was used for inoculation with three spoilage bacteria, yeast and mould spoilage microorganisms namely; Escherichia coli K12, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella sp., Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Cladosporium sp. The UV-C dosages of 0, 918, 1 836, 2 754 and 3 672 J.l -1 were used to treat the RIT using a pilot-scale UV-C system with a turbulent flow at a constant flow rate of 4000 l.hr-1 . A log count of 4 log10 was considered the limit for the spoilage growth since it is the average log10 afternormal pasteurisation. The use of UV-C treatment was found to have significantly (p1) effect on the overall colour difference of the RIT in formulations A, B, and C. All the spoilage microorganisms were significantly reduced by UV-C dosage to less than 4 log10 except the Cladosporium sp. The S. cerevisiae was the most sensitive microorganism whilst Cladosporium sp. was the most resistant. The effect of UV-C on the spoilage microorganism followed the sequence: S. cerevisiae>Salmonella sp.>S. aureus>E. coli K12>Cladosporium sp. This study indicated that microbiological reduction was achieved as a function of increasing UV-C dosage. In order to achieve the highest log10 reduction, the highest UV-C dosage of 3 672 J.l-1 may be used. However, the dosage may need to be increased in order to achieve the desired results in the treatment of Cladosporium sp. It can thus be concluded from the above investigations that UV-C dosage treatment of 3 672 J.l-1 is optimum in the non-thermal treatment of RIT
South African Association for Food Science & Technology Cape Peninsula University of Technology Bursary

Magister Scientiae - MSc
Background: Early postnatal radiation exposure from environmental, diagnostic or therapeutic sources is potentially deleterious to the developing nervous system resulting in oxidative stress, structural damage, altered neurochemistry, DNA damage, inflammatory stresses as well as correlating cognitive impairment during adult life. Numerous studies in literature have investigated the radioprotective effects of medicinal plants and beverages. However, only a few studies have focused on the radioprotective effects of rooibos, an indigenous South African herbal tea, well known for its many acclaimed health benefits. Aims: This study was done to investigate the diverse radioprotective potential of fermented Rooibos herbal tea (FRHT) consumed ad libitum by pregnant rats on the adult offspring rats exposed to a once-off 6 Gy dose of gamma irradiation on postnatal day 3. Methods: Twenty-four (24) adult female rats were equally divided into four groups (6 per group) as control (NS), radiation (X), tea (RT) and their combination. On PND 30, offspring rats were subjected to neurobehavioural assessment for open field and novel object recognition parameters and later sacrificed, the brain tissues removed and processed for histological, immunohistochemical and neurochemical analyses, using standard techniques. Results: Pre-treatment with FRHT showed overall protection against radiation-induced distortions in offspring rats by significantly improving exploratory activity, the frequency of central square entry, rearing episodes, cumulative freezing time and memory retention as indicated by a relatively higher recognition index. FRHT was also found to significantly improve the antioxidant defence mechanisms in the offspring rats by reversing lowered FRAP levels, increasing superoxide dismutase and catalase enzyme activities and reducing lipid peroxidation. Histological and immunohistochemical analyses showed that morphological alterations were generally attenuated in the RTX group and the high number of caspase-3 and Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive cells was significantly reduced, indicating protective effects against apoptosis and gliosis. Conclusion: Taken together, our findings tend to suggest that the potential radioprotective effects of FRHT are multimodal, possibly executed through the anti-apoptotic, antioxidative, anti-gliosis and other mechanisms, as observed in this study, and this is often attributed to the high polyphenol content in Rooibos tea.

The aim of presented diploma thesis was to characterize baby beverages for early infant feeding. Theoretical part deals with baby foods and beverages including breast milk. Practical part is focused on analysis of active substances in 21 commercially available fruit and herbal instant granular baby beverages and in 3 packaged tea bags for infant and toddler age. To evaluation of antioxidant properties some group parameters were used - total polyphenols, total flavonoids, total antioxidant activity and anthocyanins. All of them were analysed by using spectrophotometrical methods. For identification and quantification of individual phenolic substances was used RP-HPLC/UV-VIS and HPLC/PDA/LC-MS, identification of individual mono- and disaccharides was performed by HPLC/RI. L-ascorbic acid supplemented to some children's drinks was analysed by HPLC-NH2/UV. Protein analysis was performed by Experion microfluidic electrophoresis system (BioRad) and protein concentration was verified by colorimetric method. In general, the highest content of phenolic compounds was shown in tea bags when compared with instant granular beverages that contain mostly added simple carbohydrates. Using contact microbial tests proved immediately after opening and also during manipulation with tea boxes was verified that analysed baby teas are in agreement with strict hygiene requirements for baby beverages.

Magister Scientiae (Medical Bioscience) - MSc(MBS)
Stroke is the third leading cause of death in South Africa, killing about 240 people a day and leaving survivors with residual disabilities. There is no clinically approved neuroprotective agent for stroke at the moment but the consumption of plant polyphenols has been suggested to offer neuroprotection against stroke and other neurodegenerative diseases. In this study, we investigated the effects of long term consumption of fermented rooibos herbal tea (FRHT) on ischemia reperfusion brain injury (I-RBI) in rats. Male adult Wistar rats were fed FRHT ad libitum for 7 weeks prior to the induction of ischemic injury by the transient bilateral occlusion of the common carotid arteries (BCCAO) for 20 minutes followed by 24 hours, 4 and 7 days of reperfusion respectively. Rats were then evaluated for neurologic deficits before sacrifice and brains harvested for assessment of brain oedema, blood-brain-barrier (BBB) integrity through Evans blue extravasation (EBE), immunohistochemical studies of apoptosis and lipid peroxidation. Oxygen radical antioxidant capacity and ferric reducing antioxidant power assays were also conducted to assess total antioxidant capacity after ischemia-reperfusion injury. Notably, the long term consumption of fermented rooibos herbal tea prevented brain oedema by reducing cerebral swelling induced by I-RBI. We also observed that fermented rooibos herbal tea offered neuroprotection against damage to the BBB and delayed neuronal death associated with BCCAO as fewer apoptotic cells were identified 7 days post BCCAO reperfusion. Significantly reduced levels of lipid peroxidation and increased levels of total antioxidant capacity were also observed in brain specimens of rats treated with FRHT. Rats treated with FRHT also showed improved neurologic outcomes when compared with the untreated animals. Our results show that FRHT has potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties which can provide neuroprotective effects against neuronal cell loss, cerebral swelling, BBB disruption, lipid peroxidation and neurologic deficits following I-RBI. The use of FRHT is therefore highly recommended for patients with conditions that predispose them to stroke.

Projeto de Pós-Graduação/Dissertação apresentado à Universidade Fernando Pessoa como parte dos requisitos para obtenção do grau de Mestre em Ciências Farmacêuticas
A Fitoterapia é uma terapêutica não convencional que tem vindo, ao longo das últimas décadas, a despertar o interesse da comunidade geral e científica, nomeadamente pelo seu possível papel na prevenção do cancro. Esta patologia constitui, ainda, uma das principais causas de morte no mundo. Algumas plantas têm demonstrado um potencial papel preventivo na ocorrência e/ou progressão do cancro (tal como outras doenças crónicas). Na primeira parte deste trabalho, apresenta-se uma abordagem aos conceitos de Fitoterapia, fitofármaco e fitoterápico. Segue-se uma perspetiva histórica do conceito de fitoterapia, evidenciando o crescente interesse demonstrado pela comunidade geral e científica nesta área. Como consequência deste interesse generalizado expõem-se, em seguida, aspetos importantes relacionados com a qualidade, eficácia e segurança na utilização de plantas medicinais, ou seja, critérios específicos e questões legais que envolvem e regem o seu uso. Na segunda parte desta contextualização teórica, apresenta-se uma breve exposição sobre o cancro e de seguida descreve-se, com base numa revisão da literatura, o impacto das plantas medicinais na prevenção desta patologia. No terceiro ponto, são analisadas pormenorizadamente as plantas com maior impacto na prevenção do cancro. Sobre as mesmas abordar-se-ão os seus compostos ativos, os mecanismos de ação subjacentes, efeitos secundários, interações com fármacos e, por fim, a respectiva influência na prevenção do cancro. Phytotherapy is an unconventional therapy that has, over the past decades, to arouse the interest of the scientific community generally and especially for its implication in cancer prevention. This pathology is also a major cause of death all over the world. Some plants have demonstrated a potential preventive role in the occurrence and/or progression of cancer (such as other chronic diseases). The first part of this work, consists of an approach to the concepts of phytotherapy, herbal medicine and phytochemical. Then follows a historical perspective of the concept of herbal medicine, highlighting the growing interest shown by the general community and this area. As a result of the widespread interest on phytotherapy, important aspects related to the quality, efficacy and safety in the use of medicinal plants, ie, specific criteria and legal issues that surround and govern your use were addressed. In the second part of this study, a brief exposition of the cancer is presented and then described, based on a literature review, the impact of medicinal plants in the prevention of this disease. Finally, the plants with the greatest impact on cancer prevention, we analyzed in detail. Namely, the active compounds, the effects, drug interactions, and ultimately, their influence on cancer prevention.

This diploma project deals with antioxidant and antimutagenic properties of selected herbal and fruit teas commonly used in Czech population. Influence of different tea packaging (bag teas and loose leaf teas) on bioactive compound content was compared. Further, effect of long-term storage in common household conditions was studied. Antioxidant properties of teas were characterized using some group parameters - total antioxidant activity ("Randox Total Antioxidant Status Kit"), total phenolics and total flavonoids - as well as some individual representatives of low molecular weight antioxidants. Higher antixidant content was found in herbal teas than in fruit teas. Comparing bag teas with loose leaf teas higher antioxidant activity was shown in loose leaf teas. Individual antioxidants were analyzed using HPLC method with spectrophotometric detection and verified by on-line LC/MS. IN all tea samples catechins - catechin, epicatechin, epicatechin gallate and other flavonoids - rutin, morin, quercetin, kaempferol, myricetin and luteolin were determined. In most of teas high level of catechin and rutin was detected. The highest level of flavonoids was determined in herbal poured teas. Ascorbic acid content was also determined by HPLC method. Higher vitamine C level was found in most of fruit teas and in rose hip tea. Antimutagenicity of tea extracts was tested by in vitro test using Saccharomyces cerevisiae D7 yeast. High antimutagenic activity showed mainly nettle tea, tutsan tea and most of fruit teas. During long-term storage (1 year, 20°C, darkness) a significant decrease of all analyzed antioxidant parameters was followed. Higher lost of antioxidants was found in fruit teas when compared with the herbal ones.

This study had as objective to quantify the total herbal tea biomass, to quantify the biomass produced in harvesting, to determine the nutrients amount in biomass compartments, to quantify the exported nutrients in herbal tea harvesting and to adjust mathematic models to quantify, due to equations, the harvest, residual and total biomass. Thirty plots were evaluated, totalizing 306 trees, where each circular plot had 44,18 m2 as area. In these plots, the biometric variables of each tree were measured: total height (ht), trunk diameters at 0,60 m above the soil (d 0.6 meters), height from the first branch or trunk, live crown lenght and crown projection rays. The harvest biomass, composed by leaves, stems and residue was evaluated too. After that, a plant located outside the plot was evaluated, that had the average dendrometric characteristics as the ones included in the plots. Later, each tree was cut at soil level, the leaves and stems, residues, wood, bark and roots weight were determined. The above ground biomass plus the roots biomass consisted in total biomass. The samples taken were dried in an oven to dry biomass and nutrients amount determination. The equations to estimate biomass, were done through SAS System version 8. The Stepwise method of independent variables selection was used, where at maximum 3 variables were included in the selected equations, and the partial R2 from the independent variable was higher to 1% to be considerable significant. The selection test from equations was done with and without intercept. The results showed by the equations without intercept were higher, being rejected these last ones. The nutrients amount determination was done in leaves and stem, wood, residues, bark and roots dried matter. The average fresh and dried biomass plus stems, sampled in the 30 units in kg/tree and kg/ha were: 7,849; 18577,34; 3,081; 7585,22 respectively. The average fresh and dried biomass residues in the 30 units in kg/tree and kg/ha were: 2,583; 6195,71; 1,009; 3052,01. The average fresh and dried leaves and stems biomass sampled in the 30 felled trees in kg/tree were: 7,713 and 3,174 respectively. The average fresh and dried biomass residues, sampled in 30 felled trees in kg/tree were: 2,708 and 1,358 respectively. The average fresh and dried biomass in wood, sampled in the 30 felled trees in kg/tree were: 13,609 and 6,785 respectively. The average fresh and dried roots biomass, sampled in the 30 felled trees were: 7,678 and 4,693 respectively. The total average fresh biomass per felled tree in kg/tree was 33,135. The total average dried biomass in kg/tree was 16,857. The estimated equations for different herbal tea dried biomasses were: wood biomass = 0.28329.rm + 0.07082.dh2; bark biomass =0,44728.lnm + 1,33596.im2; root biomass=2,32270.lnm + 12,81476.im2; residues biomass=0,34026.m 2,61245*ln2m + 0,43581.rm; leaves plus stems biomass=0,56043.ac + 2,06004.ln2d; total biomass=11,29406.rm + 0,10522.dh2. The total stand dried biomass was 41.078,03 kg/ha, being distributed: 16.654,49 kg/ha in the wood; 11.973,01 kg/ha in the roots; 7.582,22 kg/ha in leaves plus stems; 3.052,01 kg/ha in residues and 2.113,30 kg/ha in the bark. The macronutrients exported outside the stand follow this order: nitrogen > potassium > calcium > magnesium > sulphur > phosphorus. The components that show the higher amounts per hectare are: leaves plus stems (404,26 kg/ha), followed by roots (313,50 kg/ha), wood (149,93 kg/ha), residue (104,75 kg/ha) and bark (93,16 kg/ha). The micronutrients exported followed this order: iron > manganese > zinc > boron > cupper. The compartments that show the higher amounts per hectare are: roots (19,31 kg/ha), followed by leaves plus stems (6,43 kg/ha), wood (2,50 kg/ha), bark (2,24 kg/ha) and residues (1,08 kg/ha).
Este trabalho teve como objetivos estimar a biomassa total da erva-mate, produzida na colheita, determinar a concentração de nutrientes nos componentes da biomassa, quantificar os nutrientes exportados na colheita da erva-mate e ajustar modelos matemáticos que quantificassem por meio de equações a biomassa de colheita, residual e total. Inicialmente foram avaliadas trinta parcelas circulares, sendo que cada parcela possuía uma área de 44,18m2. Foram amostradas no total 306 árvores. Nessas parcelas, foram medidas as seguintes variáveis biométricas de cada planta: altura total em metros (ht), diâmetro dos troncos a 0,60 metros acima do solo (d 0.6 metros), raio médio de copa em metros, área de copa em metros quadrados, comprimento médio de copa em metros e avaliou-se a biomassa de colheita composta de folhas mais talos e biomassa residual. Em seguida, em cada parcela amostrada foi avaliada uma planta situada fora desta, que apresentou a média das características dendrométricas das árvores incluídas nas parcelas. Nessas 30 árvores foram determinadas novamente as variáveis biométricas e biomassa de colheita e residual Após isto cada árvore foi decepada ao nível do solo, determinando o peso verde de madeira, casca e raiz . A biomassa área acrescida da biomassa de raízes constitui a biomassa total. Posteriormente retirou-se amostras verdes, de folhas mais talos, resíduos, madeira, casca e raiz as quais foram secadas em estufa, para posterior determinação da biomassa e a concentração de nutrientes. A construção das equações para estimar a biomassa, utilizouse o pacote estatístico Sas System versão 8 . Foi utilizado o método Stepwise de seleção de variáveis independentes, em que se limitou ao máximo a inclusão de três variáveis nas equações selecionadas, e o R2 parcial da variável independente superior a 1% para considerá-la significativa. O teste de seleção de equações foi realizado com e sem intercepto. Os resultados apresentados pelas equações sem intercepto foram superiores às equações com intercepto, tendo sido então desprezado esses últimos. A determinação do teor de nutrientes foi realizada na matéria seca de folhas mais talos, madeira, resíduos, casca e raiz. A biomassa média verde e seca de folhas mais talos, amostradas nas 30 unidades amostrais em kg/árvore e kg/ha foram respectivamente: 7,849; 18577,34; 3,081; 7585,22. A biomassa média verde e seca de resíduos nas 30 unidades amostrais em kg/árvore e kg/ha foram respectivamente: 2,583; 6195,71; 1,009; 3052,01. A biomassa média verde e seca de folhas mais talos, amostradas nas 30 árvores abatidas em kg/árvore foram respectivamente: 7,713 e 3,174. A biomassa média verde e seca de resíduos, amostradas nas 30 árvores abatidas em kg/árvore foram respectivamente: 2,708 e 1,358. A biomassa média verde e seca de madeira, amostradas nas 30 árvores abatidas em kg/árvore foram respectivamente: 13,609 e 6,785. A biomassa média verde e seca de casca, amostradas nas 30 árvores abatidas em kg/árvore foram respectivamente: 1,427 e 0,847. A biomassa média verde e seca de raiz, amostradas nas 30 árvores abatidas em kg/árvore foram respectivamente: 7,678 e 4,693. A biomassa total média verde por árvore abatida em kg/árvore foi de 33,135. A biomassa total média seca por árvore abatida em kg/árvore foi de 16,857. As equações estimadas para as diferentes biomassas secas da erva-mate foram as seguintes: biomassa de madeira = 0,28329.rm + 0,07082.dh2; biomassa de casca = 0,44728.lnm + 1,33596.im2; biomassa de raiz = 2,32270.lnm + 12,81476.im2; biomassa de resíduos = 0,34026.m 2,61245*ln2m + 0,43581.rm; biomassa de folhas mais talos = 0,56043.ac + 2,06004.ln2d; biomassa total = 11,29406.rm + 0,10522.dh2. A biomassa seca total do povoamento foi de 41.078,03 kg/ha, sendo assim distribuídas madeira 16.654,49 kg/ha; raízes 11.973,01 kg/ha; folhas mais talos 7.582,22 kg/ha; resíduos 3.052,01 kg/ha e casca com 2.113,30 kg/ha. Os macronutrientes exportados do povoamento obedecem a seguinte ordem: nitrogênio > potássio > cálcio > magnésio > enxofre > fósforo. Os componentes que apresentam as maiores quantidades de macronutrientes por hectare são: folhas mais talos (404,26 kg/ha), seguido pela raiz (313,50 kg/ha), madeira (149,93 kg/ha), resíduo (104,75 kg/ha) e por último a casca (93,16 kg/ha). Os micronutrientes exportados do povoamento obedece à seguinte ordem: ferro > manganês > zinco > boro > cobre. Os componentess que apresentam as maiores quantidades de micronutrientes por hectare são: raiz (19,31 kg/ha), seguido pela folhas mais talos (6,43 kg/ha), madeira (2,50 kg/ha), casca (2,24 kg/ha) e por ultimo os resíduos (1,08 kg/ha).

Thesis (MSc Food Sc)--Stellenbosch University, 2012.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The sensory profiles, phenolic composition and colour of honeybush infusions, prepared from six Cyclopia species (C. sessiliflora, C. longifolia, C. genistoides, C. intermedia, C. subternata and C. maculata), were determined to establish the variation between species. The results of the sensory study were used to create a honeybush sensory wheel and lexicon. The “characteristic” sensory profile of honeybush tea can be described as a combination of floral, sweet, fruity and plantlike flavours with a sweet taste and a slightly astringent mouthfeel. Sensory results indicated that the species could be divided into three distinct groups; group A (C. sessiliflora, C. intermedia and C. genistoides), group B (C. longifolia and C. subternata) and group C (C. maculata). Group A was associated with fynbos floral, fynbos sweet and plantlike attributes, group B with rose geranium and fruity sweet attributes and group C with woody, boiled syrup and cassia/cinnamon attributes. Gas chromatography-olfactometry analysis of the C. maculata aroma fraction indicated that the spicy note of its aroma could possibly be explained by the high concentration of the volatile component eugenol. However, none of the aroma impact volatiles had a specific cassia/cinnamon note. Large variation in the composition of the honeybush infusions was revealed through the quantification of the soluble solids, total polyphenol and individual monomeric polyphenolic compounds, as well as the absorbance (“colour”). Infusions of C. genistoides, C. longifolia and C. sessiliflora had the highest soluble solids and total polyphenol content, as well as the highest absorbance values. Only mangiferin, isomangiferin, hesperidin and compound C (unidentified compound) were detected in all six Cyclopia species. Cyclopia genistoides, C. longifolia and C. sessiliflora, in order of prominence, contained the highest concentration of both mangiferin and isomangiferin whereas C. genistoides and C. maculata contained the highest hesperidin content. The bitter taste present in certain Cyclopia species appeared to be due to a high mangiferin content, however, compounds such as isomangiferin and compound C might also have played a role. The effect of fermentation (oxidation) temperature (80°C and 90°C) and time (8 h, 16 h, 24 h and 32 h) of C. genistoides, C. subternata and C. maculata on the sensory characteristics of their infusions was also investigated. Fermentation for longer than 8 h resulted in an increase in positive sensory attributes and a decrease in negative sensory attributes rather than the formation of new sensory attributes. A fermentation temperature/time combination of 80°C/24 hours or 90°C/16 h was required for C. genistoides, C. subternata and C. maculata. Fermenting C. genistoides at 90°C would result in a honeybush infusion with slightly less rose geranium notes whereas C. subternata can be fermented at either 80°C or 90°C, depending on whether floral or apricot jam notes are desired. Cyclopia maculata should preferably not be fermented at 90°C due to an increase in negative sensory attributes (hay/dried grass and green grass). Fermentation reduced the soluble solids content, total polyphenol content, colour and concentration of individual polyphenolic compounds. Changes in the taste and mouthfeel of honeybush tea could be attributed to changes in the polyphenolic composition caused by the high temperature oxidation. Mangiferin associated with the bitter taste of C. genistoides, while in C. subternata astringency may be partly attributed to the mangiferin and isomangiferin content. The study substantiated the need for further research on the contribution of the major phenolic compounds towards the taste and mouthfeel of Cyclopia species.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die sensoriese profiel, fenoliese samestelling en kleur van heuningbostee, berei van ses Cyclopia spesies (C. sessiliflora, C. longifolia, C. genistoides, C. intermedia, C. subternata en C. maculata), is bepaal ten einde die mate van variasie vas te stel. Die resultate van die sensoriese studie is gebruik om 'n sensoriese wiel en leksikon vir heuningbostee te ontwikkel. Die “karakteristieke” sensoriese profiel van heuningbostee kan beskryf word as 'n kombinasie van blomagtig, soet, vrugtig en plantagtige geure met 'n soet smaak en 'n effense frankheid. Sensoriese resultate het aangedui dat die spesies in drie groepe verdeel kon word; groep A (C. sessiliflora, C. intermedia and C. genistoides), groep B (C. longifolia and C. subternata) en groep C (C. maculata). Groep A is met fynbos blom, fynbos-soet en plantagtige geure geassosieer, groep B met roos geranium en vrugtige-soet geure en group C met houtagtige, gekookte stroop en kassia/kaneel geure. Gaschromatografie-olfaktometrie analises van C. maculata se aroma fraksie het getoon dat die speseryagtige aroma moontlik as gevolg van die hoë konsentrasie van die vlugtige komponent, eugenol, kon wees. Geen van die aroma-impak vlugtige verbindings het egter 'n spesifieke kassia/kaneelagtige noot gehad nie. Groot variasie in die samestelling van heuningbostee ten opsigte van die inhoud van oplosbare vastestowwe, totale polifenole en monomeriese fenoliese verbindings, asook die absorbansie (“kleur”) is aangetoon. Heuningbostee berei van C. genistoides, C. longifolia en C. sessiliflora het die hoogste oplosbare vastestowwe en totale polifenol inhoud, asook die hoogste absorbansie waardes gehad. Slegs mangiferien, isomangiferien, hesperidien en verbinding C (ongeïdentifiseerde verbinding) is in al ses Cyclopia spesies geïdentifiseer. Cyclopia genistoides, C. longifolia en C. sessiliflora, in volgorde van belangrikheid, het die hoogste konsentrasie van beide mangiferien en isomangiferin gehad teenoor C. genistoides en C. maculata wat die hoogste hesperidien konsentrasie gehad het. Die bitter smaak teenwoordig in sekere Cyclopia spesies blyk moontlik as gevolg van die hoë mangiferien inhoud te wees, hoewel komponente soos isomangiferien en komponent C dalk ook 'n rol mag speel. Die effek van die fermentasie temperatuur (80°C en 90°C) en tyd (8 h, 16 h, 24 h en 32 h) van C. genistoides, C. subternata en C. maculata op die sensoriese eienskappe van heuningbostee is ondersoek. Fermentasie vir langer as 8 h het tot 'n toename in positiewe sensoriese eienskappe en afname in negatiewe sensoriese eienskappe gelei eerder as die ontstaan van nuwe sensoriese eienskappe. Om heuningbostee met 'n optimum sensoriese profiel te verkry is 'n fermentasie temperatuur/tyd kombinaise van 80°C/24 h of 90°C/16 h nodig vir C. genistoides, C. subternata en C. maculata. Cyclopia genistoides wat by 90°C gefermenteer word sal minder van die roos geranium note bevat, terwyl C. subternata by 80°C of 90°C gefermenteer kan word, afhangende of 'n blomagtige of 'n appelkooskonfyt noot verlang word. Fermentasie by 90°C word nie aanbeveel C. maculata nie as gevolg van die toename van sekere negatiewe sensoriese eienskappe (hooi/droe gras aroma en -geur en groen gras aroma). Fermentasie het die inhoud van oplosbare vastestowwe, totale polifenole, individuele polifenoliese verbindings, asook kleur verminder. Veranderinge in die smaak en mondgevoel van heuningbostee kon toegeskryf word aan die veranderinge in die polifenoliese inhoud as gevolg van die hoë temperatuur oksidasie. Mangiferien is met die bitter smaak van C. genistoides geassosieer, terwyl mangiferien and isomangiferien moontlik deels frankheid in C. subternata veroorsaak. Die studie het die noodsaaklikheid vir verdere navorsing op die bydrae van die hoof fenoliese verbindings tot die smaak en mondgevoel van Cyclopia spesies gestaaf.

Os chás destacam-se como a segunda bebida mais consumida no mundo. Além disso, seu consumo tem se modernizado, adequando-se aos anseios dos consumidores. São uma boa fonte de compostos com atividade antioxidante, os quais podem trazer benefícios à saúde humana pelo retardamento do processo de envelhecimento, assim como pela prevenção de doenças crônicas, tais como o câncer e doenças cardiovasculares. Infusões de ervas processadas e frescas foram estudadas quanto a teor de compostos fenólicos totais, perfil de flavonóides e atividade antioxidante. Os teores de compostos fenólicos totais, determinados pelo método de Folin–Ciocalteu, variaram de zero a 46,46 mg/g. Os flavonóides miricetina, quercetina e campferol foram identificados e quantificados por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (CLAE) nos chás preto, verde e de camomila. A atividade antioxidante foi avaliada pelo método do seqüestro do radical 2,2'-difenil-1-picrilhidrazil (DPPH) e pelo sistema modelo β-caroteno/ácido linoléico (BCAL), usando hidroxitolueno butilado (BHT) e α- tocoferol como padrões. As maiores atividades encontradas pelo sistema modelo BCAL foram para as infusões de chá preto, mate, capim-limão, camomila e funcho, enquanto as infusões de ervas frescas apresentaram as menores atividades. Entretanto, quando a atividade antioxidante foi avaliada pelo método do DPPH, as infusões de ervas frescas de menta e funcho foram as que apresentaram as maiores atividades. Os chás processados que apresentaram os menores valores de IC50 foram verde e preto (147,63 µg/mL e 288,60 µg/mL, respectivamente). Os resultados obtidos demonstraram que as infusões analisadas são boas fontes de compostos com atividade antioxidante.
Teas are the second most consumed beverage in the world. Besides this, their consumption has been modernized to suit the consumers? desires. They are a good source of compounds presenting antioxidant activity, which can bring benefits to human health by retarding the process of aging, as well as by preventing chronic diseases, such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Processed teas and herbal infusions were studied for their total polyphenol content, flavonoid profile, and antioxidant activity. Total phenolics, determined by Folin?Ciocalteu procedure, ranged from zero to 46.46 mg/g. Flavonoids myricetin, quercetin, and kaempferol were identified and quantified by High Efficiency Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) in black, green, and chamomile tea. Antioxidant activity was evaluated using 2,2 Diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl method (DPPH) and β-carotene bleaching test (BCB), with butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and α-tocopherol as reference substances. The highest activities using BCB were found for infusions of black tea, maté, lemongrass, chamomile, and fennel, whereas fresh herbal infusions presented the lowest activities. However, when the antioxidant activity was evaluated by DPPH, fresh herbal infusions of mint and fennel presented the highest activities. Processed teas with the lowest IC50 values were green and black (147.63 µg/mL and 288.60g/mL and 288.60 µg/mL, respectively). The results obtained demonstrate that the infusions analyzed are good sources of compounds presenting antioxidant activity.

Thesis (MScMedSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2012.
Includes bibliography
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Obesity is a major source of morbidity and mortality worldwide. More than 1.5 billion individuals over the age of 20 years are overweight, with more than 500 million of these individuals being obese. Obesity increases the risk of developing cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and certain types of cancer. Recently, a number of plant extracts have been shown to possess anti-obesity properties in vitro and in various animal models of obesity. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of a hot water fermented extract of Cyclopia maculata, a South African herbal tea more commonly referred to as honeybush, on lipogenesis and lipolysis in 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes and adipocytes. To investigate the effect of C. maculata extract on adipogenesis, 3T3-L1 preadipocytes were differentiated in adipogenesis inducing media containing various concentrations. The optimal concentration was determined by screening concentrations ranging from 0 to 1,600 μg/ml. 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes were differentiated with TNFα or unsupplemented adipogenesis inducing media as positive and negative controls, respectively. Intracellular lipid accumulation was measured by using the Oil O Red stain and a commercial triglyceride assay kit. Cell viability was measured using the 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5- diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) assays. The expression of PPARγ, C/EBPα, SREBP-1 and PPARα was assessed by Western blot analysis, while the expression of the secreted proteins leptin and adiponectin was assessed by ELISA. The effect of C. maculata extract on lipolysis was investigated by differentiating 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes in adipogenesis inducing and adipogenesis maintenance media for 8 days until they were mature adipocytes, and thereafter treating with C. maculata extract for 24 hours. The optimal concentration was determined by screening concentrations ranging from 0 to 1,600 μg/ml. Isoproteronol or unsupplemented adipogenesis maintenance media was used as positive and negative controls, respectively. Intracellular lipid break down was measured by using the Oil O Red stain, while glycerol release, a marker of lipolysis, was measured using a commercial kit. Cell viability was measured using the MTT and ATP assays. The expression of HSL and perilipin was assessed by Western blot analysis, while the expression of secreted proteins leptin and adiponectin was assessed by ELISA. Treatment with the C. maculata extract, at most of the concentrations tested, decreased intracellular lipid accumulation in pre-adipocytes. The Oil O Red and the intracellular triglyceride assay, in combination with the cell viability assays, showed that 80 μg/ml optimally reduced intracellular lipid without affecting cell viability. Western blot analysis showed that differentiation of 3T3-L1 adipocytes in the presence of 80 μg/ml of the C. maculata extract decreased the expression of PPARγ2, a key adipogenenic transcription factor, 1.8-fold (p=0.006). PPARγ2 was observed at a smaller size than expected and further studies are needed. The results of the C/EBPα, SREBP-1 and PPARα Western blots were not included in this study and are recommended to be further optimized to reduce non-specific binding. ELISA results showed a significant increase in the secretion of the adipokines, adiponectin (>10-fold, p<0.001) and leptin (1.5-fold, p=0.002). The C. maculata extract was better than the positive control, TNFα, at inhibiting adipogenesis. A concentration of 80 μg/ml of the C. maculata extract maximally induced lipolysis, without affecting cell viability. Western blot analysis showed non-specific binding, and are recommended to be further optimized to reduce non-specific binding. Western blot analysis also showed that acute treatment (24 hours) of mature 3T3-L1 adipocytes with 80 μg/ml increased the expression of the lipolytic protein, HSL (1.6-fold, p=0.025). Perilipin Western blot was not included due to non-specific binding. ELISA results showed an increase in adiponectin (1.5-fold, p=0.015) and leptin (1.2-fold, p=0.067) secretion. Similar results were obtained after treatment with the C. maculata extract or the positive control, isoproteronol. This study shows that treatment of 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes and adipocytes with 80 μg/ml of C. maculata plant extract inhibits adipogenesis and induces adipolysis, without causing cytotoxicity. A major limitation of the current study is that it was conducted in an in vitro model and does not represent the complexity of obesity as it occurs in humans. However, despite this, we believe that these results are promising and provide support for future in vivo studies to substantiate these preliminary findings. The results of this study is aligned with the Department of Science and Technology’s Ten Year Innovation Plan and the “Farmer to Pharma” value chain that aims to improve our bio-economy by developing our indigenous resources. Moreover, this type of initiative will be able to stimulate job creation, while being able to utilize the very rich South African indigenous knowledge.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Vetsug is 'n groot oorsaak van morbiditeit en mortaliteit wêreldwyd. Tans is meer as 1,5 miljard mense oor die ouderdom van 20 jaar oorgewig, met meer as 500 miljoen van hierdie individue wat vetsugtig is. Vetsug verhoog die risiko vir die ontwikkeling van kardiovaskulêre siekte, tipe 2 diabetes en sekere soorte kanker. Onlangs het 'n aantal plantekstrakte anti-vetsug eienskappe in vitro en in verskeie dier modelle van vetsug getoon. Die doel van hierdie studie was om die effek van die Cyclopia maculata, 'n Suid-Afrikaanse kruie-tee, meer algemeen bekend as heuningbos, op lipogenese en lipolise in 3T3-L1 pre-adiposiete en adiposiete te ondersoek. Vir die ondersoek, is 3T3-L1 pre-adiposiete gedifferensieer in ‘n adipogeneseinduserende media met verskillende konsentrasies van ‘n warm water ekstrak van gefermenteerde C. maculata. Die optimale konsentrasie van C. maculata ekstrak is bepaal deur die selle met verskeie konsentrasies te behandel wat gewissel het van 0 tot 1600 mg / mL. 3T3-L1 pre-adiposiete is met adipogenese-induserende media gedifferensieer met of sonder TNFα supplementasie wat as positiewe en negatiewe kontrole, onderskeidelik gedien het. Intrasellulêre lipied-versameling is gemeet deur middel van Oil O Red kleuring en trigliseried-inhoud is bepaal deur 'n kommersiële kit. Sel-lewensvatbaarheid is bepaal deur 3-(4,5-Dimetielthiazol-2- yl)-2,5-difenieltetrazolium bromied (MTT) en adenosien tri-fosfaat (ATP) assays. Die PPARγ, C/EBPα, SREBP-1 and PPARα proteïen uitdrukking is deur middel van Western-blot analise bepaal, terwyl die gesekreteerde proteïene, leptien en adiponektien, deur ELISA bepaal is. Die effek van C. maculata ekstrak op lipolise is ondersoek deur 3T3-L1 preadiposiete in adipogenese-induserende media te differensieer waarna die selle vir ‘n verdere 8 dae in adipogenese-onderhoud media gekultuur is totdat hulle volwasse adiposiete bereik het, voordat die adiposiete behandel is met C. maculata ekstrak vir 24 uur. Die optimale konsentrasie C. maculata ekstrak is bepaal deur die selle met verskeie konsentrasies te behandel wat gewissel het van 0 tot 1600 mg/ml. Adipogenese-onderhoud media met of sonder isoproterenol is onderskeidelik gebruik as die positiewe en negatiewe kontroles. Intrasellulêre lipied afbraak is deur middel van Oil O Red gemeet, terwyl vry gliserol, 'n merker van lipolise, deur ‘n kommersiële kit bepaal is. Sel-lewensvatbaarheid is bepaal deur MTT en ATP assays. Die uitdrukking van HSL is deur middel van Western-blot analise bepaal, terwyl die uitdrukking van die gesekreteerde proteïene, leptien en adiponektien, deur ELISA gemeet is. Ek stel voor dat die perilipin Western blots verder geoptimaliseer word om sodoende nie-spesifieke binding te verminder. Behandeling met C. maculata ekstrak het intrasellulêre lipied-akkumulasie in die pre-adiposiete verminder, by die meeste van die konsentrasies wat getoets is. Die Oil O Red en die intrasellulêre trigliseried toetse, in kombinasie met die sellewensvatbaarheid assays, het getoon dat 80 mg/ml C. maculata ekstrak intrasellulêre lipied optimaal verminder sonder om die sel-lewensvatbaarheid te affekteer. Western blot analise het getoon dat die differensiasie van 3T3-L1 adiposiete in die teenwoordigheid van 80 mg/ml C. maculata ekstrak die uitdrukking van PPARγ2, 'n sleutel adipogenetiese transkripsie faktor, 1.8-voudig (p=0.006) verlaag. PPARy2 is waargeneem by a kleiner grootte as verwag en verdere ondersoek word benodig. Ek stel voor dat die C/EBPα, PPARα en SREBP- 1 Western blots verder geoptimaliseer word om sodoende nie-spesifieke binding te verminder. ELISA resultate het 'n beduidende toename in die sekresie van die adipokines, adiponektien (>10-voudig, p <0.001) en leptien (1.5-voudig, p= 0.002) getoon. Cyclopia maculata ekstrak was beter as die positiewe kontrole, TNFα, om adipogenese te inhibeer. Teen ‘n konsentrasie van 80 mg/ml het C. Maculata ekstrak lipolise maksimaal geïnduseer, sonder om sel-lewensvatbaarheid te beinvloed. ELISA resultate het 'n toename in adiponektien (1.5-voudig, p = 0.015) en leptien (1.2-voudig, p = 0,067) sekresie getoon. Soortgelyke resultate is verkry met die positiewe kontrole, isoproteronol, as met C. maculata ekstrak behandeling. Hierdie studie het getoon dat die behandeling van 3T3-L1 pre-adiposiete en adiposiete met 80 mg/ml C. maculata ekstrak adipogenese inhibeer en adipolise induseer, sonder enige sitotoksisiteit. 'n Beperking van die huidige studie is dat dit in 'n in vitro model gedoen is wat nie die kompleksiteit van vetsug in die mens weerspieël nie. Ten spyte daarvan is resultate belowend en ondersteun dit toekomstige in vivo studies om hierdie voorlopige bevindinge te staaf. Bewys dat ‘n water ekstrak van gefermenteerde C. maculata anti-vetsug eienskappe het kan groot ekonomiese gevolge vir die heuningbos industrie inhou. Die resultate van hierdie studie is in lyn met die Departement van Wetenskap en Tegnologie se tien jaar Innovasie Plan en die "Farm Pharma" waardeketting wat daarop gemik is om ons bio-ekonomie te verbeter deur die ontwikkeling van ons inheemse hulpbronne. Daarbenewens sal hierdie tipe inisiatief potensieel werkskepping stimuleer, terwyl dit die ryk Suid-Afrikaans inheemse kennis aanwend.

This thesis deals with the total antioxidant activity (TAA) evaluation of various sorts of tea (green, black, half-fermented, white, mate, rooibos and herbal) depending on the process and time of their treatment. The main emphasis is put on testing a new method of measuring the total antioxidant activity by flow coulometry. The results acquired by this method are compared to the results of the chemiluminescent Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) method which is a standard for measuring the total antioxidant capacity in various materials and raw materials. The work discusses the reasons for the differences in the values found by both methods.

The aim of this master´s thesis was to determine the concentration of bioactive substances such as total polyphenols and flavonoids as well as the total antioxidant capacity in tea extracts from Rosa canina. In the second part, an experiment was found to detect antimicrobial activity and an effective concentration of ethanol against selected bacteria. The theoretical part is focused on description of natural antioxidants and their effect on free radicals, description of tea, description of rose hazel and possibilities of spectrophotometric determination of natural substances and eventually basic distribution of bacteria. In the experimental part, ethanol and aqueous extracts were prepared in which the total number of polyphenols, flavonoids and antioxidant effects. The results of the determination of polyphenols and flavonoids show that the solvent with ethanol is more suitable for flower fermentation and water is more suitable for dropping the rose. Comparison of the antioxidant activity of macerates showed no significant differences; slightly higher antioxidant activity showed macerates from pink flowers. The extracts showed antimicrobial activity against Micrococcus luteus and slightly against Bacillus cereus. The highest antimicrobial activity was determined for the micrococcus luteus

Lietuvoje prieskoninės arbatos tampa populiaresnės, dėl prieskonių ir žolių vis labiau atskleidžiamų teigiamų savybių žmogaus sveikatai. Tačiau jų pasirinkimas yra dar nedidelis. Tyrimo tikslas buvo sukurti kelias prieskoninių arbatų kompozicijas ir įvertinti jų juslines savybes bei antimikrobinį poveikį. Buvo sukurtos keturios arbatų kompozicijos: „Virškinimo arbata“, „Rytinė arbata“, „Vakarinė arbata“ ir „Afrodiziakas“. Arbatų kompozicijos buvo maišomos namų sąlygomis. Juslinės savybės vertintos taikant juslinės aprašomosios analizės metodus. Specialiai apmokyta 6 vertintojų grupė atrinko pagrindines arbatų kompozicijų savybes. Antimikrobinės arbatų kompozicijų savybės buvo įvertintos difuzijos į agarą metodu prieš Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium. Atlikta arbatų kompozicijų juslinė analizė parodė, kad skirtingos sudėties arbatos mėginiai skyrėsi instrumentiniu metodu įvertintos spalvos charakteristikomis. Juslinės skonio ir kvapo savybės priklausė nuo arbatos sudėties, ir nors visų arbatos mėginių skonis ir kvapas buvo gana intensyvūs, sodrūs, tačiau atskiri jaučiami skoniai ir kvapai priklausė nuo arbatos sudėties. Preliminarus priimtinumo vertinimas parodė, kad „Afrodiziako“ arbatos skonis ir kvapas vertintas kaip mažiau priimtini nei kitų arbatos mėginių, gal būt, todėl, kad jos skonis, kvapas bei pojūtis burnoje labiau priminė buljoną nei arbatą, o tai daugeliui vartotojų yra neįprasta. Priimtino vartotojams... [toliau žr. visą tekstą]
Spice tea is becoming more popular in Lithuania regarding spices and herbs growing disclosed positive characteristics to human health. However, their selection is still limited. The goal of the research was to create a few teas compositions of spices and evaluate the organoleptic characteristics and antimicrobial effect. There were created four tea compositions, "Digestive Tea", "Morning Tea", "Evening Tea" and "Aphrodisiac". Tea compositions were home-made. Organoleptic characteristics were tested using descriptive sensory analysis methods. Specially trained 6 assessors group has sorted main characteristics of the tea compositions. Antimicrobial compositions of tea were evaluated by the agar diffusion method against Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium. Analysed teas sensory compositions showed that differences were found in tea compositions characteristics based on instrumental colour analysis instrumental method. Sensory flavour and aroma characteristics were based on the tea composition, despite all tea samples – flavour and fragrance were quite intense, however separately felt flavours and fragrances were based on, composition of tea. Preliminary assessment of the acceptability showed that the "Aphrodisiac" tea flavour and aroma selected as less acceptable than other tea samples, perhaps because of its taste, aroma and mouth feel were more like as broth than tea, which is unusual for most of the users. To consumers... [to full text]

碩士
大葉大學
生物產業科技學系
95
The objective of this study was to investigate antioxidant properties of aqueous extracts of commercial herbal teas- lavender (Lavandula officinalis)、lemon verbena (Lippia citriodora)、lemongrass(Cymbopogon sp)、rosemary(Rosmarinus officinalis)、leaves of linden(Tilia sp)、mint(Mentha piperita)、sweet violet(Viola ordorata)、lemon balm(Melissa officinalis)、cornflower(Centauea cyanus)、marigold(Calendula officinali)、camomile(Matricaria chamomilla) and sage(Salvia officinalis). The antioxidant properties were evaluated by DPPH free radical scavenging, metal chelating and reductive potential activities. In addition, total phenolic compounds were determined. Those aquenous antioxidant activities were also compared to 0.02% BHT. At the concentration of 40 mg/mL, aqueous extract of lemon verbena exhibited 90.03％ in DPPH radical scavenging activity compared to treatment with 0.02% BHT. Regardless of the extractive temperature, lemon verbena、rosemary、lemon verbena and sage, the scavenging activity could reach to 60％. The chelating activity of 50 ℃ and 70 ℃ aqueous extracts were not as good as that of 0.02% BHT. Aqueous extracts of lavender showed the most stable chelating Fe2+ activity which could reach 60％ regardless of conceatration and extractive temperature. For lemon verbna and sage, metal chelating activity of aqueous extracts were higher than those of 50 ℃aqueous extracts. Furthermore, metal chelating activities of 70 ℃ aqueous extracts of leaves of linden、marigold、cornflower and sweet violet were lower than those of 50 ℃ extracts. Reductive potential of 70 ℃ aqueous extracts at conceatration of 20 mg/mL, Rosemary、leaves of linden、mint and marigold were significantly difference (P<0.05). For lemon verbena、sage、lemon grass and marigold, reductive potential of 70 ℃ extracts were higher than those of 50 ℃aqueous extracts. Total phenolic contents of aqueous extracts (70℃) of rosemary、leaves of linden、marigold、cornflower and sweet violet were significantly different, other seven extracts of herbal teas showed no significant difference (P>0.05). In addition to 50 ℃ aqueous extracts of leaves of linden、sage、marigold、sweet violet and lavender, other six aqueous extracts of herbal teas showed no significant difference (P>0.05).

Herbal medicines are an important part of the African culture and tradition and about 80% of Africa’s population relies on traditional remedies for their primary health care needs (WHO, 2008). Athrixia phylicoides is widely used as a traditional remedy, but despite its substantial use, literature on its chemical composition and biological activities is limited. In this study, the chemical composition of the essential oil was determined using gas chromatography combined with mass spectroscopy (GC/MS) and analysis resulted in the identification of 182 compounds. The major compounds identified in selected samples were α-pinene, β-pinene, caryophyllene oxide, β-caryophyllene, myrcene and spathulenol. Based on the traditional uses of A. phylicoides, various in vitro biological activities were investigated. The extensive use of A. phylicoides for the treatment of boils, sores, bad acne, infected wounds and cuts, prompted the antimicrobial (bacterial and fungal) study using the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) assay. The methanol extract and essential oil were more selective for the Grampositive bacteria than the Gram-negative bacteria. The extract exhibited stronger activity against all micro-organisms tested compared to the essential oil, with the highest activity against S. aureus, B. cereus and B. subtilis (MIC = 1 mg/ml). The bioactive compound, (4-hydroxyphenyl) propyl coumaroate was isolated from the extract and proved to be most active against S. aureus (MIC = 19.5 μg/ml). Using the DPPH• assay, a comparative antioxidant study was performed. The anti-oxidant activity of the aqueous extract of A. phylicoides (IC50 = 14.01 ± 2.68 μg/ml) was greater than rooibos and Ceylon (black) tea (IC50 > 25.00 μg/ml); comparable to green rooibos and honeybush tea (IC50 = 18.01 ± 4.06 μg/ml; 18.02 ± 4.27 μg/ml, respectively), but less active than green tea (IC50 = 9.64 ± 0.96 μg/ml). The antimalarial activity was determined using the [3H] hypoxanthine incorporation method. The essential oil exhibited greater antimalarial activity against the chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum (FCR-3) strain (IC50 = 1.006 ± 0.06 μg/ml) than the methanol extract. The 5-lipoxygenase assay was used to assess the anti-inflammatory activity of the methanol extract and essential oil. Only the essential oil displayed anti-inflammatory activity (IC50 = 25.68 μg/ml). Low safety indices were reported for both the methanol extract (SI = 2.28) and essential oil (SI = 1.77). The in vitro biological activities may validate the use of A. phylicoides in traditional medicine.

Magister Scientiae (Medical Bioscience) - MSc(MBS)
Laboratory studies, epidemiological investigations and human clinical trials indicate that flavonoids have important effects on cancer chemoprevention and therapy. Flavonoids may interfere in several steps that lead to cancer development but may also lead to toxicity as the inhibition of carcinogen-activating enzymes may also cause potential toxic flavonoid-drug interactions. However, the potential toxicity of these dietary components has not been well studied. The use of polyphenol enriched supplements prepared from South African herbal teas, rooibos(Aspalathus linearis)and honeybush (Cyclopia spp.) are being marketed to alleviate symptoms that are known to be “cured” by the herbal teas. However, there is a lack of information regarding the possible health promoting effects of these polyphenol-enriched extracts on xenobiotic metabolism. In the present study, the modulating effects of aspalathinenriched rooibos and mangiferin-enriched C. genistoides and C. subternata extracts on the gene expression of xenobiotic metabolising enzymes (XMEs) were investigated in vivo in the rat liver and kidneys. An in vitro study, utilising a primary rat hepatocyte cell model, was included to further evaluate changes in the expression of selected XMEs by the herbal tea extracts, including their major polyphenolic constituents, aspalathin and mangiferin. The use of the in vitro primary hepatocytes assay as a predictive cell model for the modulation of the expression of XMEs genes by the herbal tea extracts in vivo was critically evaluated.In the liver and kidneys, the C. subternata polyphenol-enriched herbal tea extract effected the majority of changes regarding the expression of XMEs genes when compared to the rooibos and C. genistoides. Variations in the modulation of gene expression of the XMEs by the herbal tea extracts were related to differences in their polyphenol constituents, although non-polyphenolic constituent could also be involved.Overall the herbal teas regulated alcohol,energy, drug and steroid metabolism in the liver, whereas in the kidneys the gene expression of phase I, phase II, steroid metabolising enzymes, as well as drug transporters were modulated. It would appear that the herbal teas are likely to exhibit both beneficial and adverse effects in vivo,depending on the specific organ, the xenobiotic and/or drug that are involved. The primary rat hepatocytes model display varying effects with respect to modulating gene expression of specific XMEs by the polyphenol-enriched herbal tea extracts. Apart from the reduction in 17 -hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase gene expression care should be taken to directly extrapolate the in vitro findings to changes that prevail in vivo.However, interesting results regarding the masking effect of complex mixture on the modulation of XME gene expression of individual polyphenols were encountered. In addition differences in the dose and duration of exposure between the in vitro and in vivo studies were not comparable and should be further explored to validate the in vitro primary hepatocytes model to predict changes in vivo. Future studies should investigate the effects of the herbal tea extracts, its polyphenols and metabolites on XME induction at a protein level as well as varying herb-drug-enzyme interactions.

Laboratory studies, epidemiological investigations and human clinical trials indicate that flavonoids have important effects on cancer chemoprevention and therapy. Flavonoids may interfere in several steps that lead to cancer development but may also lead to toxicity as the inhibition of carcinogen-activating enzymes may also cause potential toxic flavonoid-drug interactions. However, the potential toxicity of these dietary components has not been well studied. The use of polyphenol-enriched supplements prepared from South African herbal teas, rooibos (Aspalathus linearis) and honeybush (Cyclopia spp.) are being marketed to alleviate symptoms that are known to be &ldquo
cured&rdquo
by the herbal teas. However, there is a lack of information regarding the possible health promoting effects of these polyphenol-enriched extracts on xenobiotic metabolism. In the present study, the modulating effects of aspalathinenriched rooibos and mangiferin-enriched C. genistoides and C. subternata extracts on the gene expression of xenobiotic metabolising enzymes (XMEs) were investigated in vivo in the rat liver and kidneys. An in vitro study, utilising a primary rat hepatocyte cell model, was included to further evaluate changes in the expression of selected XMEs by the herbal tea extracts, including their major polyphenolic constituents, aspalathin and mangiferin. The use of the in vitro primary hepatocytes assay as a predictive cell model for the modulation of the expression of XMEs genes by the herbal tea extracts in vivo was critically evaluated. In the liver and kidneys, the C. subternata polyphenol-enriched herbal tea extract effected the majority of changes regarding the expression of XMEs genes when compared to the rooibos and C. genistoides. Variations in the modulation of gene expression of the XMEs by the herbal tea extracts were related to differences in their polyphenol constituents, although non-polyphenolic constituent could also be involved. Overall the herbal teas regulated alcohol, energy, drug and steroid metabolism in the liver, whereas in the kidneys the gene expression of phase I, phase II, steroid metabolising enzymes, as well as drug transporters were modulated. It would appear that the herbal teas are likely to exhibit both beneficial and adverse effects in vivo, depending on the specific organ, the xenobiotic and/or drug that are involved. The primary rat hepatocytes model display varying effects with respect to modulating gene expression of specific XMEs by the polyphenol-enriched herbal tea extracts. Apart from the reduction in 17&beta
-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase gene expression care should be taken to directly extrapolate the in vitro findings to changes that prevail in vivo. However, interesting results regarding the masking effect of complex mixture on the modulation of XME gene expression of individual polyphenols were encountered. In addition differences in the dose and duration of exposure between the in vitro and in vivo studies were not comparable and should be further explored to validate the in vitro primary hepatocytes model to predict changes in vivo. Future studies should investigate the effects of the herbal tea extracts, its polyphenols and etabolites on ME induction at a protein level as well as varying herb-drug-enzyme interactions.

 

Bush tea (Athrixia phylicoides DC.) is a herbal beverage and medicinal plant indigenous to South Africa. A trial was conducted to determine the effect of micronutrients on the plant growth and quality of bush tea. The trial was laid out in a completely randomized block design with five replicates. Treatments consisted of single applications of Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), Boron (Bo), Iron (Fe) and Magnesium (Mg) at three levels (50ml/l, 100ml/l and 150ml/l) and a combination of all micronutrients. A control treatment with no spray was also included. Leaf analysis was conducted using Varian Liberty series II instrument. Total polyphenols were determined using the Folin Ciocalteau method and tannins were determined using Vanillin HCl method. Bush tea samples (one leaf per sample) were analysed using head space solid phase micro-extraction gas chromatography (HS-SPME-GC-MS). Results of this study demonstrated that application of micronutrients increased the total polyphenols, tannins and total flavonoids in bush tea, with most of the increase in total polyphenols (77.5-93.7 mg/g) occurring in combination B + Zn + Fe + Cu + Mg treatment, increase in tannins (87.3-99.5 mg/g) occurring in copper treatment and increase in total flavonoids (164.6-176.6 mg/g) occurring in mixture (B + Zn + Fe + Cu + Mg) treatment. Results also show a significant increase in the quality and plant growth of bush tea. Five major compounds were identified (>80% identification probability) namely alpha-pinene, beta-pinene, myrcene, beta-caryophyllene and caryophyllene oxide. Linear relationship between percentage leaf tissues and treatments levels of micronutrients in bush tea was also observed. Boron and copper treatments showed strong linear correlation with a positive relationship between treatments levels and leaf percentage. Therefore, for improved total polyphenols content in bush tea leaves, a combination of (B + Zn + Fe + Cu + Mg) is recommended. Tannin content in bush tea leaves were significantly increased at Cu50 ml/l, Cu100 ml/l and Cu150 ml/l. For improved total flavonoids content in bush tea leaves, a combination of foliar spray of (B + Zn + Fe + Cu + Mg) is recommended. The LC-MS observations from the study showed no significant qualitative difference between control and micronutrient treatments with these treatments showing similar number of peaks. There was a significant quantitative difference between control and where magnesium peaks applied at adequate rates at (50 ml/l and 100 ml/l) and combination of (B + Zn + Fe + Cu + Mg) applied at (10 ml/l and 20 ml/l)
Agriculture, Animal Health and Human Ecology
M. Sc. (Agriculture)

Orientação: Rute Vítor
Nesta monografia pretende-se aprofundar o tema da utilização de infusões de plantas com acção sobre o sistema nervoso central. De acordo com a Organização Mundial de Saúde (OMS), 80% da população mundial utiliza medicamentos à base de plantas como primeira escolha em cuidados de saúde. Tem-se verificado, nas últimas décadas, um aumento da procura dos chamados “produtos naturais” em detrimento dos medicamentos sintéticos, devido, muitas vezes, à ideia errada de que não apresentam efeitos secundários nefastos. As infusões de plantas são a forma de fitoterapia mais popular em todo o Mundo, sendo utilizada há milhares de anos. Existe uma enorme variedade de plantas com actividade biológica e medicinal acessível a qualquer pessoa, o que nem sempre é um ponto positivo, pois os efeitos fisiológicos podem não ser sempre benéficos, além de existir a possibilidade de interacções com medicamentos. Devido às mudanças no estilo de vida das populações, observa-se uma maior prevalência de sintomas como fadiga, ansiedade e, por vezes, depressão moderada, o que leva à procura de soluções caseiras e “naturais” para combater estes problemas. Assim, são abordadas neste trabalho as plantas que, tendo sido já extensamente estudadas, apresentam efeitos benéficos a nível do sistema nervoso, como a valeriana na ansiedade e insónia, o hipericão na depressão moderada, ou o chá como estimulante.

M. Tech. Horticulture
Honeybush tea is the herbal tea made from the leaves, stems and flowers of Cyclopia spp., indigenous to the Eastern and Western Cape Provinces of South Africa. Due to the health benefits of honeybush, the demand for this tea has increased worldwide. To meet the demand, it is required to cultivate honeybush as a commercial crop. The shortage of plant material and variation in the quality of honeybush has prompted the need to propagate plants vegetatively through rooted cuttings in order to improve the planting material by achieving homogeneity, and to meet the demand and thus relieve pressure on wild populations. A study was conducted to evaluate the vegetative propagation of honeybush (Cyclopia subternata) from stem cuttings to optimize the adventitious rooting protocols.

ing how it is used in traditional cultures with special focus on the local ‘Lenasian’ Indian culture. Concentrating on the various ways it is made, cultivated, types of small scale production and its sensory experiences. Emphasis has been placed on the required infrastructure, specific climate requirements, the sensory experience of local tea culture and its feasibility. Drinking tea has many health benefits, many of which grow stronger with scientific literature being published through modern medicinal research. Tea has been a beverage that is proven to have health promoting properties since the early periods in history. Medicinal research and studies provide evidence and a scientific basis for these ancient beliefs. A deeper investigation into how the properties of tea drinking support medicinal healing benefits strengthen the argument into Indian culture and traditions. Thus a number of healing and meditative spaces are used as programs that complement the cultural links and aesthetics behind tea production and consumption within the context of Lenasia. Emphasis is placed on the philosophies and ideas behind healing spaces, as well as how shapes, materials and forms can be derived to complement the psychological and vitality of healing. The effect of this research and project is to create a tea sanctuary in Lenasia that aims to infuse the ideas behind the consumption of Indian tea, with the surrounding local Indian cultures and traditions. The sanctuary will have a specific focus on the natural (herbal) medicinal and therapeutic practices, how they can be instilled within the local Indian traditions and act as a catalyst to bring a therapeutic and recreational character to the area. A series of structures within the landscape will aim to complement the existing history of the area, green houses will be proposed to grow the tea and form the backbone to the array of social activities on offer. Tea is the second most consumed drink in the world, after water. It has an extensive history behind it which has grown to connect a variety of people and their cultures throughout the world. There is a special connection between the tradition of drinking tea and the local Indian community within Lenasia. It would be great if we could use the ideas behind tea drinking traditions and its history as a way to celebrate Indian culture in Lenasia and bring attention as well as an identity to the local community.
MT 2019

Bush tea (Athrixia phylicoides) is an herbaceous plant of the Asteraceae family used throughout history as medicinal herbal tea by the people of South Africa. Many studies stated that the plant has an ability to be commercialized as a medicinal herbal tea. But vegetative propagation of this type of plant by stem cutting, survival ability of the rooted cuttings, response to different hormone concentrations and the requirement of the seeds for germination has not been studied. In this investigation, different features aimed at effective propagation of bush tea were studied. These comprised: cutting position (apical vs. basal), media (pine bark vs. sand), hormone (Seradix No. 2), season (summer, autumn, winter and spring), transplanting survival of rooted apical and basal cuttings, response of basal cuttings to three hormone concentration levels (Seradix No. 1, 2 and 3) and light and temperature requirement for bush tea seed germination. In vegetative propagation, apical cuttings rooted to higher percentage and produced high root number as well as longer roots than basal cuttings. Pine bark improved the number of roots developed but had no effect on rooting percentage as well as root length. Application of rooting hormone (Seradix No. 2) increased root numbers but not rooting percentage or root length. Rooting of cuttings was improved when propagated in autumn (longer roots) and spring (more number of roots) than in summer or winter. There was higher survival percentage (67.5%), high root number as well as longer roots from apical cuttings than from basal cuttings (50%) two months after transplanting. Propagation in pine bark with hormone application increased root number after transplanting. Application of hormone also improved root and shoot length after transplanting. Apical cuttings propagated in pine bark with hormone developed more number of roots. Cuttings propagated in sand with hormone and in pine bark without hormone also produced longer shoots after transplanting. Regarding response of basal cuttings to hormone concentration, high number of roots was produced in pine bark with Seradix No. 2 at 10 days after planting (DAP) but at 15 DAP more roots were produced in pine bark with Seradix No. 1. With sand, more roots were produced with Seradix No. 3 than Seradix No. 1 and 2. Number of roots were also higher with 0.3% IBA concentration (Seradix No. 2) and 0.1% IBA concentration (Seradix No. 1). Similarly, cuttings with lower IBA concentration (0.1%, Seradix No. 1) rooted to higher percentage followed with 0.3% IBA concentration (Seradix No. 2). Germination percentage of bush tea seeds differed with the temperature treatments and the highest was 75.5% at 20 and 25°C followed by 15°C with 64.5% and low percentage at 30 and 10°C with 36 and 47% respectively. There was a high germination percentage in constant temperatures than alternate temperatures and in continuous light than alternate light: dark or continuous dark. Germination percentage was also higher in continuous light at constant temperatures than with alternated light: dark with constant temperatures. In addition, there was more differences in germination percentage with variation in light exposure than variation in temperatures. At low temperature (10°C), longer time was required to start germination and germination rate was high at 20°C continuous light and low at 30:30°C alternate light: dark. Based on this investigation, better vegetative propagation and survival of bush tea can be attained from apical cuttings with Seradix No. 2 but basal cuttings rooted better with Seradix No. 1 in pine bark. Seeds germinated to higher percentage and rate at 20°C constant temperature and continuous light.
Dissertation (MSc (Agric) Horticulture)--University of Pretoria, 2007.
Plant Production and Soil Science
unrestricted

JEL: L22, M12
The traditional Chinese medicine has thousands of years’ history. It is the result of accumulated experience of Chinese people when they are fighting against diseases and therefore is very important to the prosperity and continuity of the Chinese nation. The traditional herbal tea belongs to one soup of traditional Chinese medicine which has hygienic functions. It is made by brewing one or more kinds of medicines. Herbal tea is just one product originated from the traditional Chinese culture. As one form of traditional Chinese medicine, herbal has hundreds of years’ development history. For hundreds of years, herbal tea with regional characteristics has been the folk medicine form in China. In the 1990s herbal tea is brought into the industrial production, but there is no breakthrough in the regional limits before 2003. However, in 2003, Wong Lo Kat changed herbal tea "herbal tea" image into a national beverage brand rapidly, and scored the overseas market. Herbal tea rapidly become the focus of public concern, the rapid growth of market sales and huge market space attracted many followers, many Chinese manufacturing enterprises and beverage production enterprise quickly into the herbal tea industry. The herbal tea industry has many brands now. However, only a few leading enterprises succeed in obtaining profits, as most herbal tea producers still lose money. After the boom of rapid development, currently herbal tea industry has come to the tiredness, due to weak industrial innovation, coupled with rising industrial concentration. Innovation has become the strategic key for the herbal tea industry to progress healthily. The most basic functions and purpose of the industrial innovation is to realize the upgrading of the industrial structure, to promote the industry’s development. Yet blind change or purely individual innovation may be negative for individual enterprises and the overall industry. The implementation of industrial innovation is a complex system, which requires the government, industry, and enterprises to work together. Guiding government policies, industry structuring and enterprise strategies should be consistent in order to achieve the development of the herbal tea industry. This study shows the evolution and situation of the industrial development, and finds some obstacles hindering herbal tea industry development through the field investigation. At the same time, by focusing on the leading and highly innovative herbal tea producers, we learn about the innovation strategy that could inspire other firms in the same industry. Finally combining the macroscopic background with micro level findings, it is possible to get some herbal tea industry innovation and practical experience from the enterprise, government and industry perspectives. Herbal tea evolved from a private self-help type of health decoction to become an innovative beverage, through constant innovation, obtaining a huge market success. Studying the herbal tea innovation process, we also learn about the potential development of Chinese medicine, with practical significance for both users and investors in the health industry.
A medicina tradicional chinesa tem milhares de anos de história. É o resultado da experiência acumulada pelo povo chinês na luta contra as doenças e por isso é muito importante para a prosperidade e continuação da China enquanto nação. O chá de ervas tradicional pertence a uma categoria da madicina tradicional chinesa com funções higiénicas. É obtido a partir de um ou mais tipos de medicina. O chá de ervas é apenas um produto obtido a partir da cultura tradicional chinesa. Enquanto produto da medicina tradicional chinesa, o chá de ervas tem centenas de anos de história de desenvolvimento. Durante centenas de anos, o chá de ervas com caraterísticas regionais fez parte da medicina popular na China. Na década de 1990 passa a ser objeto de produção industrial, mas mantendo uma dimensão essencialmente regional. Em 2003, Wong Lo Kat transformou a imagem do “chá de ervas” convertendo-o numa marca nacional de bebidas e entrando no Mercado externo. O chá de ervas tornou-se rapidamente o centro da atenção pública, com um rápido crescimento das vendas e a criação de um mercado que atraiu numerosos seguidores. Muitas empresas industriais chinesas e produtores de bebidas entraram no mercado do chá de ervas. Atualmente, o setor do chá de ervas conta com numerosas marcas. No entanto, apenas alguns líderes obtêm lucros, dado que a maioria dos produtores continua a perder dinheiro. Depois da fase de rápida expansão, o setor do chá de ervas revela um certo cansaço, devido à falta de inovação industrial e à tendência de reforço da concentração industrial. A inovação tornou-se a chave estratégica para o desenvolvimento saudável do setor. As funções mais básicas para a inovação industrial consistem na melhoria da estrutura produtiva, como instrumento do desenvolvimento do setor. No entanto, mudança cega ou inovação puramente individual pode ser negativa tanto para empresas específicas como para o setor. A implementação da inovação industrial é um sistema complex que carece de cooperação de governo, setor e empresas. Políticas orientadoras do governo, estrutura do setor e estratégias das empresas devem ser consistentes para se alcançar o desenvolvimento do setor do chá de ervas. Este estudo ilustra o desenvolvimento e a situação atual do setor, identificando, através do trabalho de campo, alguns obstáculos que limitam o setor do chá de ervas. Ao mesmo tempo, o foco nas empresas líder e altamente inovadoras permite extrair lições sobre estratégias de inovação que poderão ser fonte de inspiração para outras empresas do mesmo setor. Finalmente, combinando uma análise agregada do setor com observações ao nível micro é possível obter elementos práticos e exteriência sobre inovação na perspetiva das empresas, do governo e do setor. O chá de ervas evoluiu de um produto de auto ajuda medicinal para se tornar uma bebida inovadora, através de melhorias constantes, até atingir um elevado sucesso comercial. O estudo do processo de inovação do chá de ervas permite extrair lições para o desenvolvimento da medicina chinesa com implicações práticas tanto para os utilizadores como para os investidores no setor da saúde.

Thesis(M.Sc)--University of Limpopo, 2010.
Bush tea (Athrixia phylicoides DC.) has received interest as another indigenous South African herbal tea with potential for commercialization. The success of commercialization of bush tea hinges on maintenance or enhancement of quality of bush tea as a herbal beverage. Herbal tea quality is one of the critical factors in commercialization that would determine the price of tea for local sale and export. A research was conducted to determine chemical profiles of bush tea at different phenological stages and as influenced by pruning and application of growth regulators. A trial to determine the quality of tea harvested at various phenological stages (namely new growth, older growth and whole plants) from wild and cultivated bush tea was conducted. This was to help determine the best phenological stage to harvest bush tea of best quality. In cultivated bush tea, harvested new growth or as whole plants proved to be of higher quality owing to their higher polyphenol and tannin attributes respectively. In wild bush tea, both new and older growth proved to be of good quality owing to the higher total polyphenol content and higher total antioxidants, respectively. A trial to determine the effect of pruning at different heights on growth and quality of bush tea was also conducted. Pruning of bush tea largely led to yield reduction. Unpruned tea plants remained the tallest plants, with higher number of branches, bigger leaf area and a larger biomass than apically, middle and base pruned bush tea plants. Pruning at different heights also proved to have little or no effect on quality of bush tea. While only total polyphenols remained higher in unpruned tea plants, no significant differences were observed in tannin and total antioxidant content in unpruned, apically, middle and base pruned tea plants. A third trial was conducted to investigate the effects of gibberellins on sprouting and quality of bush tea. The trial results showed that gibberellin application had a iv favourable effect on growth of bush tea, with application of 3% and 4% yielding the highest growth. The results also indicated a declining total polyphenol and antioxidant content with increasing gibberellin application rate, while tannins peaked at 2% application rate.

Com o objetivo de obter o melhor de cada infusão em termos sensoriais, é necessário otimizar os fatores que mais influenciam a sua preparação, desde a qualidade da água, a qualidade da matéria-prima, a concentração, a temperatura da água e o tempo de infusão. Para além disso, torna-se necessário estudar se existe alguma correlação entre a preferência dos consumidores e a variação de cor, que possa resultar de diferentes modos de preparação de infusões. Desta forma, o principal objetivo deste trabalho é a otimização das condições de preparação de infusão temperatura da água e tempo de infusão para as ervas aromáticas limonete, erva-príncipe, hortelã-pimenta e tomilho-limão. Para tal foram utilizados um total de dez binómios tempo de infusão / temperatura da água, apresentados aos consumidores de forma balanceada para a avaliação da sua aceitação, aplicando um método estatístico Superfície de Resposta. Recorreu-se à metodologia de colorimetria, utilizando o sistema CIELAB, para medição complementar da cor. Diferentes infusões ervas aromáticas requerem diferentes condições de preparação, sendo possível identificar que os pontos ótimos de infusão se situam entre os 4 e 8,5 minutos e entre os 92 e os 99 ºC, respetivamente para o tempo e temperatura de infusão. Para além disso, binómios tempo / temperatura com maior aceitação, estão associados a um maior número de características positivas. Através da colorimetria, verificou-se que existe relação entre a cor e a preferência do consumidor, tendo-se verificado que para qualquer uma das ervas aromáticas, os binómios tempo / temperatura destacados com maior número de atributos positivos, apresentaram menores valores de luminosidade. Relativamente aos valores de cromaticidade, quando estes são mais elevados, há uma maior preferência, embora tal fato seja apenas constatável nas infusões de limonete e erva-príncipe. No que diz respeito à tonalidade, os resultados demonstraram que embora diferentes binómios de tempo / temperatura resultem em intensidades de cor diferentes, para todas as ervas aromáticas, exceto na erva-príncipe, todos se encontram numa zona de cor característica. Em conclusão, a máxima aceitação sensorial ocorre nas combinações tempo / temperatura: 6 min / 96 ºC, 8,5 min / 99 ºC, 4 min / 95 ºC e 7 min / 92 ºC para as infusões de limonete, erva-príncipe, hortelã-pimenta e tomilho-limão, respetivamente.
In order to obtain the best out of each infusion in sensory experience, it is necessary to optimize the factors that influence their preparation, such as the water quality, the quality of the raw material, concentration, temperature of the water and the infusion time. Moreover, it becomes necessary to study whether there is any correlation between consumer preference and color variation that can result from different forms of preparation of infusions. Thus, the main objective this work is to optimize the preparation conditions (water temperature and infusion time) for lemon verbena, lemongrass, white peppermint and lemon thymus. To this end, we have used a total of ten binomials “infusion time / temperature of the water” presented to acceptance evaluation in a random order, by applying the statistical method Response Surface. Resorted to the colorimetry method using the CIELAB system, to complement the color measurement. Different herbs require different conditions of preparation, it is possible to identify that the optimal points of infusion are between 4 and 8.5 minutes and between 92 and 99 °C. Through the analysis of open-ended comments it was possible to study the positive and negative attributes associated with each of the time / temperature infusion preparation. In addition, time / temperature binomials with greater acceptance, are associated with a greater number of positive characteristics. By colorimetry, it was found that there is relationship between color and consumer preference, and it was found that for any of herbs, the time / temperature binomials highlighted with higher ratio values and / or more of positive attributes had lower brightness values. With regard to chromaticity values, there is a greater preference when they are higher, although this fact is only noticeable in the infusions of verbena and lemongrass. With regard to the hue, althought the combinations of different time and temperature gave a differents colour intensity samples, for all the herbal plants, excluding lemongrass, the colours is in an expectable and characteristic range. Thus, the maximum sensory acceptance occurs in the following infusion time / temperature of the water combinations: 6 min / 96 °C, 8,5min / 99 °C, 4min / 95 ºC and 7 min / 92 °C for infusions of lemon verbena, lemongrass, white peppermint and lemon thymus, respectively.