Tesis sobre el tema "Insect rearing"

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Illinois State University, 2007.
Title from title page screen, viewed on February 11, 2008. Dissertation Committee: Steven A. Juliano (chair), Diane L. Byers, L. Philip Lounibos, Charles F. Thompson, William L. Perry. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 152-163) and abstract. Also available in print.

A rearing methodology for dogwood borer was developed, using standardized procedures at each developmental stage. These methods enabled the establishment of a laboratory colony and efficient production of synchronized cohorts of each of its lifestages throughout the year for specific experimental needs. The behavioral repertoire shown by mated female dogwood borer in an apple orchard was characterized and quantified and the diel periodicity with which those behaviors occurred was determined. Mated females were easily recognized, based on their characteristic casting flight directed toward areas below the graft union of apple trees, and were observed more frequently during the late afternoon and evening. Casting flight, probing with the ovipositor, and oviposition were the most frequent behaviors observed, but the duration of those behaviors was relatively short compared with the much lengthier periods of resting behavior that typically occurred within the canopy. Data from a previous, three-year study in two newly planted apple orchards were subjected to geostatistical analyses to examine the temporal and spatial patterns of infestation by larval dogwood borer and to gain further information about the spatial scales at which oviposition occurs. There were moderate to high degrees of aggregation of dogwood borer infestations on neighboring apple trees, with ranges of spatial dependence from 7.50â 19.87 m. No directionality was observed in the spatial autocorrelation of infestation and it appears that females utilized oviposition sites equally along and across orchard rows. The aggregated nature of infestations requires that random, independent samples must be taken from a number of sample pairs at distances greater than the range of spatial dependence to ensure that sample data are not autocorrelated. Alternatively, an efficient sampling program for mapping dogwood borer infestation can be achieved by limiting sample points to distances within the range of spatial dependence. These sample points can be used in interpolating algorithms, such as kriging, to predict infestation at unsampled locations in space for use in site-specific pest management programs. The external morphology of male and female dogwood borer antennae and their sensilla were examined using light and scanning electron microscopy to characterize, measure and compare the types, number, and distribution of sensilla. Although the general shape and size of male and female antennae were similar, those from females possessed a greater number of generally smaller antennal flagellomeres. The flagellum of both male and female antennae contained seven sensillum types including auricillica, basiconica, chaetica, coeloconica, squamiformia, styloconica, and three subtypes of sensilla trichoidea. With the exception of sensilla basiconica, which were present in roughly equal numbers on male and female antennae, all other sensillum types were significantly more abundant on female antennae. The antennae of female dogwood borer appear well equipped to perceive olfactory stimuli, based on the types and number of sensilla present. Coupled gas chromatography and electroantennogram detection (GC-EAD) analyses of headspace collections from damaged and undamaged tissues from apple and dogwood trees were conducted to examine and compare the antennal responsiveness of female dogwood borer to host plant volatiles. A total of 16 and 9 compounds from apple and dogwood tissues, respectively, consistently elicited an antennal response in females. There were no differences in the response of antennae from virgin and mated females, and the amplitude of the female response to host odors was greater than that of males. Six compounds were identified from the headspace collections from apple trees, four of which (octanal, nonanal, decanal, and methyl salicylate) were identified from all apple tissues sampled. A novel compound, α-bergamotene, was identified from injured apple bark, from apple burr knots infested with dogwood borer larvae and from larval dogwood borer frass, and appears to be produced by apple trees in response to injury. Another novel compound, methyl-2,4-decadienoate, was identified from infested burr knot tissue and appears to be produced in response to an insect-plant interaction. Two compounds, hexanoic and nonanoic acid, were identified from headspace collections from dogwood trees. Numerous approaches were used to examine the behavioral response of mated female dogwood borer to host plant headspace collections and to individual compounds from those collections that elicited a strong and repeatable antennal response. Under both natural and semi-natural conditions in the field and in laboratory bioassays, neither attraction/orientation or consistent oviposition were documented and it is apparent that correlating the electrophysiological and behavioral responses of mated female dogwood borer to olfactory stimuli from their host plants will require further research on bioassay development.
Ph. D.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2003.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Mediterranean fruit fly (Medfly), Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae) is well-known as a destructive pest of fruit worldwide. Various control methods have been used against this insect. The sterile insect technique (SIT) is used as an important and successful technological method for controlling or eradicating this pest in many countries. A key factor to successfully apply SIT is dependent on the availability of efficient and economical rearing methods. Artificial insect diets with low cost bulking agents have been of interest to many researchers. The present study investigated the use of locally available maize meal as a bulking agent in such diets. Maize meal is used for human consumption (in South Africa) and contains small amounts of protein. This makes the reduction of imported torula yeast as an ingredient of the diet and source of protein possible, thereby reducing the cost of the diet. The larval development of the Medfly reared on artificial diets was studied in small and large-scale tests. The effect of the diets on larval production was evaluated using pupal recovery, pupal weight, flight ability, sex ratio, fecundity and egg fertility. The results of the small-scale tests showed that the diet containing maize meal could be used to produce Medfly more economically than the standard Krige diet used by the ARC Infruitec-Nietvoorbij Research Institute at Stellenbosch. However, in large-scale tests the ingredients quantities of the diets used were not the same as those of small scale-tests. The cost of the modified larval diet was not reduced in large-scale tests. This was ascribed to the number of eggs used in the tests to produce one million of fruit flies. The maize meal with reduced number of eggs require more diet to produce one million flies therefore, making it more expensive and less viable. When similar amounts of eggs were used, the diet appears to be a suitable alternative as the result obtained was almost similar to those of the Krige diet.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Mediterreens vrugtevlieg ("Medfly"), Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae) is wêreldwyd 'n skadelike plaag. Die steriele insek tegniek (SIT) het in baie lande 'n belangrike en suksesvolle manier geword om die plaag te beheer en uit te roei. Die belangrikste voorvereiste vir die suksesvolle toepassing van SIT is die beskikbaarheid van doeltreffende en ekonomiese teelmetodes. Meeste navorsers is geïntereseerd in kunsmatige diëte met 'n goedkoop vulstof. Hierdie studie is ontwerp om die gebruik van plaaslik beskikbare mieliemeel as vulstof te ondersoek. In Suid-Afrika word dit vir menslike gebruik aangewend en bevat klein hoeveelhede proteïene wat 'n vermindering van die ingevoerde torula gis moontlik kan maak, en sodoende die koste van die dieët kan verminder. Die ontwikkeling van Medfly larwes op kunsmatige diëte is bestudeer In kleinskaalse en grootskaalse eksperimente. Die invloed van die diëte op larwale produksie is evalueer deur gebruik te maak van van papie-ontwikkeling, papie-gewig, vliegvermoë, geslagsverhouding, volwasse voortplantingsvermoë en eiervrugbaarheid. Die resultate van die kleinskaalse toetse het aangetoon dat die mieliemeel dieët gebruik kan word om Medfly meer ekonomies as met die standaard Krige dieët, wat in die ARC Infruitec-Nietvoorbij navorsings instituut by Stellenbosch gebruik word, te teel. By die grootskaalse toetse was die koste nie laer nie. Dit word toegeskryf aan die aantal eiers wat gebruik is om 'n miljoen vlieë te produseer. Die mieliemeel dieët met 'n verminderde aantal eiers benodig meer dieët om 'n miljoen vlieë te produseer, wat dit duurder en minder lewensvatbaar maak. Wanneer soortgelyke hoeveelhede eiers gebruik was, het dit geblyk dat die dieët 'n opsie is, want die resultaat was soortgelyk aan dié van die Krige dieët.

The conversion of natural forests to production land uses has led to huge losses of biodiversity and continues to threaten remaining terrestrial flora and fauna throughout the world. The global demand for wood products and energy, which was partly responsible for the loss of primary native habitat, is now one of the leading drivers of afforestation with significant new areas of plantation replacing former agricultural lands. While plantations do not support the same biodiversity values as natural forests they do provide significant habitat for a range of species. Saproxylic invertebrates (species that are dependent on deadwood) are strongly affected by the temporal and spatial availability of different deadwood resources. Previous research on saproxylic invertebrates has largely been restricted to natural or managed natural forests predominantly in the Northern Hemisphere, where forest management practices have been modified to conserve these species This thesis fills a distinct research gap in New Zealand and is the first large scale study to quantify the effects of deadwood age, wood species, and landscape composition on saproxylic invertebrates in our plantation forests by direct rearing. In this thesis I show that thinning residues, which are currently retained in many plantation forests, provide significant habitat for a range of native invertebrate taxonomic groups, including diverse assemblages of Coleoptera and Hymenoptera. Deadwood age is an important attribute determining taxonomic richness of saproxylic invertebrates. Richness of invertebrate orders/classes and Coleoptera species all increased in older deadwood material, and a stepwise multidimensional analysis procedure indicated that the age of deadwood was the most important factor structuring saproxylic invertebrate community composition in Pinus radiata thinning residues. Deadwood age was a stronger predictor of community composition in thinning residue than measures of landscape composition, such as the proportion of remnant native forest cover. The change in saproxylic invertebrate composition that occurs with deadwood age was related to changes in the feeding guilds, with a transition from primary wood feeding species to predators/parasitoids and fungal feeders with increasing dead wood age. Because thinning’s are carried out at prescribed times throughout the stand rotation, stand age could be adopted as a proxy for deadwood age in these systems allowing forest managers a simple method for monitoring saproxylic beetle habitat availability . My research provides strong empirical evidence that supports the existing conservation paradigm that forest managers should seek to create a mosaic of habitats at the landscape scale to enhance biodiversity opportunities in plantations. In addition to the habitat opportunities provided by P. radiata deadwood that is derived from silvicultural practices there are several sources of native wood in plantations. Native woody resources are found in either the embedded remnant areas of native forest or in the understory of stands as many native woody species colonise this habitat. As yet the importance of native understory deadwood resources for saproxylic species is unknown. In addition it is unclear how the importance of such understory resources is influenced by proximity to remnant native forest patches. I used experimental wood billets of four tree species (3 native and the exotic P. radiata) placed along replicated transects spanning native habitat and adjacent early stage regenerating plantation stands to assess the saproxylic invertebrate assemblages associated with different deadwood species as a function of proximity to native forest. I found that an interaction between wood host specificity (local scale) and proximity to interior native forest (landscape scale) was the most important factor regulating saproxylic invertebrate community structure. Deadwood of the native subcanopy trees Schefflera digitata, Melicytus ramiflorus, Aristotelia serrata and the exotic conifer P. radiata provided habitat for different subsets of the saproxylic fauna. The most pronounced differences in saproxylic community structure were between the native sub-canopy broadleaf species and the exotic P. radiata. Surprisingly the P. radiata supported a greater species richness and abundance of saproxylic Coleoptera in native remnants than the native wood species in the same habitat. In general, species richness was higher in native forest habitats and declined with increasing distance from native habitat. These results suggest that both the diversity of deadwood resources that are available and their proximity to native remnants are important for maintaining saproxylic communities in plantations. However, two of the native wood species (M. ramiflorus and A. serrata) exhibited steep declines in species richness at the plantation native forest boundary, suggesting that the contrasting stand types (native remnant and young regenerating plantation stands) with their different microclimate may have had a significant influence. Future research needs to compare the saproxylic fauna of dead wood in mature plantation stands with adjacent native remnants to ascertain if the effect of native habitat proximity is due to landscape composition or a reflection of microclimatic differences. The large diversity of saproxylic species observed during this study highlights the importance of plantations as habitat for saproxylic species, particularly in heavily fragmented landscapes that retain little original native forest. My research findings provide forest managers with options for improving forest management to enhance opportunities for the conservation of saproxylic invertebrates. In addition my thesis provides one of the most comprehensive multi-taxon data sets of saproxylic species associated with a variety of deadwood resources. This information will be invaluable to future researchers that continue to work on New Zealand’s saproxylic fauna.

Thesis (M.S.)--Montana State University--Bozeman, 2004.
Title from PDF t.p. (viewed on Aug. 26, 2005). Typescript. Chairperson, Graduate Committee: Martin Frick. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 41-42).

Thesis (PhD (Conservation Ecology and Entomology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Codling moth, Cydia pomonella, is a worldwide pest and of major economic importance to the South African pome fruit industry. Sterile insect release is applied as a component of area-wide integrated pest management and includes the mass-rearing, sterilization and the release of the sterile insects. For sterile insect release, the improvements of rearing methods in terms of the quality of the diet ingredients and the economical aspect of the rearing method are examined. The effect of genetically modified maize meal, containing the Bacillus thuringiensis gene, in an artificial medium for codling moth rearing, is determined. The use of even a small amount of Bacillus thuringiensis resulted in larval mortality and prolonged development. These results are detrimental to a mass-rearing facility and must be considered by any rearing facility that uses genetically modified maize meal if the insect is sensitive to the gene. An alternative to maize meal in the artificial medium was tested and whole wheat flour was considered to be a suitable replacement. Agar agar is an expensive gelling agent used in the artificial medium. An alternative for agar agar (Kelcogel, Elastigel and carrageenen) is tested and the biological effect on codling moth is determined. Factors such as mortality, pupal and moth weight, longevity, fecundity and development time were used as quality parameters. Results showed that Elastigel was a suitable replacement for agar agar, with bigger pupae and moths, higher fecundity and increased longevity. The economical advantage of the replacement is a 40.91% reduction of the diet cost. The other gelling agents tested also gave acceptable results and can be considered if shortages of agar agar or Elastigel occur. A new method of mass-rearing codling moth larvae in a closed rearing system using large trays placed in a ventilated box is designed. This method is more cost and space effective as a smaller area is needed to rear a large number of moths. The risk of diet contamination is less because of the closed environment and more economical and effective air handling. This is the first report of its kind to describe the mass-rearing of codling moth in a closed environment and the risks involved in using genetically modified maize meal in an artificial diet for the codling moth. These results should be incorporated into existing mass-rearing facilities or taking into consideration when designing new mass-rearing facilities.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die kodlingmot, Cydia pomonella, is van ekonomiese belang vir die Suid-Afrikaanse kernvrugte bedryf. Die steriele insek tegniek word gebruik as ‘n komponent in area-wye geïntegreerde plaagbeheer en sluit in die massa-aanteel, sterilisering en vrylaat van steriele insekte. Vir die steriele insek tegniek is die verbetering van die massa-aanteel van die kodlingmot in terme van kwaliteit van die dieet en die ekonomiese aspek van die aanteel metode ondersoek. Die effek van genetiese gemanipuleerde mieliemeel wat die Bacillus thuringiensis geen bevat, in ‘n kunsmatige voedselmedium vir die aanteel van kodlingmot, is bepaal. Daar is gevind dat die gebruik van selfs ‘n klein persentasie Bacillus thuringiensis in die mieliemeel, mortaliteit en ‘n verlengde lewenssiklus in kodlingmot veroorsaak. Die gevolge is nadelig vir ‘n massa-aanteel fasiliteit en behoort in ag geneem te word vir enige insek wat op ‘n kunsmatige medium, wat mieliemeel bevat, geteel word, mits die insek sensitief is vir Bacillus thuringiensis. ‘n Alternatiewe bestanddeel vir mieliemeel, volkoringmeel, word aanbeveel. Agar agar is ‘n duur verdikkingsagent wat in kunsmatige mediums gebruik word. ‘n Alternatief vir agar agar (Kelcogel, Elastigel en carrageenen) is getoets en die biologiese effek op die kodlingmot is bepaal. Faktore soos mortaliteit, papie en mot gewig, langlewendheid, vrugbaarheid en lengte van lewenssiklus was gebruik as kwaliteit parameters. Resultate het getoon dat Elastigel ‘n geskikte plaasvevanger is van agar agar, met groter papies en motte, groter vrugbaarheid en langlewendheid. Die ekonomiese gevolg van die plaasvervanger, is ‘n vermindering van 40.91% van die dieetkoste. Die ander verdikkingagente wat is getoets is, het aanvaarbare resultate gelewer wat noodsaaklik is indien daar ‘n tekort van Elastigel of agar agar ontwikkel. ‘n Nuwe metode van massa-aanteel van kodlingmot larwes is bepaal. Die metode behels ‘n geslote sisteem, waar groter aanteel bakke in ‘n geslote, geventileerde boks geplaas word. Die metode is koste en spasie effektief en ‘n kleiner area word benodig om ‘n groter aantal motte te lewer. Die risiko van kontaminasie van die dieet word verminder as gevolg van die geslote sisteem wat gebruik word en meer ekonomiese en effektiewe lugversorging word gebruik. Hierdie is die eerste verslag van sy soort wat die massa-aanteel van kodlingmot in ‘n geslote sisteem beskryf en wat die risiko aandui van geneties gemanipuleerde mieliemeel in ‘n kunsmatige medium vir die kodlingmot. Hierdie resultate behoort in ag geneem te word vir reeds bestaande massa-aanteel fasiliteite of met die ontwerp van nuwe massa-aanteel fasiliteite.

The effect of protein in adult and larval diets for Ophyra aenescens (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Muscidae ), a facultative predator of the house fly, Musca domestica L., was examined. A larval diet of coarse wheat bran, vermiculite and dried meat powder was found adequate for rearing O. aenescens larvae. Protein content was important for maximum larval emergence and for F1 adult longevity and fecundity. Adult diet of powdered milk, sugar and dried meat powder was sufficient for maintenance of adult O. aenescens flies. Protein was needed in adult diet for optimal fecundity. Cyromazine was toxic to O. aenescens at high levels (1.0 ppm), but at 0.75 ppm O. aenescens tolerated cyromazine better than a susceptible strain of house flies. At these cyromazine levels, mass release of O. aenescens into poultry houses is possible one to two days after cyromazine has been removed from the chicken feed. The effect of temperature and manure moisture on O. aenescens was studied. At temperatures of 18°C, emergence of Ophyra aenescens was significantly lower than at temperatures of 21 and 27°C. Predation by O. aenescens at 27°C on house fly larvae was significant at ratios of 3:1, 2:1 and 1:1 (house fly to O. aenescens). A constant manure moisture was important in the development of O. aenescens larvae and its ability to prey on house fly larvae. At constant levels of 50, 60, and 70% manure moisture, O. aenescens substantially reduced house fly larval numbers at ratios of 3:1, 2:1 and 1:1.
Master of Science

Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle is a tree native to Asia that was intentionally introduced into the United States in the late eighteenth century. Ailanthus altissima has become an invasive species that has spread throughout most of North America. Lack of effective management tactics for suppression of A. altissima has lead to alternate control methods. Investigations into using biological control with the weevil Eucryptorrhynchus brandti were initiated in 2004. Studies were conducted to understand the general biology of E. brandti, rearing efficacy, and host specificity. Eucryptorrhynchus brandti is univoltine, has a life cycle similar to the closely related species Cryptorhynchus lapathi (L.), with 6 instars, and completes development in 126 ± 6.5 d at 25°C. Efficient egg to adult rearing was accomplished by caging 12 m and 12 f for 7 days on 23 â 92 cm long billets. Males and females can be differentiated by the structure of the metathoracic sternite and 1st abdominal segment. Host specificity experiments show that E. brandti preferentially feeds on North American A. altissima when tested against 29 species from 14 families. Larval development in the rare species Leitneria floridana Chapm. was apparent. Additional studies show that A. altissima does not occur across L. floridana distribution but may have the potential to invade L. floridana sites.
Ph. D.

Tanto as técnicas de controle biológico quanto a Técnica do inseto estéril (TIE), são utilizadas em vários países para o controle, supressão e até mesmo erradicação de moscas-das-frutas e outras pragas da agricultura, pecuária e saúde publica. O uso de tais técnicas minimiza o emprego contínuo de inseticidas, protege o ambiente e se adequa aos padrões de segurança alimentar. No entanto, é necessário para a implementação de tais programas, tecnologia para produzir milhões de parasitóides e a própria praga em laboratório com qualidade biológica similar aos insetos encontrados na natureza e com custo competitivo com o controle químico. Os objetivos deste trabalho foi estabelecer protocolos para criação artificial de A. sp. 1 aff. fraterculus em dieta larval líquida que permita atingir níveis de criação massal, para uma possível diminuição no custo da criação e determinar a dose de radiação esterilizante para adultos de A. sp. 1 aff. fraterculus atendendo os parâmetros de qualidade exigidos pela Técnica do Inseto Estéril com insetos provenientes da criação do Laboratório de Radioentomologia do CENA/USP. Foram testadas sete dietas em relação à dieta convencional utilizada no laboratório de Radioentomologia do CENA/USP, que foi usada como controle. Todas as sete dietas tiveram em comum a exclusão do ágar na sua formulação. Somente duas das dietas testadas foram adequadas para o desenvolvimento larval da mosca, estas quando comparadas com a dieta padrão, apresentaram resultados inferiores com relação ao volume de larvas recuperadas, emergência e o peso das pupas, porém, não apresentaram diferenças significativas quanto aos períodos de desenvolvimento, recuperação pupal, razão sexual e longevidade sob estresse. Concluí-se que é possível a substituição da dieta com ágar por dietas líquidas para criação artificial de A. sp.1 aff. fraterculus, de custo reduzido e com maior praticidade de manejo,porém devidos aos seus parâmetros de qualidade inferiores aos da dieta padrão, são necessários maiores testes principalmente quanto à adaptabilidade do inseto ao novo meio. Para determinar a dose esterilizante o presente trabalho analisou a fertilidade, fecundidade, emergência, habilidade de vôo e longevidade sob estresse de A. fraterculus irradiadas com doses de 40, 50, 60, 70 e 80 Gy. A fonte de radiação gama foi um irradiador de Co-60 (Gammabeam-650) localizado no mesmo laboratório. Os testes foram realizados sob as seguintes condições ambientais: 26 ± 1 ° C, 70 ± 5% RH, e fotofase de 12:12. A dose de r adiação gama esterilizante para machos de A. sp. 1 aff. fraterculus foi determinada sendo 70 Gy. Fêmeas irradiadas, mesmo com a dose mais baixa de 40 Gy, não ovipositaram, possivelmente pela atrofia dos ovários causada pela radiação. A radiação não afetou os demais parâmetros de qualidade do inseto como emergência, longevidade e habilidade de vôo
Both the biological control techniques as the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT), are used in many countries to control, suppress and even eradicate fruit flies and other pests in agriculture and public health. The use of such techniques minimizes the continuous employment of insecticides, protects the environment and conforms to standards for food safety. However, it is necessary to implement such programs, technology to produce millions of parasitoids and the pest in its own laboratory with biological quality similar to the insects found in nature and cost competitive with chemical control. The objectives of this study was to establish protocols for artificial rearing of A. sp. 1 aff. fraterculus in liquid larval diet that will achieve levels of mass production for a possible reduction in the cost of establishing and determining the dose of radiation sterilization of adult A. sp. 1 aff. fraterculus meeting the quality parameters required by the Sterile Insect Technique with insects from the creation of Radioentomologia Laboratory of CENA / USP. Seven experimental diets compared to the conventional diet used in laboratory Radioentomologia of CENA / USP, which was used as control. All seven diets have in common the exclusion of agar in its formulation. Only two of the diets tested were suitable for larval development of the fly, they compared with the standard diet, showed inferior results with respect to the volume of recovered larvae, pupae and weight of emergency, however, no significant differences regarding the periods of development , pupal recovery, sex ratio and longevity under stress. It is possible to replace the diet with agar for liquid diets for artificial creation of A. sp.1 aff. fraterculus, reduced cost and greater convenience of handling, but due to their quality standards lower than the standard diet, more tests are needed especially regarding the adaptability of the insect to the new environment. To determine the sterilizing dose this study examined the fertility, fecundity, emergence, flight ability and longevity under stress in A. fraterculus irradiated with 40, 50, 60, 70 and 80 Gy. The radiation source was a gamma irradiator with a Co-60 (Gammabeam-650) located in the same laboratory. The tests were performed under the following environmental conditions: 26 ± 1 ° C, 70 ± 5% RH and photoperiod of 12:12. The dose of gamma radiation sterilization for male A. sp. 1 aff. fraterculus was determined with 70 Gy. Irradiates females, even with the lower dose of 40 Gy, layed no eggs, possibly due to atrophy of the ovaries caused by radiation. The radiation did not affect the other quality parameters such as insect emergence, longevity and ability to fly

Inbreeding was thought to be responsible for the loss in the second filial generation (F₂) of Amalafrida leithella Dyar, Cactoblastis mundelli Heinrich, Nanaia sp. Heinrich, Sigelgaita sp. Heinrich and Sigelgaita transilis Heinrich in the laboratory. This pre-empted the investigation of the effects of inbreeding on another cactophagous moth, Mimorista pulchellalis Dyar, an established biological control agent of jointed cactus in South Africa. Initially three populations were set up. A randomly-mating control (OUT 1) population, and a sibmating experimental (IN 1) population, consisted of laboratory-reared stock . A second experimental population (KR 1) comprised a small number of field-collected randomly-mating individuals which recreated the conditions under which the five abovementioned species were lost. The inbreeding depression of fifteen fitness components was assessed. The mean values of each component in each generation of treatments IN 1 and KR 1 were compared with those of OUT 1. In addition the mean values of IN 1 were regressed against the coefficients of inbreeding since inbreeding depression is linear with respect to the probability of two genes at any locus being homozygous through ancestry. The component egg viability was important because a reduction in OUT 1, IN 1 and KR 1 in the F₂ resulted from mated females producing no viable eggs. Duplicate treatments OUT 2, IN 2 and KR 2 were set up to confirm whether this was a general F₂ phenomenon. Assessment of the fitness components prevented a direct evaluation of the numbers of offspring produced. However a hypothetical estimate of population size and growth rate was made using the percentage survival calculated from life-table analysis. Although not statistically demonstrable in the component analysis, life table analysis indicated that egg viability suffered an inbreeding depression and affected population fitness. It was also evident that treatments OUT 1 and 2 were fitter than treatments IN 1 and 2 and KR 1 and 2 with respect to population fitness. Thus, inbreeding, resulting from sibmating and introduction of a small number of individuals to a laboratorYJ caused a decrease in numbers of offspring produced and population growth rate. This is important in relation to the demise of the cactophagous Lepidoptera and to future biological control programmes.

O objetivo do trabalho foi estabelecer as condições ótimas para criação massal de Anagasta kuehniella (Zeller, 1879), definindo a densidade larval por recipiente de criação, associando-a com temperatura e concentração de CO2, produzidos pelo metabolismo larval. Para que este objetivo fosse atingido, foram avaliados: 1) o efeito da temperatura no ciclo evolutivo (ovo-adulto) de A. kuehniella para determinação das suas exigências térmicas; 2) efeito da temperatura nas fases imaturas e nos adultos de A. kuehniella sobre a reprodução, estudando-se o efeito de diferentes temperaturas (na faixa de 18 a 32°C) desde a fase de ovo até a morte dos insetos; efeito de diferentes temperaturas (18 a 32ºC) durante as fases larval e pupal em adultos transferidos para 25°C e o efeito de diferentes temperaturas (18 a 32°C) nos adultos provenientes de imaturos mantidos a 25°C; 3) otimização do número de insetos por recipiente, para criações massais de A. kuehniella, avaliando-se o efeito da densidade de ovos no incremento térmico dos recipientes e na postura, bem como a relação entre incremento térmico x densidade populacional x temperatura de criação na postura de A. kuehniella; 4) produção de dióxido de carbono (CO2) por bandeja de criação de A. kuehniella e o efeito do CO2, na viabilidade do período ovo-adulto e na postura de A. kuehniella. A condição ótima de criação de A. kuehniella foi obtida quando as lagartas no interior das bandejas foram mantidas na temperatura de 25° C. Assim, considerandose o incremento térmico entre 7 e 9°C, gerado pelo metabolismo larval, a temperatura das salas de criação deve ser mantida com temperaturas mais baixas durante o 4° e 5° ínstares do desenvolvimento larval de A. kuehniella. A concentração máxima de CO2, no interior da sala de criação, deve ser inferior a 1.200 ppm, sala esta contendo bandejas com 1 Kg de dieta (97% de farinha de trigo integral e 3% de levedura) inoculadas com 7.200 ovos, pois esta densidade proporcionou uma viabilidade satisfatória do período ovo-adulto (78%), produzindo ainda uma maior quantidade de ovos por bandeja e ovos de A. kuehniella mais pesados.
The objective of this research was to establish the optimum conditions for mass rearing of Anagasta kuehniella (Zeller, 1879), defining the larval density for rearing container, associating it with temperature and concentration of the CO2 produced by the larval metabolism. For this purpose, it was evaluated: 1) the effect of temperature on the life cycle (egg to adult) of A. kuehniella to determine the thermal requirements; 2) effect of temperature in the immature and adults stages of A. kuehniella on reproduction, studying the effect of different temperatures (from 18 to 32°C) from the egg stage until the death of the insects and effect of different temperatures (18 to 32ºC) during the larval and pupal in adults transferred to 25°C and the effect of different temperatures (18 to 32°C) in adults emerging from immature kept at 25°C; 3) optimizing the number of insects per container, for mass rearing of A. kuehniella, evaluating the effect of egg density on temperature increment of containers and oviposition, as well as the relationship between increased temperature X population density X rearing temperature in oviposition of A. kuehniella, 4) carbon dioxide production (CO2) per tray of rearing of A. kuehniella and the effect of CO2 on the viability of the egg-adult and oviposition of A. kuehniella. The optimum condition of rearing A. kuehniella was obtained when the larvae inside the trays were kept at 25°C. Thus, considering the temperature increment between 7 and 9°C, generated by larval metabolism, the temperature in rearing rooms should be kept at lower temperatures during the 4th and 5th instars of the larval development of A. kuehniella. The maximum CO2concentration inside the rearing room should be lower than 1,200 ppm, this room containing trays with 1 kg of diet (97% of whole wheat flour and 3% of yeast) inoculated with 7,200 eggs, as this density provided satisfactory feasibility in the egg-adult period (78%), producing an even greater number of eggs per tray and heavier eggs of A. kuehniella.

No mundo todo, o manejo integrado de moscas-das-frutas é feito com associação do controle biológico aplicado e técnica do inseto estéril. Além da boa eficiência no campo, a associação dessas técnicas é também favorecida pelo fato de ambos os organismos, insetos estéreis e parasitoides, poderem ser produzidos massalmente na mesma fábrica com menor custo. Visando à produção massal do parasitoide de moscas-das-frutas Diachasmimorpha longicaudata e de insetos estéreis para atender a programas de manejo integrado de Ceratitis capitata e Anastrepha fraterculus, o presente trabalho foi desenvolvido no Centro de Energia Nuclear na Agricultura (CENA), da Universidade de São Paulo, entre os anos de 2006 a 2012. Durante esse período, metodologias de criação em laboratório foram implementadas e permitiram o desenvolvimento da tecnologia necessária para a produção desses insetos em grande escala no Brasil. Dados de 25 gerações do parasitoide produzido em grande escala em C. capitata tsl-Viena 8 e 51 gerações em A. fraterculus, bem como os efeitos e diferenças desses hospedeiros na qualidade do parasitoide foram analisados. É possível criar o parasitoide D. longicaudata em ambos os hospedeiros, C. capitata linhagem tsl-Viena 8 e A. fraterculus, entretanto essa linhagem de C. capitata não é indicada para produção massal do parasitoide, pois a emergência é muito baixa devido à debilidade do hospedeiro, possivelmente acarretada pelas manipulações genéticas que permitem a sexagem da mosca na fase embrionária. Caso essa seja a linhagem com melhor custo/ benefício disponível, recomenda-se o uso de larvas hospedeiras oriundas de ovos tratados termicamente para a produção do parasitoide. A criação em grande escala de A. fraterculus foi estabelecida com sucesso após o período de domesticação da espécie, obtendo-se larvas de boa qualidade com baixo custo, devido à dieta larval com baixa concentração de ágar e total uso de ingredientes nacionais nas dietas de adultos e larvas, por mais de 50 gerações. O uso de larvas irradiadas de A. fraterculus para a produção de D. longicaudata promove maior emergência do parasitoide, com maior quantidade e melhor qualidade de fêmeas que larvas de C. capitata.
The integrated management of fruit flies is worldwide done with the association of augmentative biological control with parasitoids and the sterile insect technique. Beyond the efficiency in the field, the joint of both techniques is also favored by the easy production of organisms, both parasitoids and sterile insects, in the same facility with low costs. Aiming for the mass production of the fruit fly parasitoid Diachasmimorpha longicaudata and sterile insects to support integrated management programs for Ceratitis capitata and Anastrepha fraterculus, this work was developed at the Center of Nuclear Energy in Agriculture (CENA) of the University of São Paulo, between 2006 and 2012. Along this period, laboratory rearing methods were improved which allowed the development of the required technology for a large scale production of those insects in Brazil. Data of 25 generations of the parasitoid large scale production using C. capitata tsl-Vienna 8 strain and 51 generations using A. fraterculus as hosts are presented. Moreover, the effect and differences between hosts in parasitoid\'s quality were analyzed. The parasitoid D. longicaudata can be large scale produced using both C. capitata tsl- Vienna 8 or A. fraterculus as hosts, but this strain of C. capitata is not recommended for D. longicaudata mass production once the parasitoid emergency is very low due to the host weakness. If this strain is the best cost/benefit available, the use of host larvae originating from heat treated eggs might be considered to parasitoids production. The A. fraterculus large scale rearing was established successfully after the domestication period of the specie, producing a large amount of insects with excellent quality using local ingredients and little agar in the diet composition over 50 generations. A. fraterculus irradiated larvae as host for large scale producing D. longicaudata promotes greater parasitoid emergence with greater female biased sex ratio and better female quality than C.capitata larvae.

Esta pesquisa teve por objetivos avaliar os aspectos biológicos de Metallactus sp. em Eucalyptus urophylla e desenvolver uma técnica de criação do inseto em laboratório. As condições ambientais foram: temperatura 25±1°C, umidade relativa de 90±5% e fotofase de 14 horas. Os parâmetros biológicos avaliados foram: duração, viabilidade da fase larval e número de ínstares larvais; duração, viabilidade da fase pupal e peso da escatoteca; longevidade de machos e fêmeas, razão sexual, dimorfismo sexual, período de pré-oviposição, período de oviposição, número de ovos por fêmea; período de incubação e viabilidade dos ovos; duração e viabilidade do ciclo (ovo-adulto) e tabela de vida de fertilidade.
This paper deals with the biological aspects of Metallactus sp. on Eucalyptus urophylla and the development of a technique to rear this insect in laboratory (25±1º C; 90±5% RH; 14-hour photophase). The following parameters were evaluated: duration, viability and number of instars of the larval stage; duration and viability of the pupal stage; case weight; longevity of male and female adults; sex ratio; sexual dimorphism; preoviposition period; oviposition period; number of eggs per female; egg period and egg viability; duration and viability of the life cycle (egg-adult period); and fertility life table.

Orientador: Sergio Antonio De Bortoli
Resumo: Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner, 1808) e Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith, 1797) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) são insetos cosmopolitas, polífagos e que causam danos tanto na fase vegetativa quanto na reprodutiva de vários cultivos. Entre os métodos disponíveis para controle, os mais utilizados são o químico e a utilização de plantas Bt, porém o uso incorreto resultou em diversos relatos de resistência a esses dois métodos. Deste modo, surgiu a necessidade de novas tecnologias e produtos para o controle desses insetos-praga, sendo que o controle biológico com bactérias e vírus, e extratos de plantas podem ser ferramentas importantes frente a esses problemas. Além da resistência, outro problema que o uso incorreto dos inseticidas pode causar é a toxicidade a organismos não alvo, como as abelhas Apis mellifera Linnaeus, 1758 (Hymenoptera: Apidae), que vem sofrendo com a mortalidade causada por esses produtos. Para a realização de pesquisas que auxiliem e aprimorem os programas de Manejo Integrado de H. armigera e S. frugiperda, é essencial uma metodologia de criação que permita a obtenção de uma grande quantidade de indivíduos, sendo que dietas artificiais adequadas auxiliam a criação em grande escala. Neste sentido, o objetivo deste trabalho foi investigar o efeito de diferentes níveis proteicos na dieta artificial para criação destas espécies, o efeito agudo das concentrações letais e os efeitos subletais de inseticidas químicos, biológicos e de extrato da planta Piper cubeba Linnae... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo)
Abstract: Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner, 1808) and Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith, 1797) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) are cosmopolitan, polyphagous insects that cause damage both in the vegetative and in the reproductive phase of several crops. Among the methods available for its control, the most used are the chemical and the use of Bt plants, however the incorrect use has resulted in several reports of resistance to both methods. Thus, there was a need to development of new technologies and products for the control of these pest insect, and biological control with bacteria and viruses, and plant extracts can be important tools in the face of these problems. In addition to resistance, another problem that the incorrect use of pesticides can cause is toxicity to non-target organisms, such as honey bees Apis mellifera Linnaeus, 1758 (Hymenoptera: Apidae), which has been suffering from the mortality caused by these products. In order to carry out research that helps and improve the Integrated Management programs of H. armigera e S. frugiperda, a rearing methodology is essential that allows the obtaining of a large number of individuals, and adequate artificial diets assist the rearing on a large scale. In this sense, the aim of this research was to investigate the effect of diferente protein levels in the artificial diet for the rearing of these species, the acute effect of lethal concentrations and the sublethal effects of chemical and biological pesticides, and plant extract from the pla... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)
Doutor

The Queensland fruit fly, Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt) (Diptera: Tephritidae), a major pest of horticulture in eastern Australia, is a relatively poor coloniser of new habitat. This thesis examines behavioural properties that might limit the ability of B. tryoni to establish new populations. As the potential for B. tryoni to establish an outbreak population may be most directly limited by mechanisms associated with dispersal and mating behaviour, these two factors were the focus of this research project. The relevance of dispersal and mating behaviour for control of outbreak populations was assessed. Dispersal (i) Dispersal patterns of males and females are not different. Dispersal of post-teneral male B. tryoni from a point within an orchard near Richmond, New South Wales, was monitored following temporally replicated releases. Application of sterile insect technique (SIT) requires knowledge of dispersal from a release point so that effective release rates can be determined. In addition, dispersal following introduction to new habitat can lead to low or negative population growth and an Allee effect. In Spring and Autumn, 2001 – 2003, three different strains of B. tryoni were released: (1) wild flies reared from infested fruit collected in the Sydney Basin; (2) a laboratory-reared strain with a colour mutation (white marks); and (3) sterile flies obtained by gamma-irradiation of a mass-reared strain. Dispersal was monitored using a grid of traps baited with the male attractant, cuelure. During the majority of releases, flies were massmarked using a self-marking technique and fluorescent pigment powder to enable identification of recaptured flies. A preliminary study found that fluorescent pigment marks had no effect on adult survival and marks did not fade significantly in the laboratory over a period of five weeks after eclosion. As cuelure repels inseminated sexually mature female B. tryoni, unbaited, coloured flat sticky traps, and black and yellow sticky sphere traps baited with a food lure (protein autolysate solution) were used to supplement traps baited with cuelure. The effectiveness of these two sticky trap types was assessed, and recaptures used to compare patterns of dispersal from a release point by male and female B. tryoni. Fluorescent yellow (chartreuse), green, and clear unbaited flat sticky traps were relatively ineffective for monitoring dispersal of sterile male and female B. tryoni, recapturing only 0.1% of released sterile flies. Monitoring dispersal with sticky ball traps baited with protein autolysate solution was more successful, with yellow spheres and black spheres recapturing 1.7% and 1.5%, respectively. Trap colour had no effect on recaptures on flat sticky traps or sticky spheres. Equal recapture rates on yellow and black sticky sphere traps suggests that the odour of yeast autolysate solution was more important than colour for attraction of post-teneral flies to traps. Using the results of recaptures on odoriferous black and yellow sticky sphere traps within one week of release, regression equations of male and female recaptures per trap were found to be similar (Figure 4-3). This is the first study to clearly indicate that post-teneral dispersal patterns of male and female B. tryoni released from a point do not differ, enabling the use of existing models to predict density of both sexes of B. tryoni following post-teneral dispersal. (ii) Males disperse further in Spring than in Autumn, but this is not temperature-related. Analysis of replicated recaptures in traps baited with cuelure revealed that dispersal of male B. tryoni in an orchard near Richmond, New South Wales, was higher in Spring than in Autumn (Figure 5-6). As the maximum daily temperature was significantly higher in Spring than in Autumn this result was unexpected, since earlier studies have found that B. tryoni disperse at the onset of cool weather in search of sheltered over-wintering sites. Dispersal of post-teneral B. tryoni may have been affected by habitat suitability; it was found that seasonal trends in dispersal could have been influenced by local habitat variables. Low mean dispersal distances in Autumn may be explained by the presence of fruiting hosts in the orchard, or the availability of resources required by over-wintering flies. There was no significant correlation between temperature and mean dispersal distance, suggesting that higher rates of dispersal cannot be explained by temperature-related increases in activity. Recapture rate per trap was significantly negatively correlated with increasing daily maximum and average temperature. This may have consequences for detection of B. tryoni outbreaks in quarantine areas due to reduced cuelure trap efficiency. (iii) Maturity and source variation affect dispersal and response to cuelure. This research indicated that most male and female B. tryoni do not disperse far from a release point, suggesting that an invading propagule would not spread far in the first generation. However, there is considerable variation in flight capability among individuals. Comparison of wild, laboratory-reared white marks, and gamma-irradiated sterile male B. tryoni indicated that mean dispersal distance and redistribution patterns were not significantly affected by fly origin. Despite no difference in dispersal distance from the release point, recaptures of wild and sterile males per Lynfield trap baited with cuelure were highest within one week after release, whereas recaptures of white marks males per trap increased in the second week. This result may offer evidence to support the hypothesis that sterile male B. tryoni respond to cuelure at an earlier age. Rearing conditions used to produce large quantities of males for sterilisation by gamma-irradiation may select for earlier sexual maturity. Mating Behaviour (i) Density and sex ratio do not affect mating, except at low densities. Demographic stochasticity in the form of sex ratio fluctuations at low population density can lead to an observed Allee effect. The effect of local group density and sex ratio on mating behaviour and male mating success of a laboratory-adapted strain of B. tryoni was examined in laboratory cages. In the laboratory-adapted strain of B. tryoni used in this study, a group of one female and one male was sufficient for a good chance of mating success. The proportion of females mated and male mating success was not significantly affected by density or sex ratio, although variability in male mating success was higher at low density. This could indicate that mating success of B. tryoni can be reduced when local group density is low owing to decreased frequency in encounters between males and females. (ii) Mass-reared males exhibit aberrant mating behaviour, but this does not reduce mating success. Strong artificial selection in mass-rearing facilities may lead to decreased competitiveness of sterile males released in SIT programs as a result of alteration or loss of ecological and behavioural traits required in the field. The effects of domestication and irradiation on the mating behaviour of males of B. tryoni were investigated by caging wild, mass-reared and sterile (mass-reared and gammairradiated) males with wild females. Mating behaviour of mass-reared males was different from that of wild males, but behaviour of wild and sterile males was similar. Mass-reared males were found to engage in mounting of other males much more frequently than wild and sterile males, and began calling significantly earlier before darkness. Male calling did not appear to be associated with female choice of mating partners, although this does not exclude the possibility that calling is a cue used by females to discriminate between mating partners. Conditions used to domesticate and rear large quantities of B. tryoni for SIT may select for an alternative male mating strategy, with mass-reared males calling earlier and exercising less discrimination between potential mating partners. Despite differences in behaviour of wild, mass-reared and sterile males, frequency of successful copulations and mating success were similar. (iii) Pheromone-calling by males was increased in larger aggregations but this did not result in significantly more female visits. Finally, large laboratory cages with artificial leks were used to investigate the importance in B. tryoni of male group size for female visitation at lek sites and initiation of male pheromone-calling. Calling propensity of male B. tryoni was increased by the presence of conspecific males. Females visited the largest lek more frequently than single males, but there was no correlation between lek size and female visitation. Female B. tryoni had a limited capacity to perceive a difference between the number of calling males; female visitation at leks was only weakly associated with male calling, suggesting that lek size and the number of pheromone-calling males may not be the only factor important in locating mates in B. tryoni. The weak, but positive correlation between male calling and female visitation may indicate that passive attraction maintains lek-mating in B. tryoni. Further studies are essential on mating behaviour of B. tryoni, including identification of male mating aggregations in the field, measurement of habitat variables associated with male aggregations, the influence of density on wild B. tryoni mating success, and the role of pheromone-calling, in order to optimise use of SIT for control of this pest.

The Queensland fruit fly, Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt) (Diptera: Tephritidae), a major pest of horticulture in eastern Australia, is a relatively poor coloniser of new habitat. This thesis examines behavioural properties that might limit the ability of B. tryoni to establish new populations. As the potential for B. tryoni to establish an outbreak population may be most directly limited by mechanisms associated with dispersal and mating behaviour, these two factors were the focus of this research project. The relevance of dispersal and mating behaviour for control of outbreak populations was assessed. Dispersal (i) Dispersal patterns of males and females are not different. Dispersal of post-teneral male B. tryoni from a point within an orchard near Richmond, New South Wales, was monitored following temporally replicated releases. Application of sterile insect technique (SIT) requires knowledge of dispersal from a release point so that effective release rates can be determined. In addition, dispersal following introduction to new habitat can lead to low or negative population growth and an Allee effect. In Spring and Autumn, 2001 � 2003, three different strains of B. tryoni were released: (1) wild flies reared from infested fruit collected in the Sydney Basin; (2) a laboratory-reared strain with a colour mutation (white marks); and (3) sterile flies obtained by gamma-irradiation of a mass-reared strain. Dispersal was monitored using a grid of traps baited with the male attractant, cuelure. During the majority of releases, flies were massmarked using a self-marking technique and fluorescent pigment powder to enable identification of recaptured flies. A preliminary study found that fluorescent pigment marks had no effect on adult survival and marks did not fade significantly in the laboratory over a period of five weeks after eclosion. As cuelure repels inseminated sexually mature female B. tryoni, unbaited, coloured flat sticky traps, and black and yellow sticky sphere traps baited with a food lure (protein autolysate solution) were used to supplement traps baited with cuelure. The effectiveness of these two sticky trap types was assessed, and recaptures used to compare patterns of dispersal from a release point by male and female B. tryoni. Fluorescent yellow (chartreuse), green, and clear unbaited flat sticky traps were relatively ineffective for monitoring dispersal of sterile male and female B. tryoni, recapturing only 0.1% of released sterile flies. Monitoring dispersal with sticky ball traps baited with protein autolysate solution was more successful, with yellow spheres and black spheres recapturing 1.7% and 1.5%, respectively. Trap colour had no effect on recaptures on flat sticky traps or sticky spheres. Equal recapture rates on yellow and black sticky sphere traps suggests that the odour of yeast autolysate solution was more important than colour for attraction of post-teneral flies to traps. Using the results of recaptures on odoriferous black and yellow sticky sphere traps within one week of release, regression equations of male and female recaptures per trap were found to be similar (Figure 4-3). This is the first study to clearly indicate that post-teneral dispersal patterns of male and female B. tryoni released from a point do not differ, enabling the use of existing models to predict density of both sexes of B. tryoni following post-teneral dispersal. (ii) Males disperse further in Spring than in Autumn, but this is not temperature-related. Analysis of replicated recaptures in traps baited with cuelure revealed that dispersal of male B. tryoni in an orchard near Richmond, New South Wales, was higher in Spring than in Autumn (Figure 5-6). As the maximum daily temperature was significantly higher in Spring than in Autumn this result was unexpected, since earlier studies have found that B. tryoni disperse at the onset of cool weather in search of sheltered over-wintering sites. Dispersal of post-teneral B. tryoni may have been affected by habitat suitability; it was found that seasonal trends in dispersal could have been influenced by local habitat variables. Low mean dispersal distances in Autumn may be explained by the presence of fruiting hosts in the orchard, or the availability of resources required by over-wintering flies. There was no significant correlation between temperature and mean dispersal distance, suggesting that higher rates of dispersal cannot be explained by temperature-related increases in activity. Recapture rate per trap was significantly negatively correlated with increasing daily maximum and average temperature. This may have consequences for detection of B. tryoni outbreaks in quarantine areas due to reduced cuelure trap efficiency. (iii) Maturity and source variation affect dispersal and response to cuelure. This research indicated that most male and female B. tryoni do not disperse far from a release point, suggesting that an invading propagule would not spread far in the first generation. However, there is considerable variation in flight capability among individuals. Comparison of wild, laboratory-reared white marks, and gamma-irradiated sterile male B. tryoni indicated that mean dispersal distance and redistribution patterns were not significantly affected by fly origin. Despite no difference in dispersal distance from the release point, recaptures of wild and sterile males per Lynfield trap baited with cuelure were highest within one week after release, whereas recaptures of white marks males per trap increased in the second week. This result may offer evidence to support the hypothesis that sterile male B. tryoni respond to cuelure at an earlier age. Rearing conditions used to produce large quantities of males for sterilisation by gamma-irradiation may select for earlier sexual maturity. Mating Behaviour (i) Density and sex ratio do not affect mating, except at low densities. Demographic stochasticity in the form of sex ratio fluctuations at low population density can lead to an observed Allee effect. The effect of local group density and sex ratio on mating behaviour and male mating success of a laboratory-adapted strain of B. tryoni was examined in laboratory cages. In the laboratory-adapted strain of B. tryoni used in this study, a group of one female and one male was sufficient for a good chance of mating success. The proportion of females mated and male mating success was not significantly affected by density or sex ratio, although variability in male mating success was higher at low density. This could indicate that mating success of B. tryoni can be reduced when local group density is low owing to decreased frequency in encounters between males and females. (ii) Mass-reared males exhibit aberrant mating behaviour, but this does not reduce mating success. Strong artificial selection in mass-rearing facilities may lead to decreased competitiveness of sterile males released in SIT programs as a result of alteration or loss of ecological and behavioural traits required in the field. The effects of domestication and irradiation on the mating behaviour of males of B. tryoni were investigated by caging wild, mass-reared and sterile (mass-reared and gammairradiated) males with wild females. Mating behaviour of mass-reared males was different from that of wild males, but behaviour of wild and sterile males was similar. Mass-reared males were found to engage in mounting of other males much more frequently than wild and sterile males, and began calling significantly earlier before darkness. Male calling did not appear to be associated with female choice of mating partners, although this does not exclude the possibility that calling is a cue used by females to discriminate between mating partners. Conditions used to domesticate and rear large quantities of B. tryoni for SIT may select for an alternative male mating strategy, with mass-reared males calling earlier and exercising less discrimination between potential mating partners. Despite differences in behaviour of wild, mass-reared and sterile males, frequency of successful copulations and mating success were similar. (iii) Pheromone-calling by males was increased in larger aggregations but this did not result in significantly more female visits. Finally, large laboratory cages with artificial leks were used to investigate the importance in B. tryoni of male group size for female visitation at lek sites and initiation of male pheromone-calling. Calling propensity of male B. tryoni was increased by the presence of conspecific males. Females visited the largest lek more frequently than single males, but there was no correlation between lek size and female visitation. Female B. tryoni had a limited capacity to perceive a difference between the number of calling males; female visitation at leks was only weakly associated with male calling, suggesting that lek size and the number of pheromone-calling males may not be the only factor important in locating mates in B. tryoni. The weak, but positive correlation between male calling and female visitation may indicate that passive attraction maintains lek-mating in B. tryoni. Further studies are essential on mating behaviour of B. tryoni, including identification of male mating aggregations in the field, measurement of habitat variables associated with male aggregations, the influence of density on wild B. tryoni mating success, and the role of pheromone-calling, in order to optimise use of SIT for control of this pest.

Questa tesi è frutto della collaborazione tra l'Università e Lofarma S.p.A., un’azienda farmaceutica italiana leader nel settore che produce preparati per pazienti allergici come kit diagnostici e immunoterapie. A tale scopo nel reparto di Acarologia ogni anno vengono allevati e raccolti decine di chilogrammi di acari adulti e, dopo alcune manipolazioni, utilizzati nel reparto produttivo come materia prima per la maggior parte delle formulazioni. Lo scopo di questo progetto è analizzare l'attuale metodo di produzione e studiare se alcuni passaggi potrebbero essere ottimizzati per migliorare la resa, il tasso di produzione e la qualità della materia prima, cercando nel contempo di ridurre costi e tempi di lavorazione. La ricerca è stata suddivisa in 2 aree principali: 1) Procedure di Allevamento (valutazione della qualità della dieta e del ceppo allevato) e 2) Manipolazioni della Materia Prima (ottimizzazione del processo di pulizia e valorizzazione della materia prima). Tra questi, i risultati più significativi sono stati raggiunti nella sezione Manipolazione delle Materie Prime, dove viene descritto un nuovo processo di rifinitura in grado di ottenere rese finali più elevate in tempistiche più brevi. Dopo aver analizzato l'intero ciclo produttivo, è possibile concludere che, nel contesto del Reparto di Acarologia, è più conveniente procedere con una migliore manipolazione della materia prima piuttosto che modificare le attuali metodiche di allevamento, che sembrano già adatte per le esigenze di Lofarma.
This thesis is based on collaboration between University and Lofarma S.p.A., a leading Italian pharmaceutical company which produce preparation for allergic patients like diagnostic kits and immunotherapies. To this purpose every year dozens of kilograms of adult mites are reared and collected in the Acarology department and, after manipulations, used in the Production Department as raw material for most of the preparation. The aim of this project is to analyze the current production methodology of Acarology department and investigate if some steps could be optimized to improve the yield, the production rate and the quality of the raw material while trying to reduce costs and processing times. The research has been divided in 2 main areas: 1) Rearing Procedures (quality assessment about the diet and the strain enacted) and 2) Raw Material Manipulations (optimization of the refining process and valorization of the Raw Material). Between those, most significant results have been achieved in the Raw Material Manipulation section, where is described a novel refining process capable of obtaining higher final yields in a shorter working time. After analyzing the whole manufacturing cycle, is possible to conclude that, within the context of the Acarology Department, is more convenient to proceed with a better manipulation of the raw material in the refining process rather than modifying the actual rearing procedure, which is already suitable for Lofarma needs.

Many animals live in societies of varying degrees of organization. Some individuals in these societies seem to sacrifice their own fitness to increase the fitness of some others. Understanding the forces that mould the evolution of such altruistic behaviour has become a dominant theme in modern evolutionary biology. Primitively eusocial polistine wasps provide excellent model systems to study the evolution of altruism as they show high degrees of plasticity in their behaviour. Different individuals in the same population pursue different social strategies such as nesting alpne or nesting in groups. When wasps nest in groups, usually only one individual becomes the egg layer, while die rest assume the role of sterile workers. Why do the workers not become solitary foundresses and rear their own offspring instead of working to rear the brood of another individual? Here I have used the tropical primitively eusocial wasp Ropalidia marginata to explore some factors that might potentially favour the worker strategy over the solitary founding strategy. Workers in multiple foundress nests may benefit by rearing brood more closely related to them than their own offspring would be. However, from previous work on this species it is known that relatedness between sisters is rather low and that workers therefore rear quite distantly related brood. Therefore, I have concentrated on factors other than genetic relatedness that might potentially favour the worker strategy. A total of 145 naturally initiated nests with different numbers of foundresses was monitored over a period of 16 months, and their productivities were compared. Although the total colony productivity increased, the per capita productivity did not increase with increasing foundress numbers. Colonies with larger foundress numbers did not produce significantly heavier progeny and did not produce them significantly faster than colonies with fewer individuals. The conspecific usurpers preferred to usurp single foundress colonies more often than multiple foundress colonies. Therefore, protection from conspecific usurpers might be an advantage of multiple foundress associations. About 10% of the multiple foundress nests experienced queen turnovers. This provides a finite chance to reproduce and gain some individual fitness for workers, at some future point of time. Wasps may not be similar in their reproductive abilities and those who are less fertile might be joining others who are more fertile. Testing such a hypothesis would require that individuals who have chosen to be subordinate cofoundresses in multiple foundress associations are forced to nest alone. During this study a total of 77 nests was monitored. Cofoundresses forced to nest alone had significantly lower productivity than natural solitary foundresses and also queens of multiple foundress nests who were forced to nest alone. This suggested that wasps are not similar either in their reproductive ability or brood rearing ability or both. To ascertain which of the factors was responsible for lower productivity in cofoundresses, productivity of wasps isolated into laboratory cages was compared. There was no significant difference in the productivity of isolated cofoundresses and isolated queens. This suggests that wasps are not subfertile per se but probably differ in their foraging and brood rearing abilities. The certainty with which resources are brought into the nest and therefore, the certainty with which the mean per capita productivity is attained, provides an automatic benefit of group living according to the central limit theorem. This prediction was also tested. The coefficient of variation of mean per capita productivity decreased significantly with increasing foundress numbers. Behavioural observations on another 36 colonies, with different number of adults, showed that the coefficient of variation of food brought to the nest and the rate at which larvae were fed, decreased significantly with increasing number of adults. A computer simulation was used to find out the effect of group size on the variance in feed larva. Assuming that larvae cannot be starved for too long and cannot utilize more than a certain amount of food at a time, the fitness of larvae was found to increase with an increase in the number of adults attending the nest. Previous work on R. marginata has been largely confined to postemergence colonies. An attempt was made to look at and compare social organization in preemergence colonies with that of postemergence colonies. It was found that the egg layer was not the most dominant animal in the well-established preemergence colonies. There were no detectable differences in the social organization of the preemergence colonies (of this study) with that of postemergence colonies of the earlier studies. Perhaps my conclusions drawn from studying preemergence colonies are therefore applicable more widely to the species. It can be concluded that the apparent increased fitness of the worker strategy over solitary foundress strategy does not come from any increase in per capita productivity, but comes instead from (i) the greater predictability with which the mean per capita productivity is attained in larger colonies, (ii) the lower probabilities of usurpation of larger colonies, (iii) queen turnovers that provide opportunities for workers in multiple foundress colonies to gain some direct individual fitness and (iv) the lower brood rearing abilities of workers in multiple foundress nests that make the worker strategy the best of a bad job.

Many animals live in societies of varying degrees of organization. Some individuals in these societies seem to sacrifice their own fitness to increase the fitness of some others. Understanding the forces that mould the evolution of such altruistic behaviour has become a dominant theme in modern evolutionary biology. Primitively eusocial polistine wasps provide excellent model systems to study the evolution of altruism as they show high degrees of plasticity in their behaviour. Different individuals in the same population pursue different social strategies such as nesting alpne or nesting in groups. When wasps nest in groups, usually only one individual becomes the egg layer, while die rest assume the role of sterile workers. Why do the workers not become solitary foundresses and rear their own offspring instead of working to rear the brood of another individual? Here I have used the tropical primitively eusocial wasp Ropalidia marginata to explore some factors that might potentially favour the worker strategy over the solitary founding strategy. Workers in multiple foundress nests may benefit by rearing brood more closely related to them than their own offspring would be. However, from previous work on this species it is known that relatedness between sisters is rather low and that workers therefore rear quite distantly related brood. Therefore, I have concentrated on factors other than genetic relatedness that might potentially favour the worker strategy. A total of 145 naturally initiated nests with different numbers of foundresses was monitored over a period of 16 months, and their productivities were compared. Although the total colony productivity increased, the per capita productivity did not increase with increasing foundress numbers. Colonies with larger foundress numbers did not produce significantly heavier progeny and did not produce them significantly faster than colonies with fewer individuals. The conspecific usurpers preferred to usurp single foundress colonies more often than multiple foundress colonies. Therefore, protection from conspecific usurpers might be an advantage of multiple foundress associations. About 10% of the multiple foundress nests experienced queen turnovers. This provides a finite chance to reproduce and gain some individual fitness for workers, at some future point of time. Wasps may not be similar in their reproductive abilities and those who are less fertile might be joining others who are more fertile. Testing such a hypothesis would require that individuals who have chosen to be subordinate cofoundresses in multiple foundress associations are forced to nest alone. During this study a total of 77 nests was monitored. Cofoundresses forced to nest alone had significantly lower productivity than natural solitary foundresses and also queens of multiple foundress nests who were forced to nest alone. This suggested that wasps are not similar either in their reproductive ability or brood rearing ability or both. To ascertain which of the factors was responsible for lower productivity in cofoundresses, productivity of wasps isolated into laboratory cages was compared. There was no significant difference in the productivity of isolated cofoundresses and isolated queens. This suggests that wasps are not subfertile per se but probably differ in their foraging and brood rearing abilities. The certainty with which resources are brought into the nest and therefore, the certainty with which the mean per capita productivity is attained, provides an automatic benefit of group living according to the central limit theorem. This prediction was also tested. The coefficient of variation of mean per capita productivity decreased significantly with increasing foundress numbers. Behavioural observations on another 36 colonies, with different number of adults, showed that the coefficient of variation of food brought to the nest and the rate at which larvae were fed, decreased significantly with increasing number of adults. A computer simulation was used to find out the effect of group size on the variance in feed larva. Assuming that larvae cannot be starved for too long and cannot utilize more than a certain amount of food at a time, the fitness of larvae was found to increase with an increase in the number of adults attending the nest. Previous work on R. marginata has been largely confined to postemergence colonies. An attempt was made to look at and compare social organization in preemergence colonies with that of postemergence colonies. It was found that the egg layer was not the most dominant animal in the well-established preemergence colonies. There were no detectable differences in the social organization of the preemergence colonies (of this study) with that of postemergence colonies of the earlier studies. Perhaps my conclusions drawn from studying preemergence colonies are therefore applicable more widely to the species. It can be concluded that the apparent increased fitness of the worker strategy over solitary foundress strategy does not come from any increase in per capita productivity, but comes instead from (i) the greater predictability with which the mean per capita productivity is attained in larger colonies, (ii) the lower probabilities of usurpation of larger colonies, (iii) queen turnovers that provide opportunities for workers in multiple foundress colonies to gain some direct individual fitness and (iv) the lower brood rearing abilities of workers in multiple foundress nests that make the worker strategy the best of a bad job.

Orientador: Sergio Antonio De Bortoli
Banca: Antonio Sergio Ferraudo
Banca: Rogéria Inês Rosa Lara
Resumo: O trabalho foi desenvolvido no Laboratório de Biologia e Criação de Insetos (LBCI) da FCAV-Unesp, para avaliar a influência de diferentes temperaturas e períodos de exposição no desenvolvimento de Plutella xylostella, para viabilizar o armazenamento de ovos, lagartas e pupas e facilitar o manejo da criação em laboratório. Avaliou-se a biologia de P. xylostella armazenando ovos e lagartas nas temperaturas de 3, 5, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20 e 24°C por 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 e 30 dias de exposição, sendo "0" a testemunha, mantida em 25±1°C, 70±10% UR e 12 horas de fotofase. Avaliou-se também a biologia de P. xylostella armazenando pupas nas temperaturas de 3, 5 e 8°C por 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 e 30 dias de exposição. O armazenamento de ovos e pupas de P. xylostella pode ser realizado por até 15 dias a 8ºC sem que ocorram perdas consideráveis nas suas características biológicas. O armazenamento de lagartas de 1° ínstar de P. xylostella pode ser realizado até 10 dias a 20ºC, já as de 2° ínstar podem ser armazenadas por até 15 dias a 16ºC, as de 3º ínstar por até 20 dias a 20ºC e as de 4º ínstar por até 5 dias a 20ºC, acima desses períodos e abaixo dessas temperaturas ocorrem reduções significativas no número de ovos colocados por fêmea
Abstract: The work was conducted in the Laboratory of Insect Biology and Rearing (LBCI), FCAV-Unesp, to evaluate the influence of different temperatures and exposure periods on development of Plutella xylostella, trying to enable the storage of eggs, larvae and pupae to facilitate the management of laboratory rearing. For this, we evaluated the biology of P. xylostella larvae and storing eggs at temperatures of 3, 5, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20 and 24°C for 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 days of exposure, and "0" the check, maintained at 25±1°C, 70±10% RH and 12 hours photophase. We also evaluated the biology of P. xylostella storing pupae at temperatures of 3, 5 and 8°C for 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 days of exposure. The storage of eggs and pupae of P. xylostella can be done 15 days at 8°C without significant losses that occur in biological characteristics. The storage of a larval first instar of P. xylostella can be performed up to 10 days at 20°C, already the second instar can be stored for 15 days at 16°C, third instar for up to 20 days at 20°C and fourth instar for 5 days at 20°C, above this periods and below these temperatures are reduced significantly the number of eggs per female
Mestre

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Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior
This work was carried out at the Entomology Laboratory of Embrapa Agropecuária Oeste, in Dourados, Mato Grosso do Sul State, and had the aim to evaluate the influence of different foods on larval and adult phases of D. speciosa (Germar, 1984) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). The work had the following three experiments: i) the food influence on adult phase; ii) the food influence on larval phase, and iii) the influence of food type on leaf consumption. In the first experiment, five host plants (i.e. common bean, soybean, turnip, corn, and wheat) were tested to investigate their influence on adult phase when insects were fed with corn during larval phase. In the second experiment, common bean, corn, soybean, turnip, potato and wheat were used to evaluate their influence on larval phase of insects that were fed with only one type of host plant on adult phase. In the last experiment, leaf consumption of common bean, turnip, soybean and corn by adults of D. speciosa was evaluated under free choice and confined conditions. The average duration of larval to adult period was 25.8 days for the experiment to study the food influence on adult phase, with an average viability of 25.8% and a similar period of pre-oviposition for all different host plants. However, fecundity and longevity were influenced by the different foods during the oviposition period. With regard to longevity, we observed that both male and female had greater longevity when fed with common bean, soybean and turnipcompared to the ones fed with corn and wheat. Incubation time and viability of eggs were similar for all host plants. In the experiment of different host plants during the larval phase, the average period of larval to adult phase was greater for potato and wheat than for turnip and corn. The oviposition period was similar for all tested food types durind the larval phase. However, the pre-oviposition, fecundity and longevity periods for males and incubation period and viability of eggs were influenced by the different food types offered during the larval phase. In the experiment of leaf consumption, D. speciosa adults did show a better feeding of soybean, turnip and corn when compared to common bean for both free choice and confined conditions
O trabalho foi conduzido no Laboratório de Entomologia da Embrapa Agropecuária Oeste em Dourados/MS e teve como objetivo avaliar a influência do alimento oferecido nas fases larval e adulta de D. speciosa (Germar, 1824) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). O estudo foi realizado em três etapas: influência do alimento na fase adulta, na fase larval e no consumo foliar. No primeiro ensaio, cinco hospedeiros (feijão, soja, nabo, milho e trigo) foram testados na fase adulta de insetos criados em um único hospedeiro (milho). No segundo, os hospedeiros feijão, soja, nabo, batata, milho e trigo foram utilizados na fase larval, e na fase adulta oferecido apenas um hospedeiro (feijão). No último ensaio foi avaliado o consumo foliar por adultos de D. speciosa em condições de livre escolha e sem chance de escolha utilizando os hospedeiros feijão, nabo, soja e milho. No primeiro ensaio, a duração média do período larva-adulto foi de 25,8 ± 0,90 dias, com viabilidade média de 25,8 ± 2,69% , enquanto o período de pré-oviposição foi semelhante para os diferentes hospedeiros. Entretanto, o período de oviposição, a fecundidade e a longevidade de adultos foram influenciados pelos diferentes tipos de alimentos. Com relação a longevidade, verificou-se que tanto os machos quanto as fêmeas foram mais longevos em feijão, soja e nabo quando comparados aos insetos alimentados com milho e trigo. O período de incubação e viabilidade dos ovos obtidos nos diferentes hospedeiros foram semelhantes. No ensaio com diferentes hospedeiros na fase larval, a duração média do período larva adulto em batata e trigo foi maior do que em nabo e milho. As maiores viabilidades foram observadas com milho e batata e as menores em feijão e nabo. O período de oviposição foi semelhante, enquanto que o período de pré-oviposição, a fecundidade, a longevidade de machos e o período de incubação e viabilidade dos ovos foram influenciados pelos diferentes tipos de alimentos oferecidos na fase larval. No ensaio de consumo foliar, adultos de D. speciosa apresentaram maior consumo em soja, nabo e milho, quando comparado ao feijão, tanto no teste de livre escolha como no sem chance de escolha

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Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)
Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)
O trabalho foi desenvolvido no Laboratório de Biologia e Criação de Insetos (LBCI) da FCAV-Unesp, para avaliar a influência de diferentes temperaturas e períodos de exposição no desenvolvimento de Plutella xylostella, para viabilizar o armazenamento de ovos, lagartas e pupas e facilitar o manejo da criação em laboratório. Avaliou-se a biologia de P. xylostella armazenando ovos e lagartas nas temperaturas de 3, 5, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20 e 24°C por 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 e 30 dias de exposição, sendo “0” a testemunha, mantida em 25±1°C, 70±10% UR e 12 horas de fotofase. Avaliou-se também a biologia de P. xylostella armazenando pupas nas temperaturas de 3, 5 e 8°C por 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 e 30 dias de exposição. O armazenamento de ovos e pupas de P. xylostella pode ser realizado por até 15 dias a 8ºC sem que ocorram perdas consideráveis nas suas características biológicas. O armazenamento de lagartas de 1° ínstar de P. xylostella pode ser realizado até 10 dias a 20ºC, já as de 2° ínstar podem ser armazenadas por até 15 dias a 16ºC, as de 3º ínstar por até 20 dias a 20ºC e as de 4º ínstar por até 5 dias a 20ºC, acima desses períodos e abaixo dessas temperaturas ocorrem reduções significativas no número de ovos colocados por fêmea
The work was conducted in the Laboratory of Insect Biology and Rearing (LBCI), FCAV-Unesp, to evaluate the influence of different temperatures and exposure periods on development of Plutella xylostella, trying to enable the storage of eggs, larvae and pupae to facilitate the management of laboratory rearing. For this, we evaluated the biology of P. xylostella larvae and storing eggs at temperatures of 3, 5, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20 and 24°C for 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 days of exposure, and 0 the check, maintained at 25±1°C, 70±10% RH and 12 hours photophase. We also evaluated the biology of P. xylostella storing pupae at temperatures of 3, 5 and 8°C for 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 days of exposure. The storage of eggs and pupae of P. xylostella can be done 15 days at 8°C without significant losses that occur in biological characteristics. The storage of a larval first instar of P. xylostella can be performed up to 10 days at 20°C, already the second instar can be stored for 15 days at 16°C, third instar for up to 20 days at 20°C and fourth instar for 5 days at 20°C, above this periods and below these temperatures are reduced significantly the number of eggs per female

A presente pesquisa teve por objetivo estudar a biologia de duas espécies de parasitoides associadas a Liriomyza sativae Blanchard, 1938 no Rio Grande do Norte. As duas espécies estudadas foram o parasitoide cenobionte larva-pupa, Opius (Gastrosema) scabriventris (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) e o parasitoide idiobionte larval, Chrysocharis vonones (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae). Foram avaliados para os dois parasitoides: influência da temperatura no desenvolvimento ovo-adulto e suas respectivas exigências térmicas; ínstar preferencial para parasitismo e predação; capacidade de parasitismo e predação e longevidade a 25 e 30ºC e a competição dos inimigos naturais. Paralelamente, desenvolveu-se uma técnica de criação da moscaminadora, L. sativae, para servir de base à produção de parasitoides desta praga. Os limiares térmicos inferiores de desenvolvimento para o período ovo-adulto de O. scabriventris e C. vonones foram similares, 7,3 e 7,4°C, respectivamente. Estimaram-se 29,4 gerações anuais de O. scabriventris e 30,5 de C. vonones em Mossoró-RN, região produtora de melão no RN, ou seja, 4,9 e 6,0 gerações a mais do que o hospedeiro, L. sativae, respectivamente. O parasitismo total a 25ºC e 30ºC de O. scabriventris e C. vonones foram similares. No entanto, a 25ºC, a longevidade do eulofídeo foi em média 12.9 dias inferior ao do braconídeo, causando uma maior média de parasitismo diário. O comportamento de predação foi responsável por 24% e 32% da mortalidade total de L. sativae por O. scabriventris e C. vonones, respectivamente. Essa porcentagem se manteve em 26%, para ambas as espécies, a 30ºC. Nos dois testes de competição, em que disponibilizaram-se duas quantidades de larvas de L. sativae, a espécie C. vonones superou O. scabriventris, em ambos experimentos. De acordo com os estudos biológicos e de competição, a 25ºC a espécie C. vonones foi a mais indicada como agente de controle biológico de L. sativae, enquanto a 30ºC ambos os parasitoides demonstraram capacidade similar para controle de L. sativae. O sistema de criação de L. sativae foi eficiente e possui características para sua aplicação em escala comercial, com a utilização de materiais de baixo custo, por ocupar espaço reduzido e por otimizar o tempo gasto com a redução de etapas do processo de criação. Esta técnica de criação da mosca-minadora funciona como base para a multiplicação de parasitoides para aplicação em programas de controle biológico clássico ou aplicado.
We studied the biology of two species of parasitoids associated with Liriomyza sativae Blanchard, 1938 in the state of Rio Grande do Norte (RN), Brazil: the koinobiont larval-pupal parasitoid Opius (Gastrosema) scabriventris (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and the larval idiobiont parasitoid Chrysocharis vonones (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae). The following parameters were evaluated: the influence of temperature on the egg-adult development and their thermal requirements; instar preference for parasitism and host killing; capacity of parasitism, host killing, and longevity at 25 and 30ºC; and competition of these species. The study also aimed to develop a rearing technique of the leafminer L. sativae for the production of parasitoids of this pest. The threshold temperatures for the egg-adult period of O. scabriventris and C. vonones were similar, 7.3 and 7.4ºC, respectively. Our data afforded an estimate of 29.4 annual generations of O. scabriventris and 30.5 of C. vonones in Mossoró, a melon production region in RN, i.e., 4.9 and 6.0 more generations than the host L. sativae, respectively. The total parasitism at 25 and 30ºC of O. scabriventris and C. vonones was similar between the species. However, at 25ºC the life span of eulophid females was on average 12.9 days less than the braconid, causing a higher mean daily parasitism. The host-killing behavior at 25ºC was responsible for 24% and 32% of the total mortality of L. sativae larvae for P. scabriventris and C. vonones, respectively. This percentage remained approximately the same, 26% for both species, at 30ºC. In both competition tests where two larvae quantities of L. sativae were available, the species C. vonones overcame O. scabriventris. According to the results of the biological parameters and of competition, at 25ºC, C. vonones was more indicated as a biological control agent of L. sativae, while at 30ºC, both parasitoids, O. scabriventris and C. vonones, demonstrated a similar capacity for the control of L. sativae. The L. sativae rearing system is efficient and suitable for commercial application: it uses low-cost materials, requires little space, and optimizes the time spent with the reduction of stages in the rearing process. This technique for rearing the leafminer can form a basis for mass rearing of parasitoids for application in classical or applied biological control programs.

In needing to create a better and more sustainable future for our world, changing our diet and finding a  sustainable ‘protein of the future’ is one of the necessary steps we must take. This thesis explores the relatively fresh, but not unheard of, concept of using food waste to rear mealworms for human consumption, in the Swedish context. It talks about why we should switch our protein source and how we can do it, by taking the reader step-by-step through the process of producing alternative proteins, and the various scales it can happen. The thesis is written from a waste management perspective and argues for viewing food waste as a resource, by utilising said resource to meet the demands of alternate systems (i.e. growing alternative protein sources), thereby closing the loop. Interviews are combined with literature in such a way that the two compliment each other to make up for missing information, as the subject matter of using food waste to rear insects is still quite fresh and not discussed at great length in literature, especially in the Swedish context. The overarching theoretical point of departure comes from Bill Mollison’s and David Holmgren’s permaculture principles of design, which argues for a holistic view on production, consumption, the environment and just generally how we choose to live our lives. The thesis recommends that a good starting point in rearing insects with food waste, is through community initiatives and discusses how this is possible to achieve. The author hopes that this thesis can be used as a guide, whether it is used by a private individual, an interested group or community, or even municipal actors, to achieve a more sustainable future, and help change the norm of our waste, going to waste.
För att skapa en bättre och mer hållbar framtid är en förändring i vår kost genom att hitta ett hållbart alternativt protein, ett av de nödvändiga stegen vi måste ta. I denna studie undersöks det relativt nya men inte helt okända konceptet att använda matavfall för att föda upp mjölmaskar för livsmedelskonsumtion, i en svensk kontext. Studien diskuterar varför vi bör ersätta vår nuvarande proteinkälla och hur vi kan göra det. Läsaren guidas steg för steg genom processen att producera alternativa proteiner och de olika skalor det kan göras i. Studien är skriven ur ett avfallshanteringsperspektiv och argumenterar för att matavfall ska ses som en resurs som kan användas för att möta efterfrågan på alternativa system (det vill säga alternativa proteinkällor) och därigenom sluta cirkeln. Intervjuer kombineras med litteratur och kompletterar på så sätt varandra och fyller i kunskapsluckor, eftersom ämnet att använda matavfall till uppfödning av insekter fortfarande är relativt nytt och inte diskuteras i särskilt stor utsträckning i litteraturen, särskilt inte i Sverige. Den övergripande teoretiska utgångspunkten kommer från Bill Mollisons och David Holmgrens permakulturprinciper, som argumenterar för en helhetssyn på produktion, konsumtion, miljö och i stort hur vi väljer att leva våra liv. Studien rekommenderar att en bra utgångspunkt för uppfödning av insekter med matavfall är genom samhällsinitiativ och den diskuterar hur detta kan uppnås. Författaren hoppas att denna studie kan användas som en guide, oavsett om den används av en privatperson, en intressegrupp eller till och med av kommunala aktörer, för att uppnå en mer hållbar framtid och bidra till att ändra synen på vårt avfall, till att det ses som något mer än enbart avfall.

Trichogramma atopovirilia Oatman & Platner, 1983, Trichogrammatoidea annulata De Santis, 1972 e Trichogramma bruni Nagaraja, 1983 são espécies que ocorrem naturalmente no Brasil, e assim como outras espécies de tricogramatídeos neotropicais apresentam potencial de utilização em programas de controle biológico. Todavia, para que essa estratégia seja implementada faz-se necessário um sistema eficiente de criação massal, baseando-se, principalmente, na escolha do hospedeiro adequado para multiplicação do parasitóide com qualidade. Normalmente são utilizados os hospedeiros alternativos Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier, 1819), Anagasta kuehniella (Zeller, 1879) e Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton, 1865); a produção destes hospedeiros é equivalente a mais de 70% dos custos de produção. Um sistema de criação que independa desses hospedeiros, como a criação in vitro, seria ideal para simplificar a linha de produção de parasitóides. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram: 1) selecionar o hospedeiro alternativo mais adequado para criação de T. atopovirilia, T. annulata e T. bruni, e avaliar os efeitos da criação destes parasitóides por sucessivas gerações, em suas características biológicas, incluindo capacidade de vôo e tabela de vida de fertilidade; 2) estudar a viabilidade da criação in vitro destas espécies de parasitóides. Concluiu-se que o hospedeiro alternativo afetou as características biológicas e a capacidade de vôo das espécies estudadas. Para T. atopovirilia, C. cephalonica e/ou A. kuehniella foram os hospedeiros alternativos mais adequados para sua criação, enquanto que para T. annulata e T. bruni C. cephalonica foi o hospedeiro preferencial. No entanto, com base na atividade de vôo, T. bruni não demonstrou potencial adaptativo ao longo das gerações avaliadas em nenhum dos 3 hospedeiros alternativos. As demais espécies apresentaram potencial adaptativo aos hospedeiros preferenciais. Com base em todos os parâmetros avaliados S. cerealella foi o pior hospedeiro para as 3 espécies de parasitóides estudadas. Foi possível a criação in vitro de T. atopovirilia, desde o parasitismo até a emergência dos adultos, numa dieta artificial composta de holotecidos pupais de Heliothis virescens Fabr. (65%), gema de ovo (18%), soro fetal bovino (8,5%), hidrolisado de lactoalbumina (8,5%) e anticontaminantes (0,3%). A dieta não permitiu o desenvolvimento de T. annulata e T. bruni. Os parasitóides criados in vitro apresentaram características semelhantes aos insetos criados in vivo, quando foram transferidos para o hospedeiro alternativo.
Trichogramma atopovirilia Oatman & Platner, 1983, Trichogrammatoidea annulata De Santis, 1972 and Trichogramma bruni Nagaraja, 1983 are species that occurs naturally in Brazil and just like other species of Neotropical trichogrammatid, they have potential for utilization in biological control programs. Therefore, for this strategy to be implemented, it is necessary to establish an efficient mass rearing system, based mainly on the choice of suitable hosts for multiplication of quality parasitoids. Frequently used factitious hosts are Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier, 1819), Anagasta kuehniella (Zeller, 1879) and Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton, 1865); the cost of production of these hosts is equivalent to more than 70% of the production costs. A rearing system which does not depend on these hosts such as in vitro production could be ideal to simplify production of parasitoids. The objectives of this work were to: 1) select the most suitable factitious host for rearing of T. atopovirilia, T. annulata and T. bruni, and evaluate the effect of rearing these parasitoids for successive generations on their biological characteristics including flight capacity and fertility life table and 2) study the viability of in vitro rearing of these parasitoids. It was concluded that factitious hosts affected biological characteristics and flight capacity of the studied species. For T. atopovirilia, C. cephalonica and/or A. kuehniella were the most suitable factitious hosts for its rearing, while for T. annulata and T. bruni, C. cephalonica was a preferential host. However, based on flight capacity, T. bruni did not demonstrate adaptive potential along the evaluated generations in all the 3 factitious hosts. The other species presented adaptive potential to their preferential hosts. Based on all the evaluated parameters, S. cerealella was the worst host for all the 3 parasitoid species studied. In vitro rearing of T. atopovirilia was possible from parasitism up to adult emergency on artificial diet consisting of holotissues of Heliothis virescens Fabr. (65%), egg york (18%), fetal bovine serum (8,5%), lactoalbumin hydrolysate (8,5%) and anti-contaminants (0,3%). The diet did not permit the development of T. annulata and T. bruni. The in vitro reared parasitoids presented similar characteristics to insects reared in vivo when they were transferred to factitious hosts.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES
Podisus nigrispinus Dallas (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) is a stinkbug used in the biological control of several pests, and has therefore been massively reared in laboratories. Thus, with the objective of optimizing the mass rearing of P. nigrispinus by manipulating the temperature, two experiments were carried out: the first, aimed at investigating the effects of different temperatures on the development and on other biological characteristics of the predatory stinkbug; and the second, aimed at evaluating the processes of dechorionation and permeabilization in the viability of P. nigrispinus eggs with different embryonic ages. In the first experiment, four temperatures were used (17, 21, 25, and 29 °C ± 0.2), and the following parameters were evaluated: duration of the egg and nymphs stages; survival; adults longevity; number of eggs per female; pre-oviposition, oviposition and post-oviposition periods; adult weight and size. As result, an inversely proportional relationship was observed between the parameters duration of the egg and nymphs stages and survival at the temperatures studied. Longer adult longevity, pre-oviposition, oviposition and post-oviposition periods were obtained at a temperature of 17 °C. Conversely, the number of eggs, weight and size were adversely affected. Therefore, temperatures of 21 and 25 °C are the most suitable for the development of the predator; however, the extreme temperatures (17 and 29 °C) allowed delaying or accelerating the life cycle of the insect. In the second experiment, embryos of 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours of age were subjected to chemical solutions for dechorionation and permeabilization. Consequently, embryos with 96 hours of age presented greater viabilities, when compared with those with 24, 48 and 72 hours of age. Observations under a light microscope revealed differences in the chorion thickness after treatments with chemical solutions. Thus, the solutions for dechorionation and permeabilization of P. nigrispinus eggs together with embryonic age affect the viability of embryos to be cryopreserved.
Podisus nigrispinus Dallas (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) é um percevejo predador utilizado no controle biológico de diversas pragas e por isso tem sido criado em grandes quantidades em laboratórios. Assim, com objetivo de otimizar a criação massal de P. nigrispinus manipulando a temperatura, dois experimentos foram realizados, um voltado à investigação dos efeitos de diferentes temperaturas no desenvolvimento e outras características biológicas do percevejo predador; e outro, voltado à avaliação dos processos de decorionização e permeabilização na viabilidade de ovos de P. nigrispinus com diferentes idades embrionárias. No primeiro experimento, quatro temperaturas foram utilizadas (17, 21, 25 e 29°C ± 0,2), e os parâmetros avaliados foram duração da fase de ovo, dos estádios ninfais, sobrevivências, longevidade de adultos, número de ovos por fêmea, período de pré-oviposição, oviposição e pós-oviposição, peso e tamanho de adultos. Como resultado, foi observada uma relação inversamente proporcional entre os parâmetros duração da fase de ovo e dos estádios ninfais com a sobrevivência nas temperaturas estudadas. Maior longevidade de adultos e período de pré-oviposição, oviposição e pós-oviposição foram obtidos na temperatura de 17°C. Todavia, o número de ovos, peso e tamanho de adultos foram afetados adversamente. Portanto, as temperaturas de 21 e 25°C são mais apropriadas para o desenvolvimento do predador. Entretanto, as temperaturas extremas (17 e 29°C) permitiram retardar ou acelerar o ciclo de vida do inseto, mediante necessidade de inimigos naturais em campo. No segundo experimento, embriões de 24, 48. 72 e 96 horas de idade foram submetidos a soluções químicas para decorionização e permeabilização. Consequentemente, embriões com 96 horas de idade apresentaram maiores viabilidades quando comparados aos de 24, 48 e 72 horas. Observações em microscópio de luz revelaram diferenças na espessura do córion após tratamentos com soluções químicas. Assim, as soluções para decorionização e permeabilização de ovos de P. nigrispinus, juntamente com a idade embrionária afetam a viabilidades de embriões a serem criopreservados.
São Cristóvão, SE

Etudier l’aptitude d’insectes parasitoïdes à se reproduire dans de nouveaux hôtes est important pour comprendre les mécanismes d’adaptation dans un contexte de lutte biologique. Cotesia typhae est un parasitoïde africain spécialisé sur le lépidoptère Sesamia nonagrioides et est un agent de lutte biologique potentiel contre ce ravageur du maïs. C. typhae appartient à un groupe d’espèces possédant un virus endosymbiotique injecté dans l’hôte lors de la ponte et contribuant à la virulence du parasitoïde. J’ai pu montrer que deux souches de C. typhae diffèrent par leur nombre de descendants et par leur virulence envers une population française de S. nonagrioides, représentant un nouvel hôte. Afin d’identifier les gènes responsables de ces variations une recherche de QTL a été entreprise (Quantitative Trait Loci). Nous avons établi une carte génétique de C. typhae, identifié quatre QTL et dressé une liste de gènes candidats. Pour expliquer la différence de virulence et du nombre de descendants, les quantités d’œufs et de virus injectés au cours de pontes successives ont été estimées. Ces expériences ont montré 1/ que les deux souches ne répartissent pas leurs œufs de la même manière entre les hôtes, 2/ que la quantité de virus injectés n’est pas corrélée à la virulence. Pour comprendre l’origine évolutive de la différence de virulence, ce trait a été estimé sur les populations hôtes naturelles. Les résultats suggèrent que l’adaptation locale pourrait être à l’origine de la pré-adaptation d’une des souches à l’hôte français. Ce travail a permis également de bien caractériser le succès reproducteur de C. typhae, essentiel pour son utilisation en lutte biologique
Studying the ability of insect parasitoids to reproduce in novel hosts is important to understand adaptive mechanisms at play when they are used for biological control. Cotesia typhae is an African parasitoid specialized on the Lepidoptera Sesamia nonagrioides and it is a potential biological control agent against this maize pest. C. typhae belongs to a group of species harboring a symbiotic virus which is injected in the host during oviposition and which contributes to the parasitoid virulence. I have found out that two strains of C. typhae differed in their offspring number and in their virulence against a French population of S. nonagrioides, which represents a new host. A QTL analysis (Quantitative Trait Loci) has been done to identify genes involved in these variations. We have built a genetic map of C. typhae, identified four QTL and listed candidate genes. To explain the difference of virulence and offspring number, numbers of eggs and viral particles injected during successive ovipositions have been estimated. These experiments have shown that 1/ the two strains have different patterns of egg allocation among the successive hosts parasitized, 2/ the quantity of injected viral particles is not correlated to virulence. To understand to evolutionary origin of the virulence variation, this trait has been estimated for the natural host populations. The results suggest that local adaptation could explain the better pre-adaptation of one C. typhae strain to the French host population. This work also allowed an in-depth characterization of the parasitoid reproductive success, essential for its use in biological control

Toxoneuron nigriceps is a koinobiont larval endoparasitoid of the tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens. No koinobiont parasitoid (which develop in active, growing hosts) has been reared completely in vitro. However, T. nigriceps has been partially reared in vitro, from egg stage through 2nd larval instar and from 2nd to 3rd larval instar. Despite reaching its final larval instar, T. nigriceps failed to develop past the larval stage. In the following study, two aspects of T. nigriceps development, post-egression tissue feeding and cocoon formation through pupation, were examined to determine why T. nigriceps failed to develop in vitro beyond the larval stage and how in vitro rearing might be improved to rear T. nigriceps to adulthood. The importance of post-egression feeding and the possibility of developing an artificial post-egression diet were examined by manipulating the post-egression feeding behavior of T. nigriceps. The tissues of pre- and post-tissue feeding T. nigriceps larvae were analyzed to investigate the macronutritional benefit of post-egression feeding. A preliminary artificial post-egression diet was tested, and the putative quality of T. nigriceps reared to adulthood using this diet was examined. The formation of subterranean pupation chambers by healthy and parasitized H. virescens larvae was examined to investigate potential behavioral manipulation by T. nigriceps during this process. Finally, the potential use of artificial pupation chambers by T. nigriceps was investigated. Post-egression feeding was determined to be a vital part of T. nigriceps development, contributing to both parasitoid size and survival to adulthood. A preliminary artificial post-egression diet was developed, which facilitated rearing of T. nigriceps from 3rd larval instar to adulthood. The dimensions and burial depth of chambers formed by parasitized H. virescens were significantly different from those of chambers formed by healthy H. virescens, suggesting that T. nigriceps manipulated host behavior during excavation. Toxoneuron nigriceps was able to use a number of common laboratory items as substitute pupation chambers during cocoon formation, and the merits of several artificial chambers were discussed. With provision of an adequate post-egression and artificial pupation chamber, in vitro rearing of T. nigriceps from the larval stage to adulthood may be possible.

碩士
國立臺灣師範大學
資訊教育學系在職進修碩士班
99
Currently, it had limitations of environment and resources when implementing observation of insect rearing in science course instruction. Most of time, teachers simply provide relevant videos introduction, then conduct students’ real rearing activities. This made the design of instructional activities lack interactivity. Blogs provided relevant functions of online information sharing and discussion. We expected that blogs could assist learners and promote their interactivity and motivation by discussing their observations recorded in the way of videos or pictures and shared on blogs. Besides, when observing insect rearing, the instructional tasks combining with steps of problem-solving could provide students to deeply observe, analyze, discuss, and construct knowledge which is relevant to the life of insects through problem-solving as a guide. This study was an explorative research. The main objective of this study was to design a series of blog instructional activities of insect rearing in elementary school combining with problem solving strategies. Moreover, we conducted an initial analysis by empirical observation research, teaching diaries, postings and contents of discussions in students’ blogs, and teachers’ assessment of students’ processes of problem-solving. This study methodically synthesized the processes in each stage that students in each group showed in problem-solving discussion in blogs. Also, this study explored the processes and participants’ motivation in each stage that students applied blogs to problem-solving. The characteristics and limitations of these activities were discussed and relevant suggestions were provided for future relevant instruction according to the limitations. The research results showed that students had reached the processes of problem-solving to some degree in the instructional activities, but many limitations were still discovered. Suggestions were made that teachers can strength students’ basic concepts of problem-solving, and encourage students to have deeper discussions with their classrooms. Also, to make students have a better interaction in blog discussion, these activities can be held along with physical visiting activities.

The African bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is a polyphagous pest that attacks many crops in sub-Saharan Africa. The pest is currently managed through chemical control, and by planting Bt-transgenic cotton. Trichogrammatoidea lutea Girault (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) is an indigenous egg parasitoid of H. armigera in southern Africa. The study was undertaken to determine the potential of T. lutea as a biological control agent for augmentative releases as an alternative to chemical control, and to pave the way for the development of a mass-rearing method. The biology of T. lutea was examined in the laboratory on H. armigera, Chilo partellus (Swinhoe), and Cadra (formerly Ephestia) cautella (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). The objectives of the study were to determine (i) the exposure time of UV-irradiation required for killing the embryos of the hosts and the effect of UV-irradiated eggs on life history parameters of T. lutea, (ii) which host(s) and temperature(s) (18, 21, 24, 27, 30 and 35 °C) are suitable for mass-rearing of T. lutea, and (iii) the longevity and age-related reproductive biology of T. lutea on H. armigera. Findings of this study showed that 13 minutes of UV-irradiation were sufficient to kill embryos of all three host species. Life history parameters were not influenced by UV-irradiation but by host species. Parasitism, number of progeny per parasitized egg, proportion of females, and developmental time of T. lutea aried on different host species at temperatures ranging from 18 to 30 °C. Trichogrammatoidea lutea did not develop at 35 °C. Overall parasitism by T. lutea was higher on H. armigera and Cadra cautella compared to Chilo partellus. The number of progeny per parasitized egg was highest on H. armigera compared to Cadra cautella and Chilo partellus. The proportion of females was highest on Chilo partellus, intermediate on Cadra cautella, and lowest on H. armigera. For all species and temperatures tested, parasitism and number of progeny per parasitized egg by T. lutea was highest on H. armigera at 27 °C. The lower threshold for development of T. lutea on all hosts was approximately 12 °C. Female T. lutea parasitized eggs of H. armigera soon after eclosion, with the highest parasitism achieved on the day of eclosion. Though T. lutea parasitized eggs for up to 14 days, it may not be economically viable to keep them in cultures for more than three days since progeny became male biased three days after eclosion. The average longevity of female and male T. lutea was 9 and 6 days, respectively. The life table parameters of T. lutea, the net replacement rate (Ro), mean generation time (T), and instantaneous rate of population increase (rm) were 25.5, 9.79, and 0.33, respectively. The timing of inundative releases of T. lutea must be synchronised with the time that eggs of H. armigera are abundant in the field. The results of this study indicate that T. lutea is a good candidate for further testing for augmentative biological control of H. armigera in the field. If successful, T. lutea may provide opportunities for expanding tactics in the management of H. armigera in southern Africa. Copyright
Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2011.
Zoology and Entomology
unrestricted

This diploma thesis is focused on the silk production of invertebrates. The aim of the work is to systematically introduce important species and describe the purpose of their silk production. The ability to produce silk is widespread in many insect families. The production of proteinaceous fibers also occurs in arachnids and (in the form of byssus threads) also in mollusks. The Domestic Silk Moth (Bombyx mori) is an economically important insect, being a primary producer of silk. Hence, an integral part of the thesis focuses on Domestic Silk Moth. In this thesis all developmental stages of Silk Moth (from an egg to an adult) are described. In the past, efforts to breed silkworms also appeared in the Czech lands. Therefore, a short chapter of the thesis is devoted to the history of sericulture. Furthermore, this thesis describes methods of rearing silkworm larvae. For students of Natural Sciences and Biology, it is crucial to be in touch with live objects. Because the silkworm rearing is quite simple, it is possible to incorporate this topic to the school projects about holometabolous insects. The practical part of this thesis contains schedule of practical exercise about silk moths. And in final section of practical part, worksheets for lower-secondary students are presented. Keywords: silkworm...

碩士
國立臺北教育大學
自然科學教育學系碩士班
101
The activity of rearing insects in the elementary science course, it is just experience the insects complete metamorphosis in the eggs, larvae, pupae, adult; little understanding surroundings. To develop the attitude of cherishing life, students do more care the environment, we can see the butterflies or insects fly in the air. By this way, not only teaching diverse interesting content, also more in-depth observation of insects. Education as life, Life as education. The study investigated the value of classroom insect for the metropolitan area schools. The plight of the metropolitan area schools how the insect units is teaching and the related educational theory literature. In this study, focus on managing insect habitat at elementary school in a metropolitan area, sustainable management guidelines, to enhance the pupils' understanding of the relationship of the insect growth environment. There are 113 fourth-grade students participate in the activation of 5Why scaffolding questioning pedagogy and POE pedagogy, to guide students to jointly manage the campus habitat. Expand cultivation herbivorous object to create a campus ecological corridor. Students observe the campus insects outdoor, to replace the silkworm rearing activity. Use the "the attitude and behavior of insects questionnaire" as a tool to take Pre-test and Post-test, compare the students' attitudes and behavior. The results showed that operating insect habitat than traditional rearing silkworms teaching on the insect lesson, can effectively evoke students' good will of attitudes and behavior. Also students have more opportunities to develop science skills. Furthermore, students in school life, everyone has equal opportunity to get close to insects, observe insects, not because of family factors vary, to provide more equal opportunities in education. Students have more opportunities to develop observation, comparison, classification, and other scientific process skills.

Abstract Tenebrio molitor is one of the most reared species of insect at industrial scale. The entire life cycle of mealworms takes place in the same ecosystem and the duration of the different stages is highly dependent on environmental and physical conditions such as temperature, relative humidity, diet and population density. Most of the environment conditions as well as diet have already been studied and are documented. Tenebrio molitor is deeply adaptable to extreme dry conditions, obtaining water from both food ingestion (even substances with low water content) and/or atmosphere, however larvae grows faster in moist conditions upper than 70%. At the industrial scale, water can be provided as pure water, through wet paper, fresh vegetables with high water content or even polymers capable of absorbing water (polyacrylamide). Chapter 1 is a review of the optimal conditions for Tenebrio molitor rearing. In Chapter 2, the effects of relative humidity and the effects of ingesting fresh vegetables contaminated with pesticides and polyacrylamide are evaluated. Relative humidity affected the development of mealworm larvae, with higher pupation and body mass attained at 65% and with faster growth rates attained at 40%. No effects of pesticides were detected. However, the chemical analysis of body mass will allow knowing if there was bioaccumulation.).

Gene expression research is a valuable tool for investigating how gene regulation and expression control the underlying behaviors that structure a eusocial insect colony. However, labs that focus on ant research frequently keep ant colonies in the lab for ease of sampling. These laboratories typically do not attempt to completely emulate the ant's natural environment, and thus can expose the colonies to drastically different environmental conditions and food sources than they are used to in the wild. These shifts in diet and environment can cause changes in gene expression of the ants, affecting downstream behavioral and physiological systems. To examine the nature of these changes, colonies of the Argentine ant, Linepithema humile, (Mayr, 1868), were excavated from North Carolina and transferred to the lab, where they are sampled monthly. Illumina and qPCR analyses were conducted on forager samples to detect any changes in gene expression. Approximately six percent of the Argentine ant genome showed changes in gene regulation after six months in the laboratory environment. The subset of these genes examined via qPCR show that the expression of many genes are correlated with each other, indicating that these genes might be a part of a regulatory network. These findings showed that ant colonies kept in the lab experience changes in gene expression, resulting in downstream effects. Therefore, lab ant colonies are not necessarily representative of wild colonies when conducting experiments on the gene expression, behavior, and physiology of these colonies.