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Ejukonemu, Barbie O. M. "Refracting The Diseased Eye." Bayero Journal of Nursing and Health Care 3, no. 2 (September 11, 2022): 893–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/bjnhc.v3i2.9.
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Refractive error refers to ocular refractive status where images of objects of regard do not fall on the retina in a relaxed eye - the ametropic eye. Thus, objects are perceived as blur. Refractive error is an aberration in an otherwise normal physiological phenomenon and not a disease. Uncorrected refractive errors are the second most causes of blindness after cataract and the cause of almost half of visual impairment. Clinical refraction is a careful scientific procedure employed to correct refractive error. Given that refractive error is the most common reason patients present to the eye care practitioner, a lot of attention must be given to refraction. When an irreversible eye disease co-exist with refractive error, then correction of refractive error under this circumstance; refracting the diseased eye (RDE) become very challenging and painstaking. There will be likelihood of irregularities in the transparent refractive surfaces of the eye due to disease or surgery which make refraction difficult both for the patient and the examiner. Personal clinical experience of the author who is a low vision consultant and review of related literature from textbooks and journals are brought to bear in this article. This paper is a review of the RDE algorithm with delineation of these steps to enable an effective refractive endpoint for the eye with disease. The paper will enable young Optometrists to deal with refractive error masquerading irreversible eye disease. It is also an essential reading for the low vision Optometrist in mastering the art and science of low vision refraction.
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Nimi, R., R.S. Nishi, and S. Anitha. "Association of Ametropia in Children with the Refractive Status of Their Parents: A Case Control Study." International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research 15, no. 8 (August 30, 2023): 984–88. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11509648.
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<strong>Background: </strong>Refractive error is the condition in which incident parallel rays of light do not come to a focus upon the retina. It is one of the important causes of treatable visual impairment among children. Most of the refractive errors are potentially correctable with spectacles which is relatively an inexpensive modality of treatment. Aim of the study is to find out whether there is any association between the refractive status of children and their parents. <strong>Methods: </strong>A case-control study was conducted in 2018-2019.232 cases and 208 controls were included in the study. Cycloplegic refraction was done with or without post mydriatic test. Parental refraction was also assessed. <strong>Results: </strong>A total of 440 children were included in the study;232 cases and 208 controls. Among the cases 41.3% were males and 58.6% were females. 43.8% were males and 56.2% were females among the control group. In 30.6% children with unilateral refractive errors, only single parent had refractive error.(p value-0.005) and in 5.6% ,both parents had refractive errors.(p value 0.013).Both were statistically significant. Parents of 31.7% of cases with refractive errors in both eyes had unilateral refractive error (p value-0.011) and 5.5% had refractive error in both eyes (p value-0.011).Both were statistically significant. Among the control group, 1.9% had refractive errors in both the parents; whereas 20.2% has refractive error in a single parent. The parents of 61.5% cases had refractive errors. This was found to be statistically significant( p value – 0.005).In 30.6% children with unilateral refractive error, only single parent had refractive error(p value-0.005) and 5.6% both parents had refractive errors(p value-0.031%) which were found to be significant. In 31.7% of children with refractive error in both the eyes, only one parent had refractive error p value-(0.011) and 5.5% had refractive error in both the parents(p value-0.011).Both were found to be significant. <strong>Conclusion: </strong>The results of the present study shows a strong association between the refractive status of children and their parents. This points towards the importance of regular screening of children of ametropic parents for the development of any refractive error as they grow.
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Godar, Srijana Thapa. "MAGNITUDE OF REFRACTIVE ERRORS IN CHILDREN IN TERTIARY CARE HOSPITAL OF WESTERN NEPAL." Journal of Chitwan Medical College 10, no. 2 (June 25, 2020): 54–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.54530/jcmc.167.
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Background: Refractive error is one of the most common causes of the visual impairment and second leading cause of treatable blindness. The objective of the study was to determine the magnitude of refractive errors in children.
 Methods: This was a hospital based cross-sectional study conducted on 254 children attending Ophthalmology OPD of Manipal Teaching Hospital, Pokhara. The children whose visual acuity was worse than 6/6 but improved with pinhole were included in this study. Vision test, retinoscopy and subjective refraction was done in all subjects and cycloplegic refraction was done when needed. Statistical analysis was carried out using Epi-info version 7.
 Results: The commonest type of refractive error was astigmatism (46.06%) followed by myopia (42.31%). Majority of children had low grade of refractive errors (46.85%). Among the children, “with the rule astigmatism” was maximum (27.56%). Majority of children were in the age between 11 to 15 years (77.95%). The refractive error was seen more in female (63.78%). Among the children of refractive errors, 29.13% had family history, 33.46% had given the history of wearing spectacles and 10.24% children had amblyopia. There was statistically significant association between refractive errors and age groups, history of wearing spectacles, amblyopia and grading of refractive errors. However, there was no statistically significant association of refractive error with gender, residence and family history.
 Conclusions: Astigmatism was the common type of refractive error followed by myopia. This study emphasizes the importance of detection of refractive error in children.
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Godar, Srijana Thapa. "Magnitude of refractive errors in children in tertiary care hospital of western Nepal." Journal of Chitwan Medical College 10, no. 2 (June 25, 2020): 54–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/jcmc.v10i2.29674.
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Background: Refractive error is one of the most common causes of the visual impairment and second leading cause of treatable blindness. The objective of the study was to determine the magnitude of refractive errors in children.
 Methods: This was a hospital based cross-sectional study conducted on 254 children attending Ophthalmology OPD of Manipal Teaching Hospital, Pokhara. The children whose visual acuity was worse than 6/6 but improved with pinhole were included in this study. Vision test, retinoscopy and subjective refraction was done in all subjects and cycloplegic refraction was done when needed. Statistical analysis was carried out using Epi-info version 7.
 Results: The commonest type of refractive error was astigmatism (46.06%) followed by myopia (42.31%). Majority of children had low grade of refractive errors (46.85%). Among the children, “with the rule astigmatism” was maximum (27.56%). Majority of children were in the age between 11 to 15 years (77.95%). The refractive error was seen more in female (63.78%). Among the children of refractive errors, 29.13% had family history, 33.46% had given the history of wearing spectacles and 10.24% children had amblyopia. There was statistically significant association between refractive errors and age groups, history of wearing spectacles, amblyopia and grading of refractive errors. However, there was no statistically significant association of refractive error with gender, residence and family history.
 Conclusions: Astigmatism was the common type of refractive error followed by myopia. This study emphasizes the importance of detection of refractive error in children.
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Yadav, Himanshu Kumar, Snigdha Sen, Preeti Gupta, Renu Agrawal, and Niranjan Singh. "Assessment of Refractive Status of 5-15 Years Old Children Attending Government Schools of Rural Agra." Healthline 13, no. 1 (March 31, 2022): 61–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.51957/healthline_304_2021.
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Introduction: In children uncorrected refractive errors have a profound effect on educational and psychosocial development hence it is necessary to estimate the prevalence both at the community and at the school level to aid planning and implementation of refractive error services in children. Objective: To determine the refractive status of 5 to 15 years old children attending government schools of rural areas of district Agra, Uttar Pradesh (UP), India. Method: Study conducted on 902 students of age group 5-15 years of randomly selected government schools of Bichpuri Block of district Agra. Children underwent visual acuity assessment and torch light examination, height and weight measurement. Children with VA ≤6/9 were further examined and cycloplegic retinoscopy, fundus examination, slit lamp examination and post mydriatic refraction was done. On the basis of values of cycloplegic refraction and post mydriatic refraction, refractive error was classified as myopia, hypermetropia and astigmatism. Statistical Analysis was done by applying Chi square test. Result: Out of 902 children, 125 children (13.86 %) were having refractive error of which 76 were myopic (8.43%), 39 were astigmatic (4.32%) and 10 were hypermetropic (1.11%). There was an increase in the overall prevalence of refractive error with advancing age. There was no significant association of refractive error with gender and nutritional status. Conclusion: Vision screening of school children is very useful for early detection and correction of refractive errors. Screening of the refractive errors in school should be carried out periodically and regularly.
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Kerkar, Sheela, and Apurva Thombre. "An observational study to evaluate the prevalence and pattern of refractive errors in children aged 3-17 years in Mumbai, India." International Journal of Contemporary Pediatrics 7, no. 5 (April 24, 2020): 1028. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2349-3291.ijcp20201632.
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Background: Refractive error is one of the most important causes of avoidable visual impairment. Early detection of refractive error in children is essential to avoid any permanent disability. The objective of the study was to determine the prevalence and pattern of refractive errors as per age, gender and educational standard in school children aged 3-17 years.Methods: This was an observational non-interventional study. 600 eyes of 300 participants in the age group of 3-17 years were evaluated. All underwent cycloplegic refraction followed by objective refraction. Participants were divided into 3 groups as follows 3-8 years, 9-12 years and 13-17 years and evaluation of type of refractive error was done age wise and gender wise.Results: The number of male and female participants was almost similar with a male:female ratio of 1.02:1. Refractive errors were most common in the age group of 9-12 years. The most common refractive error was astigmatism followed by myopia and hypermetropia. It was also found that majority of patients had bilateral refractive errors.Conclusions: The most common refractive error was astigmatism followed by myopia and hypermetropia. It was also found that majority of patients had bilateral refractive errors. The visual acuity in majority was 6/18 which according to WHO classification falls in Category 0 of Visual impairment in India.
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Taludhar, S., and S. Dhakal. "Refractive Error Profile in a Tertiary Centre in Western Nepal." International Journal of Infection and Microbiology 2, no. 2 (July 20, 2013): 59–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ijim.v2i2.8324.
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INTRODUCTION: Refractive error is one of the causes of avoidable blindness. Myopia, hypermetropia and astigmatism are the common types of refractive error. Not many studies are done to detect pattern of refractive error in Western Nepal. So, the study will determine the prevalence and distribution of refractive errors. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A prospective study of all consecutive patients of age less than 40 years who visited eye department, Gandaki Medical College, between May 2010 and May 2011 was conducted. Visual acuity, naked eye and pin hole examination was done by ophthalmic assistant with cycloplegic refraction when needed. Those who did not turn up for refraction were excluded from the study. RESULTS: A total of 601 patients were seen within the study period. Mean age of male patients was 22.4 years }0.6 (95% CI, 21.2-23.6 years) and mean age of female patients was 24.2 years }0.5 (95% CI, 23.2-25.2 years). Majority of the patients were in age group 11-20 years (39.3%). Myopia was the most common refractive error (43.3%) followed by simple myopic astigmatism (23.8%). Refractive errors were more common in females. CONCLUSIONS: Myopia was the commonest refractive compared to hypermetropia. Refractive error was more common in females than in males. Such studies help to know the picture of refractive errors in community and such reports are helpful in planning programme to prevent avoidable blindness.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ijim.v2i2.8324 Int J Infect Microbiol 2013;2(2):59-63
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Al Bahhawi, Tariq, Anwar M. Makeen, Hadi Hassan Daghreeri, Mohannad Faisal Tobaigy, Abdulrahman Mohammed Adawi, Faisal Mohammed Guhal, Murad Abdullah Akkur, et al. "Refractive Error among Male Primary School Students in Jazan, Saudi Arabia: Prevalence and Associated Factors." Open Ophthalmology Journal 12, no. 1 (September 28, 2018): 264–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874364101812010264.
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Background: Refractive error is a common and serious eye disorder that affects more than 153 million people globally. The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence and pattern of refractive error among male primary school children in Jazan region, Saudi Arabia. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among a randomly selected group of 395 students (aged 6-14 years) in Jazan region, Southwest Saudi Arabia. An optometrist and medical students assessed the refraction error using an autorefractor, a Snellen E chart and retinoscopy. Results: The overall prevalence of uncorrected refractive error in either eye was, 22% higher among rural students. The most prevalent refractive error was hyperopia (32.2%) followed by myopic astigmatism (31%) then myopia (17.2%). Next were hyperopic astigmatism (16.1%) and mixed astigmatism (3.5%). The following variables were associated with a higher risk of refractive errors and myopia: living in rural areas, having parents with refractive errors, spending more time on electronic devices and shorter visual distances. Conclusion: Refractive error was highly prevalent among primary school children in Jazan, Saudi Arabia. The rural students were more affected by refractive errors, mainly hyperopia. The preschool vision test should be reconsidered, and a periodic vision examination should be applied to detect vision problems as early as possible.
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Hazarika, Himanto Nath, Dipak Bhuyan, Suranjana Chaliha Hazarika, and Sujit Addya. "Refractive errors in age group seven to fifteen years: North-east India scenario." International Journal Of Community Medicine And Public Health 4, no. 6 (May 22, 2017): 1928. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20172151.
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Background: The objectives of study were to find out the different types of refractive errors in children between seven to fifteen years age group and the cause of uncorrected defective vision.Methods: A prospective study was designed of two thousand children aged between seven to fifteen years, attending outpatient department. Study period was one year. Consent was obtained from their guardian. Inclusion criteria were children with refractive errors. Children presenting with organic defects of ocular structures, infections, corneal opacity, cataract, choroid and retinal disorders were excluded from study. Data were collected by history taking and comprehensive ocular examination, visual tests for both near and distant vision. Refractive error assessed by cycloplegic drug with one percent Homatropine eye drops, by streak retinoscopy. Objective refraction were carried out and documented. Subjective refraction was done after one week. Both BCVA and uncorrected refractive errors were ascertained and recorded.Results: Out of two thousand children examined, myopic = 34%, hypermetropic = 11%, and astigmatic = 55%. M: F = 900:1000. Study showed headache as the commonest symptom. 17% of the patients had positive family history. Correctable errors constitute 91% of the total cases.Conclusions: Myopic astigmatism was found to be the most frequent refractive error in children. Mass screening is required for early diagnosis of refractive error. Prescribing corrective glasses for children with refractive errors at an early age will prevent childhood morbidity.
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Chean, Chung Shen, Boon Kang Aw Yong, Samuel Comely, Deena Maleedy, Stephen Kaye, Mark Batterbury, Vito Romano, Esmaeil Arbabi, and Victor Hu. "Refractive outcomes following cataract surgery in patients who have had myopic laser vision correction." BMJ Open Ophthalmology 4, no. 1 (April 2019): e000242. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjophth-2018-000242.
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ObjectivePrediction errors are increased among patients presenting for cataract surgery post laser vision correction (LVC) as biometric relationships are altered. We investigated the prediction errors of five formulae among these patients.Methods and analysisThe intended refractive error was calculated as a sphero-cylinder and as a spherical equivalent for analysis. For determining the difference between the intended and postoperative refractive error, data were transformed into components of Long's formalism, before changing into sphero-cylinder notation. These differences in refractive errors were compared between the five formulae and to that of a control group using a Kruskal-Wallis test. An F-test was used to compare the variances of the difference distributions.Results22 eyes post LVC and 19 control eyes were included for analysis. Comparing both groups, there were significant differences in the postoperative refractive error (p=0.038). The differences between the intended and postoperative refractive error were greater in post LVC eyes than control eyes (p=0.012), irrespective of the calculation method for the intended refractive error (p<0.01). The mean difference between the intended and postoperative refractive error was relatively small, but its variance was significantly greater among post LVC eyes than control eyes (p<0.01). Among post LVC eyes, there were no significant differences between the mean intended target refraction and between the intended and postoperative refractive error using five biometry formulae (p=0.76).ConclusionBiometry calculations were less precise for patients who had LVC than patients without LVC. No particular biometry formula appears to be superior among patients post LVC.
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Ismail, Lili Asma, and Sheiladevi Sukumaran. "Prevalence of refractive errors among school children in Wangsa Maju, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia." Medical hypothesis, discovery & innovation in optometry 3, no. 3 (December 30, 2022): 106–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.51329/mehdioptometry158.
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Background: Uncorrected refractive error is the most common cause of vision impairment and the second leading cause of blindness worldwide. Its prevalence differs among and within countries. This study was aimed at exploring the pattern and prevalence of refractive error among school children in the Wangsa Maju Township, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
 Methods: A stratified, multistage, cluster random sampling in a geographically defined area was employed, and 245 school children, aged 8–12 years, from two primary schools in Wangsa Maju Township, Kuala Lumpur, were recruited. The cross-sectional study employed interviewing, measuring uncorrected distance visual acuity (UCDVA) using the Snellen chart, cycloplegic refraction under a streak retinoscope refined subjectively, and a detailed slit-lamp examination to assess the anterior and posterior segments. Myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism were defined as spherical equivalent (SE) greater than or equal to - 0.50, SE greater than or equal to + 2.00, and cylindrical greater than or equal to 0.75 D, respectively. Reduced UCDVA was defined as an unaided visual acuity < 6/9.
 Results: The mean (standard deviation) age of the participants was 10.42 (1.22) years. The overall prevalence of refractive error was 47.8%. Of 245 screened school children, including 42 (35.9%) boys and 75 (64.1%) girls, 117 had refractive error, with a prevalence of refractive error of 17.1% and 30.6% in boys and girls, respectively. Myopia was the most common type (30.2%), followed by astigmatism (16.3%) and hyperopia (1.2%). The prevalence of reduced UCDVA was 36.3% among the screened school children, attributable to refractive error with a significantly high positive correlation (r = +.721; P < 0.01). Among those with refractive errors, sex differences in the magnitude of refractive errors were not statistically significant in the three types of refractive errors (all P > 0.05).
 Conclusions: The prevalence of refractive error among primary school children in Wangsa Maju Township, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia was 47.8%; girls outnumbered boys, but the magnitude of refractive errors showed no sex differences. The prevalence of reduced UCDVA was 36.3%, attributable to refractive error. Irrespective of sex, myopia had the highest prevalence compared to other refractive errors, and its prevalence increased with age. Future population-based studies are required to address the limitations concerning environmental risk factors for refractive error and the impact of ethnic or familial backgrounds on their prevalence in a similar but larger population using the same protocol.
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Shikha, Pawaiya, and Singh Pawaiya Amit. "Refractive Errors and Associated Factors among Patients Visiting a Medical College OPD, India." International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research 16, no. 10 (October 31, 2024): 1195–99. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14176503.
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<strong>Background: </strong>In Ethiopia, refractive error is the second leading cause of vision impairment and the third main cause of blindness. Because refraction services are scarce and difficult to obtain, many people with refractive error live with impaired vision or blindness for the rest of their lives. <strong>Objective:</strong> The primary goal of this study was to determine the prevalence of refractive errors and associated factors among patients who visited Boru Meda Hospital. <strong>Methods:</strong> A retrospective cross-sectional study was conducted from April to June 2023, all patients who visited OPD of Eye Department of Santosh medical College were deemed our source population; the sample frame was the secondary eye unit outpatient departments register. To select samples, simple random sampling was used. Data was entered by using Epi-data version 3 and analysed with Statistical Package for Social Science 20. Tables and graphs were used to display descriptive statistics, and logistic regression was used to examine the relationship between the dependent and independent variables. At p < 0.05, statistical significance was inferred. <strong>Results:</strong> Refractive error was detected in 42 (18.3%) of study participants. The average age was 46.69 ± 20.77. There were 136 men and 93 women in this group (59.4 and 40.6%, respectively). Myopia was the most frequent refractive defect, accounting for 52.4% of all cases. <strong>Conclusion & Recommendation:</strong> Refractive error is a widespread problem in our study area that affects people of all age groups. We recommend patients to have screening on regular basis so that refractive anomalies can be detected early.
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Aggarwal, Aditya, Siddhartha Gairola, Uddeshya Upadhyay, Akshay P. Vasishta, Diwakar Rao, Aditya Goyal, Kaushik Murali, Nipun Kwatra, and Mohit Jain. "Towards Automating Retinoscopy for Refractive Error Diagnosis." Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive, Mobile, Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies 6, no. 3 (September 6, 2022): 1–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3550283.
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Refractive error is the most common eye disorder and is the key cause behind correctable visual impairment, responsible for nearly 80% of the visual impairment in the US. Refractive error can be diagnosed using multiple methods, including subjective refraction, retinoscopy, and autorefractors. Although subjective refraction is the gold standard, it requires cooperation from the patient and hence is not suitable for infants, young children, and developmentally delayed adults. Retinoscopy is an objective refraction method that does not require any input from the patient. However, retinoscopy requires a lens kit and a trained examiner, which limits its use for mass screening. In this work, we automate retinoscopy by attaching a smartphone to a retinoscope and recording retinoscopic videos with the patient wearing a custom pair of paper frames. We develop a video processing pipeline that takes retinoscopic videos as input and estimates the net refractive error based on our proposed extension of the retinoscopy mathematical model. Our system alleviates the need for a lens kit and can be performed by an untrained examiner. In a clinical trial with 185 eyes, we achieved a sensitivity of 91.0% and specificity of 74.0% on refractive error diagnosis. Moreover, the mean absolute error of our approach was 0.75±0.67D on net refractive error estimation compared to subjective refraction measurements. Our results indicate that our approach has the potential to be used as a retinoscopy-based refractive error screening tool in real-world medical settings.
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ALAM, MOHAMMAD, and MOHAMMAD FAREED. "REFRACTIVE ERRORS." Professional Medical Journal 18, no. 04 (December 10, 2011): 649–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.29309/tpmj/2011.18.04.2656.
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Objective: To know the profile of refractive errors in school age children in DHQ Hospital Karak and group of teaching Hospitals Bannu. Setting: DHQ Hospital Karak and group of Teaching hospitals Bannu. Period: Two years study from August 2007 to August 2009. Design: Descriptive study. Materials & Methods: A work up proforma was prepared for record of children. School age children with age range from 5 to 15 years who attended the eye OPD were documented and informed consents were taken from children and their parents. They were screened for refractive errors with retinoscopy. In some children cycloplegic refraction was done.Fundoscopy was also done to exclude any lesion causing visual impairment in some children .Refractive errors was noted as spherical equivalent of myopia and hypermetropia in children who had both spherical and cylindrical error while in those children who had only cylindrical error were assigned as astigmatism .Children with any organic lesion in cornea lens and fundi were excluded from study. Results: Total 2680 school age children with age range from 5 to 15 years were examined out of which 1560(58.20%) were male and 1120(41.8%) were female.1688(62.98%) children were emmetropic while 992(37.01%) had refractive error .Spherical equivalent of myopia was present in 541(54.53%) while that of hypermetropia in 360 (36.29%)children. Astigmatism was present in 91(9.17%) children. Conclusions: Refractive error is a common ocular disorder affecting school age children. Myopia is more common followed by hypermetropia. Therefore routine careful visual check up in school age children should be carried out.
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Mohmand, Naveed Ahmad, Rozina Shahadat Khan, Abid Ullah, and Abid Alam. "Refractive Errors in Children of 11 to 16 Years of Age Group attending Eye OPD at Hayatabad Medical Complex Peshawar." Pakistan Journal of Medical and Health Sciences 16, no. 10 (October 30, 2022): 46–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.53350/pjmhs22161046.
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Background: Children of school age are susceptible to refractive error, which has a significant negative influence on lowering the learning capacity and educational potential. Aim: To estimate the frequency of different types of refractive erors in children, age group 11 to 16 year, visiting eye OPD H.M.C Peshawar. Study Design: Cross sectional descriptive study. Place and duration of study: Study has been conducted at Eye OPD of H.M.C Peshawar in three months duration. Methods: A total of 308 patients fulfilling the inclusion criterion were examined for Visual acuity. Distance visual acuity was measured both monocularly and binocularly by using a Snellen E chart at a distance of 6 meter. After refraction, best corrected visual acuity was assessed and recorded. Refractive status was recorded according to the criterion. Results: A total of 308 subjects were examined, out of which 73 (23%) were having Ammetropia i.e. having refractive error. Among 73 refractive error children 27 (36.98 %) were having Myopia and 24 (32.87%) were having Hyperopia and 22 (30.13%) were Astigmatic. It was found that male were more affected than females, having frequency of 63% and 36.98% respectively. Conclusion: Refractive error can no longer be ignored as a target for urgent action. The world must make every effort to meet the goals of VISION 2020. A child’s whole life may get ruined just because of uncorrected or inappropriately corrected Refractive error. There is dire need of public awareness regarding refractive errors and availability of services. The results show a great burden of refractive error patients on the hospital, so the facilities of the refractive services need to be increased. Keywords: Refractive error, visual acquity, Ammetropia, Hyperopia, Myopia
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Akhter, Waseem, Erum Yousafzai, Afia Matloob Rana, and Shakaib Anwar. "Refractive Errors: Prevalence and Pattern among Rural Population of Islamabad, Pakistan." Journal of Islamabad Medical & Dental College 9, no. 2 (June 29, 2020): 103–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.35787/jimdc.v9i2.326.
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Background: Refractive error is the most common cause of correctable visual loss worldwide. Decreased vision due to refractive error can be easily corrected with the help of spectacles, contact lenses and refractive surgery. However, there are 42% of uncorrected refractive errors all over the world. The present study aimed to evaluate different kinds of refractive errors, its prevalence and pattern in patients from rural areas who visited our hospital in the last five years.
 Material and Methods: This cross-sectional study enrolled 2,138 patients, who visited eye OPD at Rawal Institute of Health Sciences, Islamabad during a period of five years i.e. from September, 2013 to September, 2018. Patients having only refractive error with an age of five years and above were included in the study. All patients had objective refraction with automated refractometer followed by subjective refraction. Data was entered and analyzed in SPSS version 20.0. Chi-square test was used for comparing groups with a P-value of <0.05 considered as statistically significant.
 Results: Compound myopic astigmatism was the most common error found in our study population (n=575; 26.9%). The second most frequent complaint was simple myopia (n=501; 23.4%) followed by presbyopia (n=441; 20.6%) and mixed astigmatism (n=235; 11%). Patients with more than one refractive error included 178 (8.3%) with mixed astigmatism and presbyopia and 78 (3.6%) with simple myopia and presbyopia. Compound myopic astigmatism was more prevalent in younger ages compared to older age groups (46.4% vs 19.9%) (P <0.001). Mixed astigmatism (12.4% vs 8.9%), simple myopia (23.8% vs 22.9%) and presbyopia (21.3% vs 19.5%) were slightly greater in females than males (P=0.07), respectively.
 Conclusions: The prevalence of myopia is significantly higher among female population and young individuals. Mixed astigmatism combined with presbyopia is more common among elderly population.
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Mahnoor Qayyum, Muhammad Ajmal Ch, Muhammad Ajmal Chaudhary, Salah ud Din Arbi, Rida Khalid, and Abida Hanif. "Patterns of refractive errors in albino patients in pediatric age group." Professional Medical Journal 30, no. 04 (March 31, 2023): 451–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.29309/tpmj/2023.30.04.7416.
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Objective: To evaluate the patterns of refractive errors in albino patients in pediatric age group and to find out the most common refractive error in these patients. Study Design: Cross-sectional study. Setting: Recruited all patients who visited Eye OPD of The Children’s Hospitals and The Institute of Child Healths, Lahore and Multan. Period: July 2021 to December 2021. Material & Methods: Between the ages of 02 to 12 years. The participants presented with oculocutaneous albinism (OCA) were included and the participants with ocular pathologies like congenital cataract, retinopathy of prematurity, buphthalmos etc were excluded. Cycloplegic refraction was done to evaluate the refractive errors and fundoscopy was done to find out ocular pathology. Non-probability convenient technique was used. Chi square test was used for statistical analysis. Results: This study recruited 22 patients with OCA between the ages of 02-12 years (mean age: 6.86 ± 3.385), 13 were male patients and 09 were female patients. 19 patients (86.36 %) had visual acuity (VA) fix and follow the light and 03 (13.64 %) patients were not able to fix and follow the light. Most of the patients have moderate type of refractive error. 06 patients (27.3%) had mild refractive error, 09 patients (40.9%) had moderate and 07 patients (31.8%) had severe refractive error. 13 patients (59.1%) showed astigmatism, 08 patients (36.4%) showed hypermetropia and only 01 patient (4.5%) showed myopia. Nystagmus was present in all 22 patients. Conclusion: This study suggested that astigmatism was the most common refractive error in OCA patients followed by hypermetropia. If refractive errors are not managed timely it will affect their daily life activities and increase the burden on the community.
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Shrestha, Shristi, and Khem Raj Kaini. "Refractive errors in type II diabetic patients." Journal of Universal College of Medical Sciences 3, no. 3 (December 31, 2015): 17–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/jucms.v3i3.24243.
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INTRODUCTION: The prevalence of diabetes is increasing rapidly. Refractive error in the diabetic population is considered a main cause of visual impairment. So this study was conducted to find out the pattern of refractive errors in patients with type II diabetes mellitus in Western Nepal.
 MATERIAL AND METHODS: It was a hospital-based cross-sectional study. Three hundred forty eyes of one hundred seventy patients with type II diabetes underwent comprehensive eye examination including subjective and objective refraction and serum biochemistry.
 RESULTS: The mean refraction was -0.132±0.88 D. Emmetropia was seen in 49.7% of the patients, hypermetropia in 22.6%, myopia in 12.6%, and astigmatism in 15% of the patients. Older age groups had more hypermetropic refractive error (p<0.05). Female gender was a risk factor for hypermetropia (p=0.042). Good glycemic control was seen in 49.7%. There was statistically significant correlation between fasting blood sugar level and spherical equivalent refraction (p<0.05, r = -0.115).
 CONCLUSION: The present hospital-based study noted a refractive error in 50.3% among diabetic population in Pokhara with hypermetropia being the most common type (22.6%) than myopia (12.6%) and astigmatism (15%).
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Srivastava, Namrata, P. N. Dwivedi, and Syed Aswad. "Evaluation the effect of posterior sub-capsular cataract on the refractive state of eye." International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences 11, no. 7 (June 30, 2023): 2611–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2320-6012.ijrms20232108.
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Background: Cataract refractive errors are caused by cataracts. It can go up to several dioptres (D). Correction of expected refractive errors during cataract surgery by altering the axial length measurement. Determine the effect of posterior sub-capsular cataracts on the eye's refractive status. Methods: 112 patients with posterior sub-capsular cataracts participated in the study. The most common refractive error found in PSC was astigmatism, followed by myopia. The study was conducted at Angel Eye Institute of Ophthalmology; Kanpur U.P. The refractive status of eyes with posterior sub-capsular cataracts was determined using retinoscopy and subjective refraction. Biometry is done by A-scan and keratometer. Results: A total of 112 patients were included in this study. Of these, 27 (26.5%) were males and 75 (73.5%) were females. The Patient’s age was about 60 years. The results showed that the refractive errors caused by posterior sub-capsular cataracts were mainly myopic astigmatism (97. 1%) and spherical myopia (2.9%), 0.16SD. The mean value of myopic astigmatism in patients with PSC was (1.7D, 15.7%), 0.93 SD and the mean value of spherical myopia was (0.1 D, 2.9%), 0.67 SD. Mean uncorrected visual acuity was 1 log MAR and 1.6 SD. The mean corrected visual acuity was 0.3 log MAR and 1.2 SD. Conclusions: The most significant refractive error in PSC was astigmatism, followed by myopia. These findings may help clarify the type of refractive error in patients with PSC and the prediction of ocular vision outcome.
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Khoramnia, Ramin, Gerd Auffarth, Grzegorz Łabuz, George Pettit, and Rajaraman Suryakumar. "Refractive Outcomes after Cataract Surgery." Diagnostics 12, no. 2 (January 19, 2022): 243. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics12020243.
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A post-operative manifest refractive error as close as possible to target is key when performing cataract surgery with intraocular lens (IOL) implantation, given that residual astigmatism and refractive errors negatively impact patients’ vision and satisfaction. This review explores refractive outcomes prior to modern biometry; advances in biometry and its impact on patients’ vision and refractive outcomes after cataract surgery; key factors that affect prediction accuracy; and residual refractive errors and the impact on visual outcomes. There are numerous pre-, intra-, and post-operative factors that can influence refractive outcomes after cataract surgery, leaving surgeons with a small “error budget” (i.e., the source and sum of all influencing factors). To mitigate these factors, precise measurement and correct application of ocular biometric data are required. With advances in optical biometry, prediction of patient post-operative refractory status has become more accurate, leading to an increased proportion of patients achieving their target refraction. Alongside improvements in biometry, advancements in microsurgical techniques, new IOL technologies, and enhancements to IOL power calculations have also positively impacted patients’ refractory status after cataract surgery.
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Aham-Onyebuchi, UO, OO Jagun, A. Betiku, O. Olijide, and M. Leshi. "The Prevalence and Pattern of Refractive error in Ogun State, Nigeria." Babcock University Medical Journal (BUMJ) 1, no. 2 (June 30, 2015): 20–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.38029/bumj.v1i2.9.
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Objective: To determine the prevalence and pattern of refractive errors in Ogun State, Nigeria. The prevalence of blindness was also determined.
 Method: A cross sectional descriptive survey. Participants aged 15years and above were randomly selected from 1125 attendees of different community medical outreaches conducted in 5 Local government areas of Ogun State between August 2012 and March 2013. Participants underwent ocular examination and refraction (automated objective and subjective assessments).
 Results: The sample consisted of 780 participants. Their mean age was 49.14 (±18.37), and 52.8% were females. About two-thirds [67.7%] had presenting visual acuity [VA] of at least 6/18, while 14.3% were legally blind [VA worse than 3/60].Astigmatism was the most prevalent refractive error [40%] but on conversion tospherical equivalents, hyperopia [28.5%] became the most prevalent error. Apart from refractive errors, cataract and glaucoma were found to be the other major causes of visual impairment amongst the respondents.
 Conclusion: The prevalence of refractive errors and blindness in the study population was higher than previously documented with hyperopia being the most prevalent spherical equivalent refractive error. An urgent integration of primary eye care into the existing primary health care system for prevention of blindness is advocated.
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Lee, Ling, Muhammed Iqbal Javaid, Farah Riaz, Farooq Awan, Beatrice Varga, Suit May Ho, Myra Beth McGuinness, and Anthea Burnett. "Quality of refractive error care in Pakistan: an unannounced standardised patient study." BMJ Open Ophthalmology 8, no. 1 (October 2023): e001354. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjophth-2023-001354.
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ObjectiveUndercorrected refractive errors are the primary cause of vision impairment worldwide, including in Pakistan. However, limited data exist on the quality of refractive error care. Our study assessed the quality of refractive error care in Punjab, Pakistan by estimating the proportion of spectacles that were optimally prescribed.Methods and analysisIn this cross-sectional study, 12 unannounced standardised patients (USPs) from Jhang, Khanewal and Sahiwal districts were recruited. USPs underwent baseline subjective refraction and were trained to attend optical services, observe consultations, request spectacles and obtain prescriptions. The spectacles received were compared with baseline refraction to determine quality. We also examined the associations between spectacle quality, service and patient characteristics.ResultsOut of 276 attempted visits to 69 optical services, 241 pairs of spectacles were dispensed. A population size-weighted percentage of 42.7% (95% CI 36.4% to 49.3%) of spectacles were optimal quality, with the range varying from 13.8% in Jhang to 67.0% in Khanewal. Half the suboptimal quality spectacles had horizontal prism deviations outside of tolerance limits. Optimal spectacles were associated with performing focimetry (unadjusted OR=7.15, 95% CI (3.02 to 16.94), p<0.001) and good communication (OR=2.23, 95% CI (1.06 to 4.67), p=0.03). Hyperopic USPs were less likely to receive optimal spectacles (OR=0.01 95% CI (0.00 to 0.11), p<0.001).ConclusionThe quality of refractive error care in Pakistan requires improvement, particularly in the Jhang district. Key areas for enhancing refractive error care in Pakistan include refining dispensing and refraction skills for hyperopic prescriptions, providing training on the risks of using previous spectacles, and emphasising the importance of effective communication skills.
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Ohlendorf, Arne, Alexander Leube, and Siegfried Wahl. "Advancing Digital Workflows for Refractive Error Measurements." Journal of Clinical Medicine 9, no. 7 (July 12, 2020): 2205. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jcm9072205.
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Advancements in clinical measurement of refractive errors should lead to faster and more reliable measurements of such errors. The study investigated different aspects of advancements and the agreement of the spherocylindrical prescriptions obtained with an objective method of measurement (“Aberrometry” (AR)) and two methods of subjective refinements (“Wavefront Refraction” (WR) and “Standard Refraction” (StdR)). One hundred adults aged 20–78 years participated in the course of the study. Bland–Altman analysis of the right eye measurement of the spherocylindrical refractive error (M) identified mean differences (±95% limits of agreement) between the different types of measurements of +0.36 D (±0.76 D) for WR vs. AR (t-test: p < 0.001), +0.35 D (± 0.84 D) for StdR vs. AR (t-test: p < 0.001), and 0.0 D (± 0.65 D) for StdR vs. WR (t-test: p < 0.001). Monocular visual acuity was 0.0 logMAR in 96% of the tested eyes, when refractive errors were corrected with measurements from AR, indicating that only small differences between the different types of prescriptions are present.
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Amin, Farah, Mutahir Shah, Siraj Safi, Sadaf Qayyum, and Saif Ullah. "Assessment of the effect of Posterior Sub-capsular cataract on the refractive status of the eye at the outpatient department of Hayatabad Medical Complex, Peshawar." Journal of Shifa Tameer-e-Millat University 5, no. 2 (February 23, 2023): 99–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.32593/jstmu/vol5.iss2.214.
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Introduction: Cataract-induced refractive change is the refraction change caused by a cataract. It can reach multiple diopters (D). It modifies expected refraction errors during cataract surgery by modifying axial length measurement.
 Objective: To find the effect of the Posterior subcapsular Cataracts on the refractive status of the eye.
 Methodology: A cross-sectional study was progressed in Eye OPD in Hayatabad Medical Complex, Peshawar. 102 patients having Posterior Subcapsular Cataracts were part of this study. The anterior segment was examined with a slit lamp for evaluation of the posterior subcapsular cataract. The refractive status of an eye having a posterior subcapsular cataract was determined using Retinoscopy and subjective refraction techniques. The axial length of the eye was measured using A-Scan. Keratometric reading was measured using Keratometer.
 Results: A total of 102 patients were included in this study. Of these, 27 were males and 75 were females. The mean age was 60.5 years with 5.8SD. Results from the study showed refractive error due to Posterior Subcapsular Cataracts were mainly myopic astigmatism and spherical myopia with 0.16SD. Patients with PSCs had myopic astigmatism with a mean value of (1.7diopters, 15.7%) with 0.93SD and spherical myopia with a mean value of (0.1D, 2.9%) with 0.67SD. 
 Conclusion: The most common refractive error found in PSCs was Astigmatism followed by Myopia. These results may help to clarify the types of refractive errors in patients with PSCs and the prediction of visual outcomes with spectacles.
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Awasthi, S., B. P. Pant, and T. Langaas. "Refractive Error Prevalence among School Children in Dadeldhura District of Nepal." Kathmandu University Medical Journal 18, no. 2 (December 4, 2020): 46–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/kumj.v18i2.33225.
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Background Uncorrected refractive error is the major cause of visual impairment worldwide. There is no data on refractive error prevalence among school children in hilly region of Far West Nepal.
 Objective The prevalence of refractive error has been found to vary among children of different caste/ethnic groups and geographical regions. The purpose of this study is to determine the prevalence of refractive error among school children from different caste/ethnic groups in Dadeldhura district of Far West Nepal.
 Method This is a cross sectional study of refractive error among secondary school children from 2 schools in Dadeldhura district. All children underwent a vision screening consisting of visual acuity, ocular examination and refraction. Myopia was diagnosed for an eye with spherical equivalent refraction (SER) ≤ -0.5 D whereas an eye with SER ≥ +2.0 D was diagnosed as hyperopic. Ethnicity was reported through self administered questionnaire.
 Result Among children aged 12 to 16 years (14.07 ± 1.4) prevalence of myopia was 3.5%, hyperopia 0.33% and astigmatism 1%. All except three children had spherical equivalent refraction (SER) within ±2 D. Caste/ethnicity was not associated significantly with myopia in either eye (χ2= 0.27, df= 2, p= 0.87).
 Conclusion The prevalence of refractive error among secondary school children in Dadeldhura district of Far West Nepal is very low in comparison to myopia prevalence reported in studies from other parts of the world, but slightly lower than myopia prevalence found in other, eastern parts of Nepal.
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Belov, D. F., and V. P. Nikolaenko. "Effect of Capsular Tension Ring Implantation during Phacoemulsification on Postoperative Refraction." Ophthalmology in Russia 19, no. 3 (October 4, 2022): 489–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.18008/1816-5095-2022-3-489-492.
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Purpose. To assess refractive result of phacoemulsification (PE) with capsular tension ring (CTR) implantation.Patients and methods. In total, 37 eyes of 37 patients who underwent PE with intraocular lens (IOL) implantation were divided into 2 groups: study group (n = 18) with CTR implantation and control group (n = 19) without CTR. Optical biometry (IOL-Master 500) was performed for each patient before PE. Barrett Universal II Formula was used for IOL calculation. IOL power calculation error was assessed by comparing target refraction and final refraction measured by Topcon-8800 autorefractometer 1 month after surgery.Results. Despite almost identical preoperative values in both groups refractive result was different. Patients with CTR implantation had more hyperopic IOL power calculation error of +0.41 ± 0.52 D versus — 0.02 ± 0.54 D in the control group (p = 0.037). Refractive result in control group was more predictable (mean absolute error was 0.55 ± 0.34 D and 0.41 ± 0.30 D for groups respectively, p = 0.180).Conclusion. CTR implantation could help surgeon to perform PE in complicated cases. Nevertheless, CTR implantation could leads to hyperopic shift. To avoid refractive errors optimized A-constants could be used (118.85 for AcrySof SA60AT and 118.47 for Akreos Adapt AO).
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Mohammed, Mohammed A. "Relation of postoperative refraction and anterior chamber depth changes after uneventful phacoemulsification." Tanta Medical Journal 53, no. 1 (January 2025): 21–25. https://doi.org/10.4103/tmj.tmj_86_24.
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Background Following cataract surgery, the focus changed from relieving blindness to achieving precise refractive correction and rapid recovery. A lot of factors influence the visual outcome. The variance in postoperative anterior chamber depth (ACD) is one of the essential factors. Aim To record the differences in postoperative ACD measurements and its effects on postoperative refraction in individuals who had uneventful cataract surgery at Suez General Hospital. Patіents and methods Fifty eyes from fifty patients who underwent uneventful phacoemulsification by the same surgeon. Using the ocular biometer The IOLMaster 500 from ZEISS, (ACD) were assessed pre and postsurgery, 1 and 3 months after the procedure. The postoperative spherical equivalent were recorded. Results Mean age was (58.7±7.5) years. a highly significant difference in ACD values between preoperative and 1 and 3 months post-surgery (P<0.0001). While the ACD difference between 1 and 3 months postsurgery was insignificant (P=0.332). Fourteen (28%) of the eyes had a myopic spherical refractive error, 24 (48%) had a hyperopic refractive error, and 12 (24%) had no refractive error. An inverse association (r=–0.243, P=0.039) between the myopic sphere refractive errors and the variation in ACD. Conclusіon A high incidence of postoperative hyperopic shift spherical errors was linked to more extensive preoperative ACD measurements associated with less ACD deepening. While a more significant incidence of postoperative myopic shift spherical errors was linked to a small preoperative ACD with a greater degree of postoperative ACD deepening; therefore, postoperative ACD changes have a significant impact on postoperative refraction.
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Balicka, Agnieszka, Ireneusz Balicki, Alexandra Trbolova, Mateusz Szadkowski, and Aleksandra Tomkowicz. "Refractive state of eyes in dogs." Medycyna Weterynaryjna 74, no. 3 (2018): 151–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.21521/mw.6083.
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The article discusses refractive errors in dogs. The refractive errors presented in the article are myopia, hyperopia, anisometropia and astygmatism. These disadvantages are discussed in individual dogs breeds. Analysis has proved that most of dogs are emmetropic an thus have normal visual acuity. In dogs and human alike the refraction defect may have a genetic compound, it may be congenital or acquired and may change with age. Ametropia directly affects the orientation of animals and their behavior, therefore examination for refractive error is an important element of vision testing. .
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Tufail, Nadia, Huda Abbas, Ali Sarfraz, Sumaira Ashraf, and M. Ashraf Majrooh. "Prevalence and Determining Factors Of Refractive Errors Among Medical Students In FMU, Faisalabad." Pakistan Journal of Medical and Health Sciences 15, no. 11 (November 30, 2021): 2934–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.53350/pjmhs2115112934.
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Aim: Prevalence and determining factors of refractive errors among the medical students in FMU, Faisalabad. Methodology: Cross-sectional quantitative study conducted in Faisalabad Medical University from 01-03-2020 to 15-12-2020 after approval from institutional review committee. All students of MBBS in FMU were included in this study. A structured questionnaire was used to collect the required quantitative information. SPSS version 26 was used for analysis. Results: Prevalence of refractive error is 49%. Females were 59% and males were 41%. More students i.e. 85.2% were suffering from myopia. In our study, usage of electronic devices i.e. mobile phones especially was one of the risk factors in developing refractive errors. 20.6% students having refractive error said that they use mobile phone for 4 hours, 30.2% having refractive error said that they watch TV for one hour, 23.3% having refractive error said that they play video games for one hour. For the correction of the refractive error, 184 students i.e. 97.4% used spectacles whereas only 5 (2.6%) students used contact lenses. It is observed in this study that contact lenses were only used by those students having refractive error <1.5. Conclusion: Refractive errors were a significant cause of visual impairment among medical students. The prolonged use of electronic devices especially mobile phones should be discouraged. Keywords: Refractive errors, myopia, electronic devices, mobile phone
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Dyatmika, Kadek Dwipa, Nurmawanti Nurmawanti, and Rini Kusumawar Dhany. "Relationship between Education, Sex, and Age with Refractive Errors at DR. Wahidin Soedirohusodo General Hospital." Jurnal Ilmiah Kedokteran Wijaya Kusuma 8, no. 1 (April 17, 2019): 99. http://dx.doi.org/10.30742/jikw.v8i1.479.
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The prevalence of refractive error and its relationship with education, age and sex at DR. Wahidin Soedirohusodo general hospital have not been comprehensively assessed. The aim of this study was to examined the distribution and risk factor of refractive errors at DR. Wahidin Soedirohusodo general hospital. Methods of this study used population based cross-sectional study. Respondents were interviewed and underwent standardised clinical eye examinations. Refractive error was determined by an automatic refraction device. Refractive errors are myopia, hyperopia and astigmatism. Myopia and hyperopia were defined as spherical equivalent of -0.50/+0.50 diopter (D) or worse, respectively; astigmatism was defined as cylindrical error >0.50 D. Total of 1760 patients with refractive error from January 2016 to January 2018 with 700 or 39,8% males and 1060 or 60.2% females. Based on the cross-tabulation output, it is known that the respondents with the most elementary level of education experienced mild hypermetropy (10.2%), the junior high school education experienced mild myopia (6.8%), high school and bachelor education experienced mild myopia (8%). Age 6-15 years experienced the most myopia compositus astigmatism (5.7%), 16-25 years mild myopia (10.2%), 26-35 years mild myopia (4.5%), 36-45 years mild myopia (10.2%), 46-55 years mild hypermetropia (10.2%) and 56-65 years mild hypermetropia (5.7%). Kruskal Wallis test it is known that the sig value obtained = 0,000 indicates that there are differences in refractive abnormalities based on education and age. Chi square sig value obtained is 0.021, indicating that there is a relationship between sex and refractive errors. Multivariate analysis revealed female subjects inhibited the risk of mild myopic by 0.157 times the male subjects and simple myopia astigmatism by 0.082 times the male subjects. The relationship of myopia, astigmatism and hypermetropia with age and education is not significant. The risk factor of mild myopia and simple myopia astigmatism decrease in female than male. These findings may help clinicians to better understand the patterns of refractive error and planning for preschool vision-screening programs.
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ETHEL, E. NILA, and Dr P. NAGALAKSHMI Dr. P. NAGALAKSHMI. "Early Intervention Measures for Refractive Error." Indian Journal of Applied Research 4, no. 8 (October 1, 2011): 1–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.15373/2249555x/august2014/186.
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McCarty, C. A. "Uncorrected refractive error." British Journal of Ophthalmology 90, no. 5 (May 1, 2006): 521–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjo.2006.090233.
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Nazish Rizwan, Neelam Nizamani, Asra Talpur, Aamir Hussain, Shah Nawaz Channa, and Naraindas. "Frequency of Refractive Error in Patients with Squint." Annals of PIMS-Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Medical University 20, no. 3 (June 11, 2024): 256–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.48036/apims.v20i3.1099.
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Objective: To determine the frequency of refractive errors in patients with squint at a tertiary care Hospital. Methodology: A cross-sectional study was conducted at the Department of Ophthalmology, Liaquat University Eye Hospital in Hyderabad from May 2020 to October 2020. A total of 128 patients either exotropia or esotropia were included in this study. Auto refraction and Hirschberg reflex test was done. A refractive error of ?+2 was taken as hypermetropia and ? -2 was taken as Myopia. This information was entered in the proforma and analyzed using SPSS version 20. Results: The average age of the patients was 6.26±3.09 years. There were 73(5.03%) male and 55(42.97%) female. Hypermetropia was observed in 47.66% (61/128) cases while myopia in 11.72% (15/128) cases. Furthermore, the frequency of hypermetropia was found statistically insignificant according to age, gender, types of squint and Hirschberg reflex p-value (>0.05). Frequency of Myopia was found statistically insignificant across age groups, gender-wise and across different angles of the Hirschberg reflex-value (>0.05), while it was statically significant according to types of squint, (p-0.033). Conclusion: Study revealed that the hypermetropia emerges as the most prevalent refractive error among the children assessed. It underscores the necessity for all these children to undergo cycloplegic refraction, with glasses being identified as the primary treatment approach. Mass screening initiatives are essential aimed at facilitating early identification and treatment of refractive errors.
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Alghamdi, Waleed. "Prevalence of Refractive Errors among Children in Saudi Arabia: A Systemic Review." Open Ophthalmology Journal 15, no. 1 (May 24, 2021): 89–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874364102115010089.
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Introduction: The aim of this review was to estimate the prevalence of refractive errors (RE) and uncorrected refractive error (URE) in school-aged children of 4 to 14 years of age in Saudi Arabia. Methods: An extensive search was performed for peer-reviewed studies with data from the Saudi population during the past 20 years. The Cochrane Library, Pubmed, and Embase databases were used. Two independent reviewers evaluated publications and extracted the data. The quality of the studies was evaluated based on a critical appraisal tool designed for systematic reviews. The pooled prevalence of refractive error, uncorrected refractive error and different types of refractive error were estimated by using the random-effects meta-analysis. Results and Discussion: Eight school-based studies were included in this review. Among the overall pooled population of 12,247childern, the estimated prevalence of refractive error was 17.5% (95% CI: 11.1- 25). In the five studies that reported uncorrected refractive error (N=10,198), the pooled prevalence was 16.8% (95% CI: 11.4 – 21.3). The overall prevalence of refractive errors was very similar among boys, 16.8 (95% CI: 10.8- 24.1), and girls, 17.7% (95% CI: 10.2 – 25.9). Myopia was the most prevalent refractive error and was present in 40.8% (95% CI: 16.1 – 69.9) followed by astigmatism 29.7% (95% CI: 6.1- 61.7) and hyperopia 28.3% (95% CI: 16.9 – 41.2). Conclusion: This review highlights the high prevalence of refractive errors and uncorrected refractive error among children in Saudi Arabia. More studies are required using standardised methods in different regions where there is a lack of information on UREs. It is recommended that vision screening programs of children for RE should be implemented at the community level and integrated into school health programmes in order to detect UREs and prevent amblyopia, which is one of the debilitating consequences of URE.
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Kalita, Prasenjit, Iku Dutt, and Manjit Boro. "A clinical study to know the pattern of refractive error in children attending a tertiary care hospital." International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences 11, no. 6 (May 29, 2023): 2068–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2320-6012.ijrms20231619.
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Background: Refractive error is a major cause of low vision in children. Uncorrected refractive error causes amblyopia, poor school performance and severe visual impairment. The purpose of the present study was to know the pattern of refractive error in children attending a tertiary care hospital. Methods: A hospital based observational retrospective study which was conducted in Gauhati Medical College and Hospital for a period of 15 months from January 2021 to March 2022. 300 children with refractive errors in the age group of 3 years to 15 years were included. Interpretation and analysis of the results were done using appropriate statistical method. Results: Age of presentation of children was more in >10 years to 15 years (51%) followed by 5 years to 10 years (38%). Boys (61.66%) outnumbered girls (38.33%). There was a positive family history of refractive errors (57.33%). More children were found with refractive errors in parents with higher educational qualification. Myopia (49%) was most common followed by astigmatism (43%). Conclusions: Refractive error is a preventable cause of visual impairment. A regular periodic screening for refractive errors should be done in children and it can be corrected simply by prescribing spectacles.
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Gurmizov, Е. P., К. B. Pershin, N. F. Pashinova, and А. Iu Tsygankov. "Keratorefractive Surgery for Residual Refractive Error Correction in Pseudophakic Patients." Ophthalmology in Russia 17, no. 2 (June 23, 2020): 209–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.18008/1816-5095-2020-2-209-215.
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Purpose. Evaluation of the visual and refractive results of additional correction using LASIK and PRK methods in patients with residual refractive error after previous cataract surgery. Patients and methods. The prospective open study included 57 patients (79 eyes) who previously underwent cataract phacoemulsification (n = 37) or refractive lensectomy (n = 42) with various IOL models implantation (2012–2017). The average age of patients was 50.8 ± 13.9 (19–79) years. Operations LASIK (91.1 %) and PRK (8.9 %) were carried out according to standard methods. In 6 cases, femtosecond laser supported by laser correction. The target refraction ranged from –0.25 to 0.25 D in most (97.5 %) cases. The follow-up period ranged from 6 to 9 months. Results. The patients were divided into groups according to the type of residual refractive error (Group 1 — myopia, group II — emmetropia and group III — hyperopia). Statistically significant differences were determined for the species of previously implanted IOLs — in group II, the frequency of monofocal IOLs was significantly higher (p < 0.05). In group II, the values of the cylindrical component of refraction were significantly higher compared with groups I and III (p < 0.05). In group I, a significant (p < 0.05) decrease in the spherical component of refraction from –1.36 ± 0.92 to –0.2 ± 0.8 D was observed. In patients of group II, there was a slight increase in the spherical component of refraction from 0 ± 0.20 to 0.25 ± 0.29 D (p > 0.05). In group III, a significant (p < 0.05) decrease was observed in the spherical component of refraction from 1.27 ± 0.69 to 0.43 ± 0.49 D. When analyzing the cylindrical component of refraction in group I, its decline was noted from –0.69 ± 0.5 to –0.38 ± 0.46 D (p > 0.05). In group II, the largest decrease in the cylindrical component was observed from –1.6 ± 1.0 to 0.03 ± 1.10 Dptr (p < 0.01). In all the studied groups, a statistically significant (p < 0.05) increase in UCFVA was revealed in the postoperative period. Indicators K1 and K2 did not significantly change. Conclusion. The high efficiency of the correction using the LASIK, PRK and femtoLASIK methods on pseudophakic eyes with the achievement of the target refraction in most of the studied cases was shown. This method can be used as an alternative to spectacle and contact correction in patients with residual refractive error after cataract phacoemulsification and refractive lensectomy with IOL implantation.
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L, IBRAHIM, KINGSLEY O. A, and ANAS HUSSAINY YUSUF. "PREVALENCE OF REFRACTIVE ERROR AMONG MEDICAL STUDENTS: IMPLICATIONS FOR IRREGULAR EYE SCREENING SERVICES IN NIGERIA." BIMA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (2536-6041) 6, no. 03 (December 31, 2022): 239–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.56892/bima.v6i03.71.
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Refractive error is caused by an error in the refractive power of the eye due to alteration in the ocular length. Uncorrected Refractive error is the second leading cause of visual impairment worldwide. Uncorrected refractive errors are common visual impairment among medical students. The study was designed to determine the prevalence of Refractive error among medicalstudents. A cross-sectional study conducted from October, 2021 – March, 2021 among Medical students. 157 students were selected by simple sampling technique, aged between 17 to 25 years. Demographic data of each student was obtained by a combination of self-administered interviewer questionnaire and clinical eye examination. The history of the past and previous eyecheckup and use of glasses were also determined. Snellen chart, pinhole, pen-torch, ophthalmoscope, retinoscope were used to determine refractive error among the students. The study showed that 14.0% of `the students had visual impairment, and the prevalence of refractive error was found to be 10.8% with a preponderance of myopia at 70.6%, hyperopia at 17.6%, then astigmatism at 11.8%. Out of the students with myopia, 88.2% had low degree myopia. The study shows that 18.2% of the students were not using corrective lenses. Refractive error is a significant cause of visual impairment and regular eye screening is necessary for early detection and correction of refractive errors among medical students.
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Ijaz, Hijab. "Relationship between Refractive State and Nutritional Status among the children." Medical Science and Discovery 9, no. 3 (March 26, 2022): 175–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.36472/msd.v9i3.701.
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Objective: Refractive error and malnourishment both are common issues in developing countries therefore in this study main aim is to find the relationship between refractive state and nutritional status. Material and Methods: This was a cross-sectional observational study conducted at Tehsil Headquarter Hospital Kamoke. The sample size was 200 children equally divided into well-nourished and malnourished groups with their age range between 3-12 years of both gender. First visual acuity was measured monocularly with Snellen’s Chart The amount and type of refractive error were assessed using cycloplegic refraction with cyclopentolate 1% eye drops. Eyes with amblyopia, strabismus and any other ocular pathology that affects vision were excluded. All children were referred from eye department to the nutritionist of this hospital to determine the nutritional status through WHO provided guidelines. Results: There were a total of 101 (50.5%) males and 99 (49.5%) females in this study. The most common type of refractive error was Astigmatism which was present in 29 (29%) well-nourished and 31 (31%) malnourished children. The least common was hypermetropia which was present in only 3 children and all were females. However, myopia was present in 12 (12%) well-nourished and 11 (11%) malnourished children. Conclusion: Thus, Refractive errors were present in both groups. The most common was Astigmatism and the least common was hypermetropia in both groups. The inferential statistics of this study concluded that refractive errors were not related with nutritional status but may be due to some factors.
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Abebe, Marshet Gete, Abiy Maru Alemayehu, Minychil Bantihun Munaw, Mikias Mered Tilahun, and Henok Biruk Alemayehu. "Prevalence and associated factors of refractive error among adults in South Ethiopia, a community-based cross-sectional study." PLOS ONE 19, no. 3 (March 25, 2024): e0298960. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298960.
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Introduction The increasing prevalence of refractive error has become a serious health issue that needs serious attention. However, there are few studies regarding the prevalence and associated factors of refractive error at the community level in Ethiopia as well as in the study area. Therefore, providing updated data is crucial to reduce the burdens of refractive error in the community. Objective To assess the prevalence and associated factors of refractive error among adults in Hawassa City, South Ethiopia, 2023. Method A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted on 951 adults using a multistage sampling technique from May 8 to June 8, 2023, in Hawassa City, South Ethiopia. A pretested, structured questionnaire combined with an ocular examination and a refraction procedure was used to collect data. The collected data from the Kobo Toolbox was exported to a statistical package for social sciences for analysis. Binary and multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed. A P-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant in the multivariable analysis. Result A total of 894 study participants were involved in this study with a 94.1% response rate. The prevalence of refractive error was 12.3% (95% CI: 10.2, 14.5%). Regular use of electronic devices (adjusted odds ratio = 3.64, 95% CI: 2.25, 5.91), being diabetic (adjusted odds ratio = 4.02, 95% CI: 2.16, 7.48), positive family history of refractive error (adjusted odds ratio = 2.71, 95% CI 1.59, 4.61) and positive history of cataract surgery (adjusted odds ratio = 5.17, 95% CI 2.19, 12.4) were significantly associated with refractive error. Conclusion and recommendation The overall magnitude of refractive error in our study area was high. Regular use of electronic devices, being diabetic, positive family history of refractive error, and a positive history of cataract surgery were associated with refractive error.
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Betiku, Anthony O., Adeola O. Onakoya, Olufisayo T. Aribaba, and Omodele O. Jagun. "Relationship between axial length, keratometry and central corneal thickness in patients with refractive errors at a teaching hospital in Southwest, Nigeria." International Journal of Advances in Medicine 8, no. 11 (October 26, 2021): 1657. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2349-3933.ijam20214128.
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Background: Aim of the study was to determine the relationship between axial length (AL), keratometry and central corneal thickness (CCT), and refractive errors in adult patients attending the Guinness eye centre (GEC), Lagos university teaching hospital (LUTH) Idi-Araba, Lagos.Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study conducted among consecutive patients aged 16 years and above with refractive errors attending the GEC, LUTH. Ocular parameters measured included AL, anterior corneal curvature, CCT and refractive errors. AL and keratometry were measured with IOL master and CCT with ultrasonic A scan pachymeter. Refraction was done with auto-refractor-keratometer. Data analysis was done with statistical package for social science (SPSS) 20. Results: A total of 394 patients were studied, 157 males and 237 females. The age range was 16-65 years, mean -37.9±13.3 years and median -36.5 years. There were more myopic patients 215 (54.6%) than hyper-metropes 179 (45.4%). The mean AL was 23.9±1.1 mm and eyes with longer AL were more likely to be myopic (r=-0.676, p<0.001); to have flatter cornea (r=0.519, p<0.001) and thicker cornea (r=0.149, p=0.003). The mean CCT was 520.3±31.0 µm. There was a weak negative correlation between CCT and refractive error (r=-0.111, p=0.027).Conclusions: The mean CCT was lower than the mean CCT of other Nigerian studies. Hypermetropic patients were more likely to have thinner corneas. This may lead to underestimation of intraocular pressure (IOP) in these patients. Significant correlation was seen between AL and refractive error, CCT and keratometry. AL correlated with less spherical equivalent refractive error, flatter and thicker cornea. It is therefore important to measure the CCT of all patients going for refractive surgery to detect those at risk of developing corneal ectasia following refractive surgery.
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Megala, M., S. Dhamodharan, M. Duraimurugan, and K. Chellavel Ganapathi. "A study on prevalence of refractive error and its associated factors among school children in Tamil Nadu." International Journal Of Community Medicine And Public Health 7, no. 5 (April 24, 2020): 1880. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20201999.
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Background: Refractive error is an avoidable cause of visual impairment. Children do not complain of defective vision. This warrants early detection and treatment. The study was conducted with the objective of estimating the prevalence of refractive error in school children and its associated factors.Methods: This was a cross sectional study conducted in schools of selected district in Tamil Nadu from July 2017 to January 2018. Sample size of 422 covered. A semi structured questionnaire was used to collect the details and also screened for refractive errors. Data was analysed using SPSS.Results: Among the 422 students screened, 86 (20.4%) had refractive error. The prevalence of refractive error showed significant association with age, education and occupation of parents, socio economic status, parental history of refractive error, duration of watching television and body mass index.Conclusions: Refractive errors among school children can be easily identified by regular eye screening programmes, promptly treated can be protected from future complications. Periodic screening of school children is very essential to improve the quality of eye-sight.
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A.B, Ajite. "Profile of Paediatric Refractive Errors in a Tertiary Care Hospital of South Western Nigeria." Clinical Research and Clinical Reports 02, no. 01 (February 28, 2023): 01–04. http://dx.doi.org/10.31579/2835-8325/009.
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Refractive errors are part of the priority areas for Vision 2020, a global initiative for the elimination of avoidable blindness introduced by W.H.O. (World Health organization). The presence of refractive errors in children is a cause for concern for the overall development and not only the vision of the child. It may also constitute a form of disability if left unattended to. This study therefore aims to determine the pattern of refractive errors and its associations with selected variables among children presenting to a tertiary hospital. This is a cross-sectional retrospective study conducted in the Ophthalmology Department of Ekiti State University teaching hospital which is a tertiary hospital in South-western Nigeria. Children of ages 5years - 16years with diagnosis of refractive error were recruited for the study. The medical records between Jan 2018- December 2020 were reviewed and patients’ data including age, gender and type of refractive error were extracted. Data obtained was analysed with SPSS version 20(inc.) and results are shown by frequency, tables and figures. Measure of association of the variables was done using chi square and P value =0.005. A total of 193 children with various refractive errors were seen during the period of study. There was a slight male preponderance. M: F (1.2:1) and highest frequency of refractive error was seen in children of ages between 5-7years. The most common refractive error seen was astigmatism in 140(36.2%) patients, most of the patients (46.4%) presented with moderate refractive error.
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Kulikov, Alexey N., Sergey V. Churashov, and Vladimir A. Reytuzov. "Molecular genetic aspects of complicated myopia pathogenesis." Ophthalmology journal 11, no. 3 (December 2, 2018): 48–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.17816/ov11348-56.
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Complicated myopia (CM) is not only a refractive error but a complex, multifactorial disorder characterized by a mismatch between the optical power of the eye and the axial length that causes the image to be focused off the retina. Genetic factors in progressive myopia play a key role in determining the impact of ecologic factors on refraction development. The majority of genetic variants underlying CM are characterized by modest effect and/or low frequency, which makes them difficult to identify using classic genetic approaches. The genes identified to date account for less than 10% of all myopia cases, suggesting the existence of a large number of yet unidentified low-frequency and/or small-effect variants, which underlie the majority of myopia cases. Genome analysis revealed dozens of loci associated with non-syndromic myopia, and showed that refractive errors are associated with mutations in genes that are involved in the growth and development of the eye by regulating ion transport, neurotransmission, remodeling of extracellular matrix of the retina and other ocular structures. Genetic study of refractive error provides a unique opportunity to detect key molecules that may play important roles in the development of refractive error. Identifying the molecular basis of refractive error helps to understand mechanisms, and subsequently to design rational therapeutic intervention for this condition.
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Garcia-Lozada, Diana, Sara Viviana Angulo-Sánchez, and Jenny Maritza Sánchez-Espinosa. "Prevalence of refractive errors in school-aged and preadolescent children in Colombia." International Journal of Ophthalmology 17, no. 12 (December 18, 2024): 2288–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.18240/ijo.2024.12.18.
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AIM: To describe the distribution of refractive errors by age and sex among schoolchildren in Soacha, Colombia. METHODS: This was an observational cross-sectional study conducted in five urban public schools in the municipality of Soacha. A total of 1161 school-aged and pre-adolescent children, aged 5-12y were examined during the school year 2021-2022. Examinations included visual acuity and static refraction. Spherical equivalent (SE) was analysed as follows: myopia SE≤-0.50 D and uncorrected visual acuity of 20/25 or worse; high myopia SE≤-6.00 D; hyperopia SE≥+1.00 D (≥7y) or SE≥+2.00 D (5-6y); significant hyperopia SE≥+3.00 D. Astigmatism was defined as a cylinder in at least one eye ≥1.00 D (≥7y) or ≥1.75 D (5-6y). If at least one eye was ametropic, children were classified according to the refractive error found. RESULTS: Of the 1139 schoolchildren included, 50.6% were male, 58.8% were aged between 5 and 9y, and 12.1% were already using optical correction. The most common refractive error was astigmatism (31.1%), followed by myopia (20.8%) and hyperopia (13.1%). There was no significant relationship between refractive error and sex. There was a significant increase in astigmatism (P&#x003C;0.001) and myopia (P&#x003C;0.0001) with age. CONCLUSION: Astigmatism is the most common refractive error in children in an urban area of Colombia. Emmetropia decreased and myopia increased with age.
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Albarrán-Diego, César, Gonzalo Muñoz, Teresa Ferrer-Blasco, and Santiago García-Lázaro. "Prevention of Hyperopic Surprise after LASIK in Patients with Refractive Multifocal Intraocular Lenses." European Journal of Ophthalmology 21, no. 6 (July 6, 2011): 826–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.5301/ejo.5000005.
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Purpose. Three cases of patients who developed a similar hyperopic defect in refraction following laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK) after multifocal intraocular lens (IOL) implantation are described. Methods. Ophthalmologic evaluation including refractive status, corrected and uncorrected visual acuity (both at far and near), and corneal topography in patients presenting similar hyperopic refractive surprise in one eye as a result of LASIK refinement of residual ametropia after refractive multifocal IOL implantation. Results. Laser in situ keratomileusis enhancement for residual ametropia of −1.00 to −1.50 D in patients with a prior implantation of refractive multifocal IOL resulted in a refractive surprise of +2.25 to +2.50 D. After excluding other possible sources of error, an explanation for such a refractive surprise is suggested, and a simple method for avoiding this error is presented. Conclusions. Proper knowledge of the defocus curve and the use of a systematic method for determining subjective refraction in patients implanted with refractive multifocal IOLs will reduce the possibility of refractive surprise after LASIK enhancement in a bioptics procedure.
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Hardiyanti, Disti, and Fatimah Dyah NA. "Correlation between Autorefractometry and Retinoscopy with Subjective Refraction in Refractive Error Patients at Dr Kariadi Hospital, Semarang." Ophthalmologica Indonesiana 47, no. 2 (August 30, 2021): 46–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.35749/journal.v47i2.100302.
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 Objective: Refractive errors are a major cause of visual impairment in Indonesia. In Dr. Kariadi Hospital Semarang, it is amongst the top five diagnoses within the ophthalmology department. Therefore, objective refraction is imperative for the management of refractive errors. These examinations include autorefractometry and retinoscopy. Despite the fact that retinoscopy is the gold standard, autorefractometry is more desirable as it is more sophisticated, swift, and convenient. Autorefractometry's results are expected to match results from subjective correction, therefore, reduce examination time as patient visits increase. This study aims to determine the correlation between autorefractometry and retinoscopy examination with subjective refraction. 
 Methods: The study design was cross-sectional. The study was conducted on 34 eyes with refractive error taken by consecutive sampling. The subjects had to meet inclusion and exclusion criteria. All subjects underwent visual acuity examination, refractive correction by autorefractometry, retinoscopy, and subjective refraction. All data were processed by using computerized formulations. 
 Results: Based on the demographics there were 61.8% of women and 38.2% of men with an average age of 29.7 + 9. The results of this study showed a strong correlation between autorefractometry and subjective refraction. Furthermore, retinoscopy shows a strong correlation with subjective refraction as well. 
 Conclusion: This study shows retinoscopy is superior to autorefractometry. However, autorefractometry is a viable replacement for patients in Dr. Kariadi Hospital Semarang. 
 
 
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Vikrant, Sharma, Chaturvedi Nandita, Mishra Shrishti, and Kumar Sahu Dinesh. "Five-Year Demographic Profile, Prevalence, and Pattern of Refractive Errors in Age Group of 03-17 Years and Their Correlation with Axial Length of Eye Ball, at a Tertiary Care Institute in North India." International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research 15, no. 11 (November 30, 2023): 446–52. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11217167.
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<strong>Background: </strong>Refractive errors are main cause of visual impairment in children. Myopia especially is more prevalent in society. Untreated refractive errors may lead to other ocular disorders like squint and amblyopia. <strong>Aim: </strong>The present retrospective hospital based clinical study was aimed at assessing the demographic profile, prevalence, and pattern of refractive errors in children of age group 03 to 17 years. <strong>Methods: </strong>The study included 829 patients aged 3 to 17 years old with refractive errors, divided into only myopia (229 subjects), myopia along with astigmatism (465 subjects), only hypermetropia (30 subjects), and hypermetropia with astigmatism (105 subjects) who visited the Ophthalmology OPD during the span of last five years. Unaided visual acuity was recorded. Visual acuity with previous glasses was recorded for the patients who were already using spectacles. Cycloplegic refraction was done. Retinoscopy after dilating pupil with cycloplegic/ mydriatic drug was done. Thorough ocular examination, including retina examination after pupil dilatation to rule out any underlying retinal cause of diminution of vision was done. Final refraction was done and spectacles were prescribed. Best corrected visual acuity with glasses was recorded. State of isometropia or anisometropia was recorded. Axial length by optical bio meter was measured in undilated state of pupil. <strong>Results: </strong>The refractive error cases were aged 03 to 05, 06 to 08, 09 to 11, 12 to 14 and 15 to 17 years respectively, with a mean age of 7.8±3.21 years. In the myopia group, myopia with astigmatism group aged 03 to 05, the hyper myopia group 06 to 08 year, and in the hypermetropia with astigmatism group was 09 to 11 years of age. The axial length of the eyeball on the right eye was 22,66±1.51, in myopia cases were 5, 353, 279, 48, and 9 and left eye was 22.70±1.50, were 3, 349, 284, 50, and 8 cases, respectively. <strong>Conclusion: </strong>The study findings revealed that, 06 to 08 age groups are more susceptible to Refractive Error. The most common refractive error in children was myopia then hypermetropia, which became more common as children aged. The more was axial length; degree of myopia was also high in such patients. While in case of hypermetropia, the eye ball was relatively shorter in length. Thus, the axial length was directly related to type of refractive error and is major predictor of progression of myopia.
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BAZUAYE, K. N., O. M. ODIGIE, and D. S. ANDARIYO. "THE PREVALENCE OF STRABISMUS AND ASSOCIATED REFRACTIVE ERRORS IN SCHOOL CHILDREN IN AKURE SOUTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT ONDO STATE." Nigerian Journal of Life Sciences (ISSN: 2276-7029) 6, no. 1 (December 10, 2022): 137–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.52417/njls.v6i1.316.
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Associations between strabismus and refractive errors have been reported inprevious studies. The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence andassociation of strabismus with refractive errors in school aged children between10?16 years. A total sample size of2600 subjects was employed for this study.Routine eye examinations were carried out on the subjects. Unilateral cover test wasused to detect the presence of strabismus while alternate cover test was used formeasurement of the deviation, thereafter objective and subjective refraction wasconducted on the strabismic subjects. Spearman coefficient correlation test wasused to check for relationship between strabismus and refractive errors. Theprevalence of strabismus in this study was 1.92%.The prevalence of esotropia andexotropia was 1.15% and 0.65% respectively, followed by hypertropia with aprevalence of 0.08% and hypotropia with a prevalence of 0.04%. All strabismicchildren (n=50) had refractive errors. The prevalence of astigmatism, hyperopia andmyopia was 1.27%, 0.35% and 0.31% respectively. There was positive correlationbetween strabismus and refractive errors, (P < 0.05 and ?s was 0.63).Theprevalence of strabismus was low in this study. As the dioptric prism power ofstrabismus increased, the dioptric lens power of the refractive error also increased.Proper detection of refractive errors by eye care practitioners is key in themanagement of strabismus as high uncorrected refractive errors could lead todevelopment of strabismus.
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Serenje, Mulubwa, Kangwa I. M. Muma, and Elijah M. Mutoloki. "Patterns of Refractive Errors among Medical Students at the University of Zambia School of Medicine." Ophthalmology Research: An International Journal 18, no. 2 (March 11, 2023): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.9734/or/2023/v18i2379.
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Background: Uncorrected refractive error is one of the leading causes of visual impairment and blindness world-over. The distribution and pattern of presentation is variable depending on various factors. Regardless of the type, refractive errors are easily correctable with spectacles if diagnosed early.
 Objective: The objective of this study was to evaluate the pattern of refractive errors among medical students at University of Zambia - School of Medicine.
 Methodology: This was a cross-sectional study conducted at the University Teaching Hospitals-Eye Hospital involving Master of Medicine, Master of Surgery (MBChB) students from third to seventh year of study at University of Zambia - School of Medicine, Ridgeway campus between October 2021 and March 2022. A total of 210 participants were recruited in the study. Subjects had non-cycloplegic autorefraction combined with a researcher administered questionnaire. Spherical equivalents (SE) ≥ - 0.50D were determined as myopia; SE of ≥ + 0.50D hyperopia and ≥ -0.50D cylinder as astigmatism. Statistical analysis was carried out using Stata version 13.0.
 Results: One hundred and forty-one (67.1%) subjects had a form of refractive error; 56.0%, 31.2% and 12.8% of them were astigmats, myopes or hyperopes, respectively. The prevalence of ametropia was 65.0 % in females and 69.0 % in males. Minus spherical errors ranged from -0.25 to -5.00D and plus spherical errors ranged from +0.25 to +3.00D. The mean spherical equivalent for the group was -0.45D. Parental history of refractive error was significantly associated with diagnosis of refractive error (p=0.001) while age and gender were not (p = 0.428 and 0.530, respectively). The majority (68.6%) of participants were not aware of their refractive error.
 Conclusion: The prevalence of refractive errors among medical students was high, with astigmatism being the most common type. The majority of those found with refractive error were not aware of the diagnosis.
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Praher, Shrivastava, Jain Aashi, Kumar Pandey Dhirendra, Bandil Yasha, and Dwivedi Anamika. "Refractive and Ocular Biometric Profile of Children Treated with Laser for Retinopathy of Prematurity." International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research 16, no. 8 (August 27, 2024): 92–95. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13381227.
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<strong>Background and Objectives:</strong> To analyze refractive errors and its relationship with ocular biometry in children with retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) treated with laser and to find out possible associations of type of refractive error. <strong>Material and Methods:</strong> This research included children who had previously had laser photocoagulation for retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) and had been followed up for at least one year. The records were examined for gestational age, birth weight, zone and stage of illness, and the presence of APROP. All children underwent comprehensive ophthalmic examination. Streak Retinoscopy was used to measure refractive error. The biometric profile including the axial length (AL), anterior chamber depth (ACD) and Lens thickness (LT) were measured using A- scan Biometry. The primary outcome measures were amount of refractive error {spherical equivalent (SE)}, and type of refractive error. SE was measured as spherical error + half cylindrical error. Myopia was defined as SE ≤−0.5 D; high myopia >-6 D and hyperopia +0.5D. Association between refractive error and ocular biometric profile was analyzed. <strong>Results:</strong> Total 48 eyes were studied at mean age 24 months. Refractive error (SE) ranged from +4.50 to -19.75D. 64.58% were myopic, 37.5 % were hypermetropic, and Astigmatism was seen in 16.6%. Mean myopia was -3.19D (range -0.50 to -19.75D). Lens thickness was significantly associated with myopic refractive error (p=0.0043). <strong>Conclusion:</strong> Substantial numbers of children treated for ROP with laser photocoagulation develop myopia and astigmatism. Hence, based on our research, we may deduce that identifying and treating refractive errors at an early stage is crucial for these children.