Literatura académica sobre el tema "Royal Colonial Institute"

The Royal Museum for Central Africa (RMCA) in Tervuren is often referred to as one of the last colonial museums in the world. This article provides an overview of the various steps taken in the fundamental transformation process and the plan for renovation of the museum with a view to making it a modern and dynamic Africa museum. For this institution, which is simultaneously a Museum, Research Institute, and Centre of Information Dissemination, a mere change of décor is not sufficient: a fundamental shift in vision, a series of risks, and especially a move towards dialogue and transparency have been part of the process, which has implications that extend far beyond the walls of the museum.

A long story could be told about the educational institutions where young Dutchmen were trained for an administrative and legal career in the Indies. This educational process started with the foundation of the Javanese Institute (Instituut voor dejavaanse taal) in Surakarta in 1832. Ten years later this institute was closed and the training of Dutch civil servants was transferred to the city of Delft in the Netherlands. A Royal Academy for Engineers has been established in that town and was subsequently made subservient to this overseas task too. The study of language at an engineering academy reads strangely but was done for reasons of economy. In the words of the Minister of the Colonies (J.C. Baud) who was responsible for this decision: the arid and unpleasant study of Oriental languages could better be accomplished in a cold climate than in the hot climate of Java which was not at all conducive to hard work and study! In 1864 the instruction of civil servants for Indonesia was transferred to a state institution in Leiden (Rijks-instelling van onderwijs in Indische taal-, land- en volkenkunde). But the municipal authorities of Delft were unwilling to lose the young hopefuls for the Indies and their wealthy parents, many of them with a colonial background themselves, who, for the sake of the education of their children, had taken domicile in Delft after their retirement. In the same year 1864 the municipal council of Delft established a local Indies Institute (Indische Instelling) of its own that turned out much more successful than the Leiden state institute which soon disappeared. On the other hand, the training of Indies lawyers and judges became a firm monopoly of Leiden University after the passing of a new law on Dutch universities in 1876.

For this piece we were provoked by an anti-trans moment that took place during the School of Politics and Critique in September 2020. Instead of engaging in a mere “rebuttal” of anti-trans discourse and its reductive, exclusionary claims, with this text we aim to open up a space of exchange and learning that takes the form of a feminist conversation. We discuss the historical and political entrenchment of colonial, capitalist and anti-trans projects to emphasise why a solid trans politics will always hold an anti-colonial agenda to the fore. Critically appraising some unfortunate intellectual and political impasses—as the capturing of feminist politics in schemata of biological determinism or the complicity of white bourgeois feminism in anti-Blackness and colonial exploitation—we shed light on the emancipatory potential of radical transfeminism. The conversation draws on lessons from the writings and practice of many engaged in formulating the stakes of black feminist, anti-colonial and trans politics of solidarity, thus actualizing the insight that we never think or act in isolation from one another. Author(s): Neda Genova and Mijke van der Drift Title (English): Neda Genova in Conversation with Mijke van der Drift: A Conversation on Transfeminism as Anti-Colonial Politics Journal Reference: Identities: Journal for Politics, Gender and Culture, Vol. 17, No. 2-3 (Winter 2020) Publisher: Institute of Social Sciences and Humanities - Skopje Page Range: 102-108 Page Count: 7 Citation (English): Neda Genova and Mijke van der Drift, “Neda Genova in Conversation with Mijke van der Drift: A Conversation on Transfeminism as Anti-Colonial Politics,” Identities: Journal for Politics, Gender and Culture, Vol. 17, No. 2-3 (Winter 2020): 102-108. Author Biographies Mijke van der Drift, Royal College of Art/University of Cambridge Philosopher and educator Mijke van der Drift works on ethics as a focal point in a multi-disciplinary research about social transformation. Van der Drift is tutor at the Royal College of Art, London and the Royal Academy of Art, the Hague. They are a Research Associate at the University of Cambridge in 2020-21, as part of the Revolutionary Papers project, in collaboration with the London School of Economics and the University of the Western Cape. In addition, van der Drift is currently working on their book Non normative Ethics: The Dynamics of Trans Formation. They obtained a Ph.D. from Goldsmiths, University of London. Their current project focuses on multilogical ethics and generosity, and is provisionally titled The Logic of Loss in Bonding. The book chapter “Radical Transfeminism: Trans as Anti-Static Ethics Escaping Neoliberal Encapsulation” co-written with Nat Raha is recently published in New Feminist Studies: Twenty-first-century Critical Interventions, ed. Jennifer Cooke, with Cambridge University Press. Neda Genova, London Bank University/Goldsmiths Neda Genova teaches at Goldsmiths University of London and London South Bank University and holds a Ph.D. in Cultural Studies from Goldsmiths. Her research is situated at the intersection of post-communist studies and media and cultural theory. She is interested in feminist and postcolonial theory, the politics of humour and laughter and post-communist digital culture. She is a member of the editorial collective of the Bulgarian-language activist-academic magazine dVERSIA (dВЕРСИЯ)

This collection of essays is a spin-off of a workshop held in December1997, which was jointly organized by the venerable Koninklijk Instituutvoor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (the Royal Institute of Linguistics andAnthropology) and the more recently established International Institute ofAsian Studies in Leiden, the Netherlands. Both are important resource centersfor the study of Islam in Southeast Asia and are closely connected withLeiden University, which has a formidable reputation as a centuries-oldcenter of learning in Islamic and Asian studies. Publications like the presentone show that academic institutions with roots in the colonial past andwhich were once part of the now much-criticized scholarly tradition of“Orientalism” can reinvent themselves and continue to make valuable contributionsto the study of non-western cultures.Transcending Borders focuses on the phenomenon of Arab settlementin Southeast Asia. Although the role of these migrants in the Islamizationof the Malay–Indonesian archipelago has long been acknowledged, questionspertaining to their integration into Southeast Asian society and theresulting impact on their ethnic identity have received far less attention. Infact, the upsurge in research into these aspects is barely a decade old.However, the most recent developments in Muslim Southeast Asia will certainlykeep that interest alive, because some of the more militant key playersin Southeast Asian Islamic revivalism are themselves of Hadrami orsouthern Arabian descent.The book’s 10 articles approach the study of Arab migration and settlementfrom historical, sociological, anthropological, and Islamologicalperspectives. However, the editors have taken care to ensure that these differentapproaches provide intersecting images of the Arab presence in ...

-Mohammed F. Khayum, Michael B. Connolly ,The economics of the Caribbean Basin. New York: Praeger, 1985. xxiii + 355 pp., John McDermott (eds)-Susan F. Hirsch, Herome Wendell Lurry-Wright, Custom and conflict on a Bahamian out-island. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1987. xxii + 188 pp.-Evelyne Trouillot-Ménard, Agence de Cooperation Culturelle et Technique, 1,000 proverbes créoles de la Caraïbe francophone. Paris: Editions Caribéennes, 1987. 114 pp.-Sue N. Greene, Amon Saba Saakana, The colonial legacy in Caribbean literature. Trenton NJ: Africa World Press, Inc. 1987. 128 pp.-Andrew Sanders, Cees Koelewijn, Oral literature of the Trio Indians of Surinam. In collaboration with Peter Riviére. Dordrecht and Providence: Foris Publications, 1987. (Caribbean Series 6, KITLV/Royal Institute of Linguistics anbd Anthropology). xiv + 312 pp.-Janette Forte, Nancie L. Gonzalez, Sojouners of the Caribbean: ethnogenesis and ethnohistory of the Garifuna. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1988. xi + 253 pp.-Nancie L. Gonzalez, Neil L. Whitehead, Lords of the Tiger Spirit: a history of the Caribs in colonial Venezuela and Guyana 1498-1820. Dordrecht and Providence: Foris Publications, 1988. (Caribbean Series 10, KITLV/Royal Institute of Linguistics and Anthropology.) x + 250 pp.-N.L. Whitehead, Andrew Sanders, The powerless people. London and Basingstoke: Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1987. iv + 220 pp.-Russell Parry Scott, Kenneth F. Kiple, The African exchange: toward a biological history of black people. Durham: Duke University Press, 1987. vi + 280 pp.-Colin Clarke, David Dabydeen ,India in the Caribbean. London: Hansib Publishing Ltd., 1987. 326 pp., Brinsley Samaroo (eds)-Juris Silenieks, Edouard Glissant, Caribbean discourse: selected essays. Translated and with an introduction by J. Michael Dash. Charlottesville, Virginia: The University Press of Virginia, 1989. xlvii + 272 pp.-Brenda Gayle Plummer, J. Michael Dash, Haiti and the United States: national stereotypes and the literary imagination. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1988. xv + 152 pp.-Evelyne Huber, Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Haiti: state against nation: the origins and legacy of Duvalierism. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1990. 282 pp.-Leon-Francois Hoffman, Alfred N. Hunt, Hiati's influence on Antebellum America: slumbering volcano of the Caribbean. Baton Rouge and London: Louisiana State University Press, 1988. xvi + 196 pp.-Brenda Gayle Plummer, David Healy, Drive to hegemony: the United States in the Caribbean, 1898-1917. Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1988. xi + 370 pp.-Anthony J. Payne, Jorge Heine ,The Caribbean and world politics: cross currents and cleavages. New York and London: Holmes and Meier Publishers, Inc., 1988. ix + 385 pp., Leslie Manigat (eds)-Anthony P. Maingot, Jacqueline Anne Braveboy-Wagner, The Caribbean in world affairs: the foreign policies of the English-speaking states. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1989. vii + 244 pp.-Edward M. Dew, H.F. Munneke, De Surinaamse constitutionele orde. Nijmegen, The Netherlands: Ars Aequi Libri, 1990. v + 120 pp.-Charles Rutheiser, O. Nigel Bolland, Colonialism and resistance in Belize: essays in historical sociology. Benque Viejo del Carmen, Belize: Cubola Productions / Institute of Social and Economic Research / Society for the Promotion of Education and Research, 1989. ix + 218 pp.-Ken I. Boodhoo, Selwyn Ryan, Trinidad and Tobago: the independence experience, 1962-1987. St. Augustine, Trinidad: ISER, 1988. xxiii + 599 pp.-Alan M. Klein, Jay Mandle ,Grass roots commitment: basketball and society in Trinidad and Tobago. Parkersburg, Iowa: Caribbean Books, 1988. ix + 75 pp., Joan Mandle (eds)-Maureen Warner-Lewis, Reinhard Sander, The Trinidad Awakening: West Indian literature of the nineteen-thirties. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1988. 168 pp.

The article describes the life path and analyzes academic achievements of a prominent Russian scholar, historian, member of the Danish Royal Academy of Sciences, professor of the Institute of History of St. Petersburg State University Valery Evgenyevich Vozgrin (1939–2020). The works of V.E.Vozgrin are well known in all Scandinavian countries, Germany, Italy, Spain, Estonia and other countries. The authors of the article highlight three main areas in his study of the history of the Scandinavian countries: first — the history of diplomacy and international relations of the 17th and 18th centuries, particularly, the diplomacy during the Great Northern War; second — the colonial policy of the countries such as Denmark and Sweden, which has never been researched by domestic historians; third — historiographic direction in the study of Scandinavian countries, which has never been developed on such a large scale in Russia before. Moreover, the analysis of a number of large historiographical works of the researcher clearly indicates an original style of the author in considering some little-known and very complex historiographic problems. The article concludes that the research base established by professor Vozgrin for studying the history of the Scandinavian countries has laid a solid foundation for further examination of the history of the Nordic countries as well as for Scandinavistics in St. Petersburg to whose development V.Vozgrin made a considerable contribution.

In 1934 ARD Fairburn published the essay "Some Aspects of N.Z. Art and Letters" in the journal Art in New Zealand. In it he criticized Alan Mulgan's book Home: A Colonial's Adventure, which had been first published in 1927, and was reprinted in 1934. It was, in Fairburn's view, an account unacceptably steeped in romantic melancholy for a distant motherland that was no longer as germane as it had once been. Instead he proposed looking to the American Transcendentalists Twain and Thoreau for direction. Also published in 1934 was a small book from the New Zealand Institute of Architects called Building in New Zealand. In it the NZIA made a case for the professional and social responsibilities of the architect in New Zealand and it is best described as conservative. However it is pertinent that this book was edited by Alan Mulgan. Here the role of the architect in cast in practical terms that bear direct comparison to the code of practice issue for the Royal Institute of British Architects. Mulgan's contribution to discussion on New Zealand architecture is limited to this publication, and it is likely his editorship of Building in New Zealand was motivated more by depression economics than architectural interest. However this book is still an important summary of the profession at that time, and it links architecture to Mulgan's romantic writings though the reiteration of a colonial fountainhead. By contrast Fairburn would go on to champion a national voice for New Zealand's writers, artists, and architects. Moreover he established a close relationship with Vernon Brown, and was to associate with Bill Wilson and the Architectural Group. Indeed, the limited writings available from these architectural associates often echo Fairburn's 1934 call for an antipodean "honesty" in "our" buildings. It is in the immediate post war period that the emergence of a national architectural expression in New Zealand is most celebrated, being lead in Auckland by Brown, Wilson, and the Architectural Group. However an examination of the writings by Fairburn and Mulgan shows that the elements of the debate were already in place well before then. I conclude that the antecedent for the emergence of debate on a national architectural character appears, however unintentionally, in the 1934 writings of Fairburn and Mulgan. Critical to this is discussion on we mean by "honest" architectural work.

-Timothy Barnard, J.M. Gullick, A history of Selangor (1766-1939). Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1989, vi + 220 pp. [MBRAS Monograph 28.] -Okke Braadbaart, Michael L. Ross, Timber booms and institutional breakdown in Southeast Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001, xvi + 237 pp. -H.J.M. Claessen, Patrick Vinton Kirch ,Hawaiki, ancestral Polynesia; An essay in historical anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001, xvii + 375 pp., Roger C. Green (eds) -Harold Crouch, R.E. Elson, Suharto; A political biography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001, xix + 389 pp. -Kees van Dijk, H.W. Arndt ,Southeast Asia's economic crisis; Origins, lessons, and the way forward. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian studies, 1999, ix + 182 pp., Hal Hill (eds) -Kees van Dijk, Sebastiaan Pompe, De Indonesische algemene verkiezingen 1999. Leiden: KITLV Uitgeverij, 1999, 290 pp. -David van Duuren, Albert G. van Zonneveld, Traditional weapons of the Indonesian archipelago. Leiden: Zwartenkot art books, 2001, 160 pp. -Peter van Eeuwijk, Christian Ph. Josef Lehner, Die Heiler von Samoa. O Le Fofo; Monographie über die Heiler und die Naturheilmethoden in West-Samoa. Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 1999, 234 pp. [Mensch und Gesellschaft 4.] -Hans Hägerdal, Frans Hüsken ,Reading Asia; New research of Asian studies. Richmond: Curzon, 2001, xvi + 338 pp., Dick van der Meij (eds) -Terence E. Hays, Jelle Miedema ,Perspectives on the Bird's head of Irian Jaya, Indonesia; Proceedings of the conference, Leiden, 13-17 October 1997. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1998, xiii + 982 pp. (editors with the assistance of Connie Baak), Cecilia Odé, Rien A.C. Dam (eds) -Menno Hekker, Peter Metcalf, They lie, we lie; Getting on with anthropology. London: Routledge, 2002, ix + 155 pp. -David Henley, Foong Kin, Social and behavioural aspects of malaria control; A study among the Murut of Sabah. Phillips, Maine: Borneo research council , 2000, xx + 241 pp. [BRC Occasional paper 1.] -Gerrit Knaap, Frédéric Mantienne, Les relations politiques et commerciales entre la France et la péninsule Indochinoise (XVIIe siècle). Paris: Les Indes Savantes, 2001, 395 pp. -Uli Kozok, James T. Collins, Malay, world language; A short history. Second edition. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan bahasa dan pustaka, 2000, xii + 101 pp. -Nathan Porath, Hoe Ban Seng, Semalai communities at Tasek Bera; A study of the structure of an Orang Asli society. [A.S. Baer and R. Gianno, eds.] Subang Jaya, Malaysia: Centre for Orang Asli concerns, 2001, xii + 191 pp. -Nathan Porath, Narifumi Maeda Tachimoto, The Orang Hulu; A report on Malaysian orang asli in the 1960's. [A.S. Baer, ed.] Subang Jaya, Malaysia: Centre for Orang Asli concerns, 2001, xiv + 104 pp. -Martin Ramstedt, Raechelle Rubinstein ,Staying local in the global village; Bali in the twentieth century. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1999, xiii + 353 pp., Linda H. Connor (eds) -Albert M. Salamanca, Thomas R. Leinbach ,Southeast Asia: diversity and development. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2000, xiii + 594 pp., Richard Ulack (eds) -Heather Sutherland, Muhamad Hisyam, Caught between three fires; The Javanese pangulu under the Dutch colonial administration, 1882-1942. Jakarta: Indonesian-Netherlands cooperation in Islamic studies (INIS), 2001, 331 pp. [Seri INIS 37.] -Heather Sutherland, Roderich Ptak, China's seaborne trade with South and Southeast Asia (1200-1750). Aldershot: Ashgate, 1999, xii + 366 pp. [Variorum collected studies series CS638.] -Sikko Visscher, M. Jocelyn Armstrong ,Chinese populations in contemporary Southeast Asian societies. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 2001, xiv + 268 pp., R. Warwick Armstrong, Kent Mulliner (eds) -Reed Wadley, Clifford Sather, Seeds of play, words of power; An ethnographic study of Iban shamanic chants. Kuching: Tun Jugah foundation, 2001, xvii + 753 pp. [Borneo classic series 5.] -Boris Wastiau, Raymond Corbey, Tribal art traffic; A chronicle of taste, trade and desire in colonial and post-colonial times. Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute, 2000, 255 pp. -Willem G. Wolters, Wong Kwok-Chu, The Chinese in the Philippine economy, 1898-1941. Quezon city: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1999, xvi + 279 pp. -Volker Grabowsky, Stephen Mansfield, Lao hill tribes; Traditions and patterns of existence. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000, vii + 91 pp. -Volker Grabowsky, Jean Michaud, Turbulent times and enduring people; Mountain minorities in the South-East Asian Massif. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 2000, xiii + 255 pp. -Volker Grabowsky, Jane Richard Hanks ,Tribes of the northern Thailand frontier. (with a foreword by Nicola Tannenbaum), New Haven, CT: Yale University Southeast Asia studies, 2001, xlviii + 319 pp. [Monograph 51.], Lucien Mason Hanks (eds)

- Peter Boomgaard, Robert L. Winzeler, Latah in Southeast Asia; The history and ethnography of a culture-bound syndrome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, xvi + 172 pp. [Publications of the Society for Psychological Anthropology 7.] - Ad Borsboom, H.C. Coombs, Aboriginal autonomy; Issues and strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, xvi + 251 pp. - Ad Borsboom, Daniel de Coppet, Cosmos and society in Oceania. Oxford: Berg, 1995, 416 pp. [Explorations in Anthropology Series]., André Iteanu (eds.) - Raymond L. Bryant, P. Boomgaard, Forests and forestry 1823-1941. Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute, 184 pp. [Changing Economy in Indonesia vol. 16]., R. de Bakker (eds.) - David Henley, Jan M. Pluvier, Historical atlas of South-east Asia. Leiden/New York/Köln: Brill, 1995, 83 + 64 pp. [Handbuch der Orientalistik, Dritter Abteilung (Südostasien), Achter Band]. - Victor T. King, Nico Schulte Nordholt, Social science in Southeast Asia; From particularism to universalism. Amsterdam: VU University Press (for the Centre for Asian Studies Amsterdam), 1995, 165 pp. [Comparative Asian Studies 17]., Leontine Visser (eds.) - Han Knapen, Bernard Sellato, Nomads of the Borneo rainforest; The economics, politics, and ideology of settling down. Translated by Stephanie Morgan. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994, xxiii + 280 pp. - R.Z. Leirissa, David E.F. Henley, Nationalism and regionalism in a colonial context; Minahasa in the Dutch East Indies. Leiden: KITLV Press, 1996, xii + 186 pp. [Verhandelingen 168]. - K. Loven, Kees Epskamp, On printed matter and beyond; Media, orality and literacy. The Hague: Centre for the Study of Education in Developing Countries (CESO), 1995, 136 pp. [CESO Paperback 23]. - Niels Mulder, Andrée Feillard, Islam et armée dans l’Indonésie contemporaine; Les pionniers de la tradition, Paris: Éditions l’Harmattan, 1995, 379 pp. [Association Archipel, Cahier d’Archipel 28]. - Tessel Pollmann, Cees Fasseur, Indischgasten. Amsterdam: Bert Bakker, 1997, 313 pp. - Stuart Robson, P.J. Zoetmulder, Pantheism and monism in Javanese Suluk literature; Islamic and Indian mysticism in an Indonesian setting. Edited and translated by M.C. Ricklefs. Leiden: KITLV Press, 1995, xvii + 381 pp. [Translation Series 24].

Bombay did not play the kind of administrative nodal role that first Madras and later Calcutta did in terms of overarching governance in the Indian subcontinent, occupying instead a pivotal position for the region’s commerce and industry. Nonetheless, the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in Bombay were a formative age for education and research in science, as in the other Presidencies. A colonial government, a large native population enrolled in the new European-style educational system, and the rise of several institutions of instruction and learning, fostered an environment of scientific curiosity. The Asiatic Society of Bombay (1804), which was initially the hub of research in all disciplines, became increasingly antiquarian and ethnographic through the course of the nineteenth century. The Victoria and Albert Museum (conceived in 1862 and built by 1871 and opened to the public in 1872), was established to carry out research on the industrial arts of the region, taking for its original collections fine and decorative arts that highlight practices and crafts of various communities in the Bombay Presidency. The University of Bombay (1857) was primarily tasked with teaching, and it was left to other establishments to conduct research. Key institutions in this regard included the Bombay Natural History Society (1883) given to local studies of plants and animals, and the Haffkine Institute (1899), which examined the role of plague that had been a dominant feature of the social cityscape from 1896. The Royal Institute of Science (1920) marked a point of departure, as it was conceived as a teaching institution but its lavish funding demanded a research agenda, especially at the post-graduate level. The Prince of Wales Museum (1922) would prove to be seminal in matters of collection and display of objects for the purpose of research. All of these institutions would shape the intellectual debates in the city concerning higher education. Typically founded by European colonial officials, they would increasingly be administered and staffed by Indians.

The two decades that preceded the outbreak of the Great War present a puzzling blend of vastly expanded international cultural contact and enormously increased nationalist chauvinism. Bitter colonial rivalries and the British–German naval arms race broke out just as Europeans of the middling sort were seeing more of one another than ever before, in photographs and at international exhibitions, by means of faster, cheaper transportation routes, and the expanding embrace of the popular press. Commerce among European and American scholars accelerated as international conferences and scholarly organizations grew in number. The reverse side of this expansion, however, was the demand for equal access to information (and, as we have seen, equivalent ownership of objects) by national groups and institutions previously dependent on others for scientific and cultural materials. Paradoxically, as scholarly advancement became more and more dependent upon international contact, it also came increasingly to be regarded as a national bragging point. On the eve of the First World War, then, Kultur and Wissenschaft were both more international in scope and more nationalist in sentiment than ever before. Coinciding with and complexly related to the rise of this curious mixture of extended contact and narrowed mindset was the increasing activity of the German state in cultural affairs, as patron, organizer, and publicizer. During the tenures of Richard Schöne and Friedrich Althoff, the Reich had vastly increased both its generosity and its control in the cultural sphere. But the state had not acted alone or without encouragement from cultural interest groups that saw the state as the guarantor of scholarly autonomy against the incursion of party-political demands (vom Brocke 1980: 89). In fact, much of the cultural reorganization in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries took place at the insistence of commercial interests or para-academic organizations such as the Prussian Academy of Sciences, the Deutsche-Archäologisches Institut (DAI), and the Royal Museums. Of course, these groups did not turn to the state merely to avoid the politicization of their causes; specialization and escalating international rivalries required high levels of investment to build laboratories and provide research materials, particularly in ‘applied’ fields such as electro-magnetics, medicine, and agronomy.