Artículos de revistas:

1

Hu, Shijian, Ying Zhang, Ming Feng, Yan Du, Janet Sprintall, Fan Wang, Dunxin Hu, Qiang Xie y Fei Chai. "Interannual to Decadal Variability of Upper-Ocean Salinity in the Southern Indian Ocean and the Role of the Indonesian Throughflow". Journal of Climate 32, n.º 19 (29 de agosto de 2019): 6403–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-19-0056.1.

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Abstract Variability of oceanic salinity, an indicator of the global hydrological cycle, plays an important role in the basin-scale ocean circulation. In this study, interannual to decadal variability of salinity in the upper layer of the Indian Ocean is investigated using Argo observations since 2004 and data assimilating model outputs (1992–2015). The southeastern Indian Ocean shows the strongest interannual to decadal variability of upper-ocean salinity in the Indian Ocean. Westward propagation of salinity anomalies along isopycnal surfaces is detected in the southern Indian Ocean and attributed to zonal salinity advection anomalies associated with the Indonesian Throughflow and the South Equatorial Current. Composite and salinity budget analyses show that horizontal advection is a major contributor to the interannual to decadal salinity variability of the southern Indian Ocean, and the local air–sea freshwater flux plays a secondary role. The Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO) and El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) modulate the salinity variability in the southeastern Indian Ocean, with low salinity anomalies occurring during the negative phases of the PDO and ENSO and high salinity anomalies during their positive phases. The Indonesian Throughflow plays an essential role in transmitting the PDO- and ENSO-related salinity signals into the Indian Ocean. A statistical model is proposed based on the PDO index, which successfully predicts the southeastern Indian Ocean salinity variability with a lead time of 10 months.

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2

Kido, Shoichiro y Tomoki Tozuka. "Salinity Variability Associated with the Positive Indian Ocean Dipole and Its Impact on the Upper Ocean Temperature". Journal of Climate 30, n.º 19 (1 de septiembre de 2017): 7885–907. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-17-0133.1.

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Abstract Both surface and subsurface salinity variability associated with positive Indian Ocean dipole (pIOD) events and its impacts on the sea surface temperature (SST) evolution are investigated through analysis of observational/reanalysis data and sensitivity experiments with a one-dimensional mixed layer model. During the pIOD, negative (positive) sea surface salinity (SSS) anomalies appear in the central-eastern equatorial Indian Ocean (southeastern tropical Indian Ocean). In addition to these SSS anomalies, positive (negative) salinity anomalies are found near the pycnocline in the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean (southern tropical Indian Ocean). A salinity balance analysis shows that these subsurface salinity anomalies are mainly generated by zonal and vertical salt advection anomalies induced by anomalous currents associated with the pIOD. These salinity anomalies stabilize (destabilize) the upper ocean stratification in the central-eastern equatorial (southeastern tropical) Indian Ocean. By decomposing observed densities into contribution from temperature and salinity anomalies, it is shown that the contribution from anomalous salinity stratification is comparable to that from anomalous thermal stratification. Furthermore, impacts of these salinity anomalies on the SST evolution are quantified for the first time using a one-dimensional mixed layer model. Since enhanced salinity stratification in the central-eastern equatorial Indian Ocean suppresses vertical mixing, significant warming of about 0.3°–0.5°C occurs. On the other hand, stronger vertical mixing associated with reduced salinity stratification results in significant SST cooling of about 0.2°–0.5°C in the southeastern tropical Indian Ocean. These results suggest that variations in salinity may potentially play a crucial role in the evolution of the pIOD.

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3

Han, Weiqing y Julian P. McCreary. "Modeling salinity distributions in the Indian Ocean". Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 106, n.º C1 (15 de enero de 2001): 859–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2000jc000316.

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4

Iskandar, Mochamad Riza y Dewi Surinati. "DECADAL MIXED LAYER SALINITY IN THE SOUTHEASTERN INDIAN OCEAN". Marine Research in Indonesia 44, n.º 2 (28 de diciembre de 2019): 72–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.14203/mri.v44i2.546.

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The decadal of mixed layer salinity budget in the southeastern Indian Ocean (SETIO) is evaluated by using monthly gridded reanalysis ocean dataset (Estimated State of Global Ocean for Climate Research (ESTOC)) from January 1960 to December 2014. The evaluation of salinity budget through the examination of atmospheric flux, surface advection, Ekman advection and entrainment terms. The mixed layer salinity (MLS) in the outflow of the ITF shows decadal cycle. The decadal MLS tendency follows the Ekman advection term. The other processes such as atmospheric surface flux, surface advection and entrainment terms are counterbalanced and small correlates to the salinity tendency.

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5

Yuhong, Zhang, Du Yan, Zheng Shaojun, Yang Yali y Cheng Xuhua. "Impact of Indian Ocean Dipole on the salinity budget in the equatorial Indian Ocean". Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 118, n.º 10 (octubre de 2013): 4911–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jgrc.20392.

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6

Jensen, Tommy G. "Wind-Driven Response of the Northern Indian Ocean to Climate Extremes*". Journal of Climate 20, n.º 13 (1 de julio de 2007): 2978–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli4150.1.

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Abstract Composites of Florida State University winds (1970–99) for four different climate scenarios are used to force an Indian Ocean model. In addition to the mean climatology, the cases include La Niña, El Niño, and the Indian Ocean dipole (IOD). The differences in upper-ocean water mass exchanges between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal are investigated and show that, during El Niño and IOD years, the average clockwise Indian Ocean circulation is intensified, while it is weakened during La Niña years. As a consequence, high-salinity water export from the Arabian Sea into the Bay of Bengal is enhanced during El Niño and IOD years, while transport of low-salinity waters from the Bay of Bengal into the Arabian Sea is enhanced during La Niña years. This provides a venue for interannual salinity variations in the northern Indian Ocean.

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7

Zhang, Zheen, Thomas Pohlmann y Xueen Chen. "Correlation between subsurface salinity anomalies in the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean Dipole and governing mechanisms". Ocean Science 17, n.º 1 (3 de marzo de 2021): 393–409. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/os-17-393-2021.

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Abstract. Lead–lag correlations between the subsurface temperature and salinity anomalies in the Bay of Bengal (BoB) and the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) are revealed in model results, ocean synthesis, and observations. Mechanisms for such correlations are further investigated using the Hamburg Shelf Ocean Model (HAMSOM), mainly relating to the salinity variability. It is found that the subsurface salinity anomaly of the BoB positively correlates to the IOD, with a lag of 3 months on average, while the subsurface temperature anomaly correlates negatively. The model results suggest the remote forcing from the equatorial Indian Ocean dominates the interannual subsurface salinity variability in the BoB. The coastal Kelvin waves carry signals of positive (negative) salinity anomalies from the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean and propagate counterclockwise along the coasts of the BoB during positive (negative) IOD events. Subsequently, westward Rossby waves propagate these signals to the basin at a relatively slow speed, which causes a considerable delay of the subsurface salinity anomalies in the correlation. By analyzing the salinity budget of the BoB, it is found that diffusion dominates the salinity changes near the surface, while advection dominates the subsurface; the vertical advection of salinity contributes positively to this correlation, while the horizontal advection contributes negatively. These results suggest that the IOD plays a crucial role in the interannual subsurface salinity variability in the BoB.

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8

Sonzogni, Corinne, Edouard Bard, Frauke Rostek, Denis Dollfus, Antoni Rosell-Melé y Geoffrey Eglinton. "Temperature and Salinity Effects on Alkenone Ratios Measured in Surface Sediments from the Indian Ocean". Quaternary Research 47, n.º 3 (mayo de 1997): 344–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/qres.1997.1885.

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We compare alkenone unsaturation ratios measured on recent sediments from the Indian Ocean (20°N–45°S) with modern sea oceanographic parameters. For each of the core sites we estimated average seasonal cycles of sea surface temperature (SST) and salinity, which we then weighted with the seasonal productivity cycle derived from chlorophyll satellite imagery. The unsaturation index (U37K′) ranges from 0.2 to 1 and correlates with water temperature but not with salinity. TheU37K′versus SST relationship for Indian Ocean sediments (U37K′= 0.033 SST + 0.05) is similar to what has been observed for core tops from the Pacific and Atlantic oceans and the Black Sea. A global compilation for core tops givesU37K′= 0.031 T + 0.084 (R= 0.98), which is close to a previously reported calibration based on particulate organic matter from the water column. For temperatures between 24° and 29°C, however, the slope seems to decrease to about 0.02U37K′unit/°C. For Indian Ocean core tops, the ratios of total C37alkenones/total C38alkenones and the slope of theU37K′-SST relationship are similar to those previously observed for cultures ofEmiliania huxleyibut different from those previously published forGephyrocapsa oceanica.EitherE. huxleyiis a major producer of alkenones in the Indian Ocean or strains ofG. oceanicaliving in the northern Indian Ocean behave differently from the one cultured. In contrast with coccolithophorid assemblages, the ratios of C37alkenones to total C38alkenones lack clear geographic pattern in the Indian Ocean.

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9

Sharma, Rashmi, Neeraj Agarwal, Imran M. Momin, Sujit Basu y Vijay K. Agarwal. "Simulated Sea Surface Salinity Variability in the Tropical Indian Ocean". Journal of Climate 23, n.º 24 (15 de diciembre de 2010): 6542–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2010jcli3721.1.

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Abstract A long-period (15 yr) simulation of sea surface salinity (SSS) obtained from a hindcast run of an ocean general circulation model (OGCM) forced by the NCEP–NCAR daily reanalysis product is analyzed in the tropical Indian Ocean (TIO). The objective of the study is twofold: assess the capability of the model to provide realistic simulations of SSS and characterize the SSS variability in view of upcoming satellite salinity missions. Model fields are evaluated in terms of mean, standard deviation, and characteristic temporal scales of SSS variability. Results show that the standard deviations range from 0.2 to 1.5 psu, with larger values in regions with strong seasonal transitions of surface currents (south of India) and along the coast in the Bay of Bengal (strong Kelvin-wave-induced currents). Comparison of simulated SSS with collocated SSS measurements from the National Oceanographic Data Center and Argo floats resulted in a high correlation of 0.85 and a root-mean-square error (RMSE) of 0.4 psu. The correlations are quite high (>0.75) up to a depth of 300 m. Daily simulations of SSS compare well with a Research Moored Array for African–Asian–Australian Monsoon Analysis and Prediction (RAMA) buoy in the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean (1.5°S, 90°E) with an RMSE of 0.3 psu and a correlation better than 0.6. Model SSS compares well with observations at all time scales (intraseasonal, seasonal, and interannual). The decorrelation scales computed from model and buoy SSS suggest that the proposed 10-day sampling of future salinity sensors would be able to resolve much of the salinity variability at time scales longer than intraseasonal. This inference is significant in view of satellite salinity sensors, such as Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) and Aquarius.

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10

Nagura, Motoki y Shinya Kouketsu. "Spiciness Anomalies in the Upper South Indian Ocean". Journal of Physical Oceanography 48, n.º 9 (septiembre de 2018): 2081–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jpo-d-18-0050.1.

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AbstractThis study investigates an isopycnal temperature/salinity T/S, or spiciness, anomaly in the upper south Indian Ocean for the period from 2004 to 2015 using observations and reanalyses. Spiciness anomalies at about 15°S on 24–26σθ are focused on, whose standard deviation is about 0.1 psu in salinity and 0.25°C in temperature, and they have a contribution to isobaric temperature variability comparable to thermocline heave. A plausible generation region of these anomalies is the southeastern Indian Ocean, where the 25σθ surface outcrops in southern winter, and the anticyclonic subtropical gyre advects subducted water equatorward. Unlike the Pacific and Atlantic, spiciness anomalies in the upper south Indian Ocean are not T/S changes in mode water, and meridional variations in SST and sea surface salinity in their generation region are not density compensating. It is possible that this peculiarity is owing to freshwater originating from the Indonesian Seas. The production of spiciness anomalies is estimated from surface heat and freshwater fluxes and the surface T/S relationship in the outcrop region, based on several assumptions including the dominance of surface fluxes in the surface T/S budget and effective mixed layer depth proposed by Deser et al. The result agrees well with isopycnal salinity anomalies at the outcrop line, which indicates that spiciness anomalies are generated by local surface fluxes. It is suggested that the Ningaloo Niño and El Niño–Southern Oscillation lead to interannual variability in surface heat flux in the southeastern Indian Ocean and contribute to the generation of spiciness anomalies.

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11

Navas-Pereira, Denise y Marta Vannucci. "The hydromedusae and water masses of the Indian Ocean". Boletim do Instituto Oceanográfico 39, n.º 1 (1991): 25–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0373-55241991000100003.

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This analysis of distribution and abundance of species of Hydromedusae completes a report (Vannucci & Navas, 1973b) on the ecology of Indian Ocean Hydromedusae based on the zooplankton collected during the International Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE). Distribution and abundance are taken here to be the ecological expression of variability of species in space and time. The aim was to identify the biological signature of below surface water masses that cannot be identified by remote sensing techniques. Selected species were taken as biological units, the oceanic water masses as defined by their T-S and T-O2 diagrammes were taken as the non biological units. Taken together they define different ecosystems of the Indian Ocean. About 45,000 specimens of hydromedusae taken at 480 stations were sorted from 900 plankton samples and all specimens were determined and counted. Several hauls, mostly stratified, were taken with closing nets, but not all contained hydromedusae. The distribution of each species was studied in relation to water salinity, temperature and dissolved oxygen; the limits of ecological tolerance and preference were defined by the environmental characteristics of the layers sampled by the nets and are given for each species. These can be grouped as follows: 1. Deep water species, cold tolerant, often eurytopic; 2. Antarctic species, cold loving, usually stenothermal with preference for low salinity; 3. Indian Ocean Central Water species, with preference for temperature lower than 19ºC and salinity not much higher than 35%o, usually found at sub-surface or intermediate depths, they may spread into the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal in surface layers; 4. Indian Ocean Equatorial System species, warm tolerant, usually prefer comparatively low salinity, high temperature and high oxygen content; 5. Bay of Bengal Surface Water species, found in surface layers of the Bay, with preference for low salinity, high temperature and high oxygen content; 6. Arabian Sea Surface Water species prefer very high salinity and high temperature; 7. Rare species. Some immigrants from the Mediterranean Sea are described and many species were found to be tolerant of dissolved oxygen content as low as 0.2 ml/1. Numerous individuals of many species were found to agglomerate at boundary layers.

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12

Subrahmanyam, Bulusu, V. S. N. Murty y David M. Heffner. "Sea surface salinity variability in the tropical Indian Ocean". Remote Sensing of Environment 115, n.º 3 (marzo de 2011): 944–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2010.12.004.

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13

Menezes, Viviane V., Helen E. Phillips, Andreas Schiller, Catia M. Domingues y Nathaniel L. Bindoff. "Salinity dominance on the Indian Ocean Eastern Gyral current". Geophysical Research Letters 40, n.º 21 (8 de noviembre de 2013): 5716–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2013gl057887.

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14

Delaygue, Gilles, Edouard Bard, Claire Rollion, Jean Jouzel, Michel Stiévenard, Jean-Claude Duplessy y Gerald Ganssen. "Oxygen isotope/salinity relationship in the northern Indian Ocean". Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 106, n.º C3 (15 de marzo de 2001): 4565–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/1999jc000061.

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15

Du, Yan y Yuhong Zhang. "Satellite and Argo Observed Surface Salinity Variations in the Tropical Indian Ocean and Their Association with the Indian Ocean Dipole Mode". Journal of Climate 28, n.º 2 (15 de enero de 2015): 695–713. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-14-00435.1.

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Abstract This study investigates sea surface salinity (SSS) variations in the tropical Indian Ocean (IO) using the Aquarius/Satelite de Aplicaciones Cientificas-D (SAC-D) and the Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) satellite data and the Argo observations during July 2010–July 2014. Compared to the Argo observations, the satellite datasets generally provide SSS maps with higher space–time resolution, particularly in the regions where Argo floats are sparse. Both Aquarius and SMOS well captured the SSS variations associated with the Indian Ocean dipole (IOD) mode. Significant SSS changes occurred in the central equatorial IO, along the Java–Sumatra coast, and south of the equatorial IO, due to ocean circulation variations. During the negative IOD events in 2010, 2013, and 2014, westerly wind anomalies strengthened along the equator, weakening coastal upwelling off Java and Sumatra and decreasing SSS. South of the equatorial IO, an anomalous cyclonic gyre changed the tropical circulation, which favored the eastward high-salinity tongue along the equator and the westward low-saline tongue in the south. An upwelling Rossby wave favored the increase of SSS farther to the south. During the positive IOD events in 2011 and 2012, the above-mentioned processes reversed, although the decrease of SSS was weaker in magnitude.

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16

Novianto, Dian, Takahiro Osawa y I. Wayan Nuarsa. "Study Of Albacore Tuna (Thunnus alalunga) Abundance Using Regional Ocean Modeling System (ROMS) Data In Indian Ocean". International Journal of Environment and Geosciences 2, n.º 2 (1 de diciembre de 2018): 76. http://dx.doi.org/10.24843/ijeg.2018.v02.i02.p03.

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First, we analysed alabcore catch data based on time, positions, and layer alabcore caught and ROMS result data monthly climatology data for temperature, salinity. current velocity, and sea surface height for 2005–2008. Then, we analyzed the relationship between catch data and ROMS data by combining the statistical method of regression trogh origin (RTO) and geographic information system (GIS). Three model RTO were generated with the abundance of albacore tuna as a response variable, and temperature, salinity. current velocity, and sea surface height as predictor variables. All of the predictors of temperature, salinity. current velocity, and sea surface height were highly significant (P < 0.001) to the number of albacore tuna. Values of temperature, salinity. current velocity, and sea surface height in albacore tuna preferences ranged from 220 to 230 C, 34.79 to 34.84 Psu, 0.01 to 0.03 m/s and 0.66 to 0.70 m, respectively. Validation of the predicted number ofalbacore tuna with the observed value was significant (P < 0.05, r2 = 0.60). sea surface height was the most important environmental variable to the number of albacore tuna caught, followed by temperature, salinity and current velocity.

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17

McCarthy, Gerard, Elaine McDonagh y Brian King. "Decadal Variability of Thermocline and Intermediate Waters at 24°S in the South Atlantic". Journal of Physical Oceanography 41, n.º 1 (1 de enero de 2011): 157–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2010jpo4467.1.

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Abstract New data are presented from 24°S in the South Atlantic in an investigation of the decadal variability of the intermediate and thermocline water masses at this latitude. Variation of salinity on neutral density surfaces is investigated with three transatlantic, full-depth hydrographic sections from 1958, 1983, and 2009. The thermocline is seen to freshen by 0.05 between 1983 and 2009. The freshening is coherent, basinwide, and of a larger magnitude than any errors associated with the datasets. This freshening reverses a basinwide, coherent increase in salinity of 0.03 in the thermocline between 1958 and 1983. Changes in apparent oxygen utilization (AOU) are investigated to support the salinity changes. In the thermocline of the eastern basin, a correlated relationship exists between local AOU and salinity anomalies, which is consistent with the influence of Indian Ocean Water. This correlated relationship is utilized to estimate the magnitude of Indian Ocean influence on the salinity changes in the thermocline. Indian Ocean influence explains half of the salinity changes in the eastern thermocline from 1958 to 1983 but less of the salinity change in the eastern thermocline from 1983 to 2009. Antarctic Intermediate Water properties significantly warm from 1958 through 1983 to 2009. A significant salinification and increase in AOU is evident from 1958 to 1983. Changes in the salinity of AAIW are shown to be linked with Indian Ocean influence rather than changes in the hydrological cycle. Upper Circumpolar Deep Water is seen to be progressively more saline from 1958 through 1983 to 2009. Increased Agulhas leakage and the intensification of the hydrological cycle are conflicting influences on the salinity of thermocline and intermediate waters in the South Atlantic as the former acts to increase the salinity of these water masses and the latter acts to decrease the salinity of these water masses. The results presented here offer an interpretation of the salinity changes, which considers both of these conflicting influences.

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18

D’Addezio, Joseph M., Bulusu Subrahmanyam, Ebenezer S. Nyadjro y V. S. N. Murty. "Seasonal Variability of Salinity and Salt Transport in the Northern Indian Ocean". Journal of Physical Oceanography 45, n.º 7 (julio de 2015): 1947–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jpo-d-14-0210.1.

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AbstractAnalyses using a suite of observational datasets (Aquarius and Argo) and model simulations are carried out to examine the seasonal variability of salinity in the northern Indian Ocean (NIO). The model simulations include Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean, Phase II (ECCO2), the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts–Ocean Reanalysis System 4 (ECMWF–ORAS4), Simple Ocean Data Assimilation (SODA) reanalysis, and the Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model (HYCOM). The analyses of salinity at the surface and at depths up to 200 m, surface salt transport in the top 5-m layer, and depth-integrated salt transports revealed different salinity processes in the NIO that are dominantly related to the semiannual monsoons. Aquarius proves a useful tool for observing this dynamic region and reveals some aspects of sea surface salinity (SSS) variability that Argo cannot resolve. The study revealed large disagreement between surface salt transports derived from observed- and analysis-derived salinity fields. Although differences in SSS between the observations and the model solutions are small, model simulations provide much greater spatial variability of surface salt transports due to finer detailed current structure. Meridional depth-integrated salt transports along 6°N revealed dominant advective processes from the surface toward near-bottom depths. In the Arabian Sea (Bay of Bengal), the net monthly mean maximum northward (southward) salt transport of ~50 × 106 kg s −1 occurs in July, and annual-mean salt transports across this section are about −2.5 × 106 kg s −1 (3 × 106 kg s −1).

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19

Sharma, Rashmi, Neeraj Agarwal, Sujit Basu y Vijay K. Agarwal. "Impact of Satellite-Derived Forcings on Numerical Ocean Model Simulations and Study of Sea Surface Salinity Variations in the Indian Ocean". Journal of Climate 20, n.º 5 (1 de marzo de 2007): 871–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli4032.1.

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Abstract This study focuses on two major aspects: the impact of satellite forcings (winds and precipitation) on the simulations of a multilayer Indian Ocean (IO) model (IOM) and the analysis of the processes responsible for salinity variations in the Indian Ocean during dipole years (1994 and 1997). It is observed that the European Remote Sensing Satellite-2 (ERS-2) scatterometer wind-driven solutions describe the interannual variabilities of sea surface temperature (SST) more realistically than the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) wind-driven solutions. The equatorial westward current jet [hereafter referred to as reverse Wyrtki jet (RWJ)] originating near the Sumatra coast in response to anomalous easterlies during fall of 1994 and 1997 is quite strong in the scatterometer-forced solutions. This RWJ is found to be weak in the NCEP solution. Two more experiments differing by their precipitation forcings [climatological and interannually varying Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP) rainfall] are carried out. Model-simulated variables like SST, sea surface salinity (SSS), and mixed layer depth (MLD) have been compared with in situ observations to verify the performance of the model. The model suggests a dipolelike structure in surface salinity during late 1994 and 1997, with low salinity in the central equatorial Indian Ocean (EIO) and high salinity near the Sumatra coast. The low-salinity tongue is caused by the transport of fresh surface waters via RWJ, which is further strengthened by a southward branch (which is absent in normal years) coming from the Bay of Bengal. A major inference of the study is that the low-salinity tongue is caused mainly by advection, not by a direct effect of precipitation. On the contrary, the high salinity near the Sumatra coast is due to the strong upwelling caused by anomalous easterlies. Another inference made out of this study is that there is apparently a definite signature of the evolution of the dipole event in the MLD approximately 2 months prior to the peak occurring in SSS in the south EIO.

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20

Slingo, Julia, Hilary Spencer, Brian Hoskins, Paul Berrisford y Emily Black. "The meteorology of the Western Indian Ocean, and the influence of the East African Highlands". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 363, n.º 1826 (15 de enero de 2005): 25–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2004.1473.

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This paper reviews the meteorology of the Western Indian Ocean and uses a state–of–the–art atmospheric general circulation model to investigate the influence of the East African Highlands on the climate of the Indian Ocean and its surrounding regions. The new 44–year re–analysis produced by the European Centre for Medium range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) has been used to construct a new climatology of the Western Indian Ocean. A brief overview of the seasonal cycle of the Western Indian Ocean is presented which emphasizes the importance of the geography of the Indian Ocean basin for controlling the meteorology of the Western Indian Ocean. The principal modes of inter–annual variability are described, associated with El Niño and the Indian Ocean Dipole or Zonal Mode, and the basic characteristics of the subseasonal weather over the Western Indian Ocean are presented, including new statistics on cyclone tracks derived from the ECMWF re–analyses. Sensitivity experiments, in which the orographic effects of East Africa are removed, have shown that the East African Highlands, although not very high, play a significant role in the climate of Africa, India and Southeast Asia, and in the heat, salinity and momentum forcing of the Western Indian Ocean. The hydrological cycle over Africa is systematically enhanced in all seasons by the presence of the East African Highlands, and during the Asian summer monsoon there is a major redistribution of the rainfall across India and Southeast Asia. The implied impact of the East African Highlands on the ocean is substantial. The East African Highlands systematically freshen the tropical Indian Ocean, and act to focus the monsoon winds along the coast, leading to greater upwelling and cooler sea–surface temperatures.

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21

Chaitanya, A. V. S., M. Lengaigne, J. Vialard, V. V. Gopalakrishna, F. Durand, C. Kranthikumar, S. Amritash, V. Suneel, F. Papa y M. Ravichandran. "Salinity Measurements Collected by Fishermen Reveal a “River in the Sea” Flowing Along the Eastern Coast of India". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 95, n.º 12 (1 de diciembre de 2014): 1897–908. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/bams-d-12-00243.1.

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Being the only tropical ocean bounded by a continent to the north, the Indian Ocean is home to the most powerful monsoon system on Earth. Monsoonal rains and winds induce huge river discharges and strong coastal currents in the northern Bay of Bengal. To date, the paucity of salinity data has prevented a thorough description of the spreading of this freshwater into the bay. The potential impact of the salinity on cyclones and regional climate in the Bay of Bengal is, however, a strong incentive for a better description of the water cycle in this region. Since May 2005, the National Institute of Oceanography conducts a program in which fishermen collect seawater samples in knee-deep water at eight stations along the Indian coastline every 5 days. Comparison with open-ocean samples shows that this cost-effective sampling strategy is representative of offshore salinity evolution. This new dataset reveals a salinity drop exceeding 10 g kg−1 in the northern part of the bay at the end of the summer monsoon. This freshening signal propagates southward in a narrow (~100 km wide) strip along the eastern coast of India, and reaches its southern tip after 2.5 months. Satellite-derived alongshore-current data shows that the southward propagation of this “river in the sea” is consistent with transport by seasonal coastal currents, while other processes are responsible for the ensuing erosion of this coastal freshening. This simple procedure of coastal seawater samples collection could further be used to monitor phytoplankton concentration, bacterial content, and isotopic composition of seawater along the Indian coastline.

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22

Valsala, Vinu K. y Motoyoshi Ikeda. "Pathways and Effects of the Indonesian Throughflow Water in the Indian Ocean Using Particle Trajectory and Tracers in an OGCM". Journal of Climate 20, n.º 13 (1 de julio de 2007): 2994–3017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli4167.1.

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Abstract The 3D pathways of the Indonesian Throughflow (ITF) in the Indian Ocean are identified using an OGCM, with a combined set of tools: 1) Lagrangian particle trajectories, 2) passive tracers, and 3) active tracers (temperature and salinity). Each of these tools has its own advantages and limitations to represent the watermass pathways. The Lagrangian particles, without horizontal and vertical mixing, suggest that at the entrance region the surface ITF subducts along the northwestern coast of Australia and then travels across the Indian Ocean along the thermocline depths. The subsurface ITF more directly departs westward and crosses the Indian Ocean. Using the passive tracers, which are mixed vertically under convection as well as horizontally due to diffusion, the ITF is shown to undergo vigorous mixing as soon as it enters the Indian Ocean and modifies its upper temperature–salinity (T–S) characteristics. Thus, the surface and subsurface ITF watermasses lose their identities. Upon reaching the western boundary, the ITF reroutes into three distinct depth ranges, owing to the seasonal reversal of the Somali region: route 1—across the Indian Ocean just to the south of the equator (200–300 m); route 2—across the Indian Ocean to the north of the equator (100–200 m); and route 3—upwells in the Somali region and spreads all over the surface of the northern Indian Ocean. The seasonality of the Somali Current is crucial to spread the ITF along route 3 during the summer monsoon (April–October) and route 2 during the winter monsoon (November–March). The basinwide spreading is responsible for a long residence time of the ITF in the Indian Ocean to be at least 20 yr. The effects of the ITF on the temperature and salinity are mainly accompanied with the major pathways. However, indirect effects are visible in a few spots; that is, the warm and saline feature is produced in the subsurface off the southwestern coast of Australia around 30°S caused by the eastward surface current, which is under the thermal wind relationship owing to the warm and fresh ITF component. This component also enhances vertical convection and warms the surface around 40°S. The Arabian Sea high salinity water is produced extensively with the effects of the Somali upwelling, which is originally strengthened by the fresh and warm ITF.

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23

Subrahmanyam, Bulusu, Gary Grunseich y Ebenezer S. Nyadjro. "Preliminary SMOS Salinity Measurements and Validation in the Indian Ocean". IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 51, n.º 1 (enero de 2013): 19–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/tgrs.2012.2199122.

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24

Vinayachandran, P. N. y Ravi S. Nanjundiah. "Indian Ocean sea surface salinity variations in a coupled model". Climate Dynamics 33, n.º 2-3 (25 de enero de 2009): 245–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00382-008-0511-6.

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25

Wang, Yu, Yuanlong Li y Chuanjie Wei. "Subtropical sea surface salinity maxima in the South Indian Ocean". Journal of Oceanology and Limnology 38, n.º 1 (13 de julio de 2019): 16–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00343-019-8251-5.

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26

Wijesekera, Hemantha W., Emily Shroyer, Amit Tandon, M. Ravichandran, Debasis Sengupta, S. U. P. Jinadasa, Harindra J. S. Fernando et al. "ASIRI: An Ocean–Atmosphere Initiative for Bay of Bengal". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 97, n.º 10 (1 de octubre de 2016): 1859–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/bams-d-14-00197.1.

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Abstract Air–Sea Interactions in the Northern Indian Ocean (ASIRI) is an international research effort (2013–17) aimed at understanding and quantifying coupled atmosphere–ocean dynamics of the Bay of Bengal (BoB) with relevance to Indian Ocean monsoons. Working collaboratively, more than 20 research institutions are acquiring field observations coupled with operational and high-resolution models to address scientific issues that have stymied the monsoon predictability. ASIRI combines new and mature observational technologies to resolve submesoscale to regional-scale currents and hydrophysical fields. These data reveal BoB’s sharp frontal features, submesoscale variability, low-salinity lenses and filaments, and shallow mixed layers, with relatively weak turbulent mixing. Observed physical features include energetic high-frequency internal waves in the southern BoB, energetic mesoscale and submesoscale features including an intrathermocline eddy in the central BoB, and a high-resolution view of the exchange along the periphery of Sri Lanka, which includes the 100-km-wide East India Coastal Current (EICC) carrying low-salinity water out of the BoB and an adjacent, broad northward flow (∼300 km wide) that carries high-salinity water into BoB during the northeast monsoon. Atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) observations during the decaying phase of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) permit the study of multiscale atmospheric processes associated with non-MJO phenomena and their impacts on the marine boundary layer. Underway analyses that integrate observations and numerical simulations shed light on how air–sea interactions control the ABL and upper-ocean processes.

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27

Pérez-Hernández, M. Dolores, Alonso Hernández-Guerra, Terrence M. Joyce y Pedro Vélez-Belchí. "Wind-Driven Cross-Equatorial Flow in the Indian Ocean". Journal of Physical Oceanography 42, n.º 12 (1 de diciembre de 2012): 2234–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jpo-d-12-033.1.

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Abstract Meridional velocity, mass, and heat transport in the equatorial oceans are difficult to estimate because of the nonapplicability of the geostrophic balance. For this purpose a steady-state model is utilized in the equatorial Indian Ocean using NCEP wind stress and temperature and salinity data from the World Ocean Atlas 2005 (WOA05) and Argo. The results show a Somali Current flowing to the south during the winter monsoon carrying −11.5 ± 1.3 Sv (1 Sv ≡ 106 m3 s−1) and −12.3 ± 0.3 Sv from WOA05 and Argo, respectively. In the summer monsoon the Somali Current reverses to the north transporting 16.8 ± 1.2 Sv and 19.8 ± 0.6 Sv in the WOA05 and Argo results. Transitional periods are considered together and in consequence, there is not a clear Somali Current present in this period. Model results fit with in situ measurements made around the region, although Argo data results are quite more realistic than WOA05 data results.

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28

Nagura, Motoki. "Spiciness Anomalies of Subantarctic Mode Water in the South Indian Ocean". Journal of Climate 34, n.º 10 (mayo de 2021): 3927–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-20-0482.1.

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AbstractThis study investigates spreading and generation of spiciness anomalies of the Subantarctic Mode Water (SAMW) located on 26.6 to 26.8 σθ in the south Indian Ocean, using in situ hydrographic observations, satellite measurements, reanalysis datasets, and numerical model output. The amplitude of spiciness anomalies is about 0.03 psu or 0.13°C and tends to be large along the streamline of the subtropical gyre, whose upstream end is the outcrop region south of Australia. The speed of spreading is comparable to that of the mean current, and it takes about a decade for a spiciness anomaly in the outcrop region to spread into the interior up to Madagascar. In the outcrop region, interannual variability in mixed layer temperature and salinity tends to be density compensating, which indicates that Eulerian temperature or salinity changes account for the generation of isopycnal spiciness anomalies. It is known that wintertime temperature and salinity in the surface mixed layer determine the temperature and salinity relationship of a subducted water mass. Considering this, the mixed layer heat budget in the outcrop region is estimated based on the concept of effective mixed layer depth, the result of which shows the primary contribution from horizontal advection. The contributions from Ekman and geostrophic currents are comparable. Ekman flow advection is caused by zonal wind stress anomalies and the resulting meridional Ekman current anomalies, as is pointed out by a previous study. Geostrophic velocity is decomposed into large-scale and mesoscale variability, both of which significantly contribute to horizontal advection.

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29

Johnson, Benjamin K., Frank O. Bryan, Semyon A. Grodsky y James A. Carton. "Climatological Annual Cycle of the Salinity Budgets of the Subtropical Maxima". Journal of Physical Oceanography 46, n.º 10 (octubre de 2016): 2981–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jpo-d-15-0202.1.

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AbstractSix subtropical salinity maxima (Smax) exist: two each in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Ocean basins. The north Indian (NI) Smax lies in the Arabian Sea while the remaining five lie in the open ocean. The annual cycle of evaporation minus precipitation (E − P) flux over the Smax is asymmetric about the equator. Over the Northern Hemisphere Smax, the semiannual harmonic is dominant (peaking in local summer and winter), while over the Southern Hemisphere Smax, the annual harmonic is dominant (peaking in local winter). Regardless, the surface layer salinity for all six Smax reaches a maximum in local fall and minimum in local spring. This study uses a multidecade integration of an eddy-resolving ocean circulation model to compute salinity budgets for each of the six Smax. The NI Smax budget is dominated by eddy advection related to the evolution of the seasonal monsoon. The five open-ocean Smax budgets reveal a common annual cycle of vertical diffusive fluxes that peak in winter. These Smax have regions on their eastward and poleward edges in which the vertical salinity gradient is destabilizing. These destabilizing gradients, in conjunction with wintertime surface cooling, generate a gradually deepening wintertime mixed layer. The vertical salinity gradient sharpens at the base of the mixed layer, making the water column susceptible to salt finger convection and enhancing vertical diffusive salinity fluxes out of the Smax into the ocean interior. This process is also observed in Argo float profiles and is related to the formation regions of subtropical mode waters.

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30

Moreau, M., T. Corrège, E. P. Dassié y F. Le Cornec. "Evidence for the non-influence of salinity variability on the <i>Porites</i> coral Sr/Ca palaeothermometer". Climate of the Past 11, n.º 3 (24 de marzo de 2015): 523–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cp-11-523-2015.

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Abstract. Porites coral-based sea surface temperature (SST) reconstructions are obtained from the measurement of skeleton Sr/Ca ratio. However, the influence of salinity in the incorporation of these trace elements in the Porites aragonitic skeleton is still poorly documented. Laboratory experiments indicate that in three different coral species (not including the widely used Porites genus), salinity does not influence the Sr/Ca thermometer. In this study, we test the salinity effect on Porites Sr/Ca-based SST reconstructions at monthly and interannual timescales in open-ocean environmental conditions. We use a large spatial compilation of published Porites data from the Red Sea and Pacific and Indian oceans. Additionally to those published records, we add a new eastern Pacific coral Sr/Ca record from Clipperton Atoll. Using two different salinity products (Simple Ocean Data Assimilation (SODA) SSS reanalyses version 2.2.4, Carton and Giese, 2008; and instrumental SSS from the Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, France (IRD) Delcroix et al., 2011), we find no evidence of salinity bias on the Sr/Ca SST proxy at monthly and interannual timescales. We conclude that Porites Sr/Ca is a reliable palaeothermometer that is not influenced by salinity variability.

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31

Kasper, S., M. T. J. van der Meer, A. Mets, R. Zahn, J. S. Sinninghe Damsté y S. Schouten. "Salinity changes in the Agulhas leakage area recorded by stable hydrogen isotopes of C<sub>37</sub> alkenones during Termination I and II". Climate of the Past 10, n.º 1 (5 de febrero de 2014): 251–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cp-10-251-2014.

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Abstract. At the southern tip of Africa, the Agulhas Current reflects back into the Indian Ocean causing so-called "Agulhas rings" to spin off and release relatively warm and saline water into the South Atlantic Ocean. Previous reconstructions of the dynamics of the Agulhas Current, based on paleo-sea surface temperature and sea surface salinity proxies, inferred that Agulhas leakage from the Indian Ocean to the South Atlantic was reduced during glacial stages as a consequence of shifted wind fields and a northwards migration of the subtropical front. Subsequently, this might have led to a buildup of warm saline water in the southern Indian Ocean. To investigate this latter hypothesis, we reconstructed sea surface salinity changes using alkenone δD, and paleo-sea surface temperature using TEXH86 and UK'37, from two sediment cores (MD02-2594, MD96-2080) located in the Agulhas leakage area during Termination I and II. Both UK'37 and TEXH86 temperature reconstructions indicate an abrupt warming during the glacial terminations, while a shift to more negative δDalkenone values of approximately 14‰ during glacial Termination I and II is also observed. Approximately half of the isotopic shift can be attributed to the change in global ice volume, while the residual isotopic shift is attributed to changes in salinity, suggesting relatively high salinities at the core sites during glacials, with subsequent freshening during glacial terminations. Approximate estimations suggest that δDalkenone represents a salinity change of ca. 1.7–1.9 during Termination I and Termination II. These estimations are in good agreement with the proposed changes in salinity derived from previously reported combined planktonic Foraminifera δ18O values and Mg/Ca-based temperature reconstructions. Our results confirm that the δD of alkenones is a potentially suitable tool to reconstruct salinity changes independent of planktonic Foraminifera δ18O.

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32

Stramma, Lothar y Sunke Schmidtko. "Tropical deoxygenation sites revisited to investigate oxygen and nutrient trends". Ocean Science 17, n.º 3 (1 de julio de 2021): 833–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/os-17-833-2021.

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Abstract. An oxygen decrease of the intermediate-depth low-oxygen zones (300 to 700 m) is seen in time series for selected tropical areas for the period 1960 to 2008 in the eastern tropical Atlantic, the equatorial Pacific and the eastern tropical Indian Ocean. These nearly 5-decade time series were extended to 68 years by including rare historic data starting in 1950 and more recent data. For the extended time series between 1950 and 2018, the deoxygenation trend for the layer 300 to 700 m is similar to the deoxygenation trend seen in the shorter time series. Additionally, temperature, salinity, and nutrient time series in the upper-ocean layer (50 to 300 m) of these areas were investigated since this layer provides critical pelagic habitat for biological communities. Due to the low amount of data available, the results are often not statistically significant within the 95 % confidence interval but nevertheless indicate trends worth discussing. Generally, oxygen is decreasing in the 50 to 300 m layer, except for an area in the eastern tropical South Atlantic. Nutrients also showed long-term trends in the 50 to 300 m layer in all ocean basins and indicate overlying variability related to climate modes. Nitrate increased in all areas. Phosphate also increased in the Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean areas, while it decreased in the two areas of the equatorial Pacific Ocean. Silicate decreased in the Atlantic and Pacific areas but increased in the eastern Indian Ocean. Hence, oxygen and nutrients show trends in the tropical oceans, though nutrients trends are more variable between ocean areas than the oxygen trends; therefore, we conclude that those trends are more dependent on local drivers in addition to a global trend. Different positive and negative trends in temperature, salinity, oxygen and nutrients indicate that oxygen and nutrient trends cannot be completely explained by local warming.

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33

Peatman, Simon C. y Nicholas P. Klingaman. "The Indian summer monsoon in MetUM-GOML2.0: effects of air–sea coupling and resolution". Geoscientific Model Development 11, n.º 11 (27 de noviembre de 2018): 4693–709. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/gmd-11-4693-2018.

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Abstract. The fidelity of the simulated Indian summer monsoon is analysed in the UK Met Office Unified Model Global Ocean Mixed Layer configuration (MetUM-GOML2.0) in terms of its boreal summer mean state and propagation of the boreal summer intraseasonal oscillation (BSISO). The model produces substantial biases in mean June–September precipitation, especially over India, in common with other MetUM configurations. Using a correction technique to constrain the mean seasonal cycle of ocean temperature and salinity, the effects of regional air–sea coupling and atmospheric horizontal resolution are investigated. Introducing coupling in the Indian Ocean degrades the atmospheric basic state compared with prescribing the observed seasonal cycle of sea surface temperature (SST). This degradation of the mean state is attributable to small errors (±0.5 ∘C) in mean SST. Coupling slightly improves some aspects of the simulation of northward BSISO propagation over the Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal, and India, but degrades others. Increasing resolution from 200 to 90 km grid spacing (approximate value at the Equator) improves the atmospheric mean state, but increasing resolution again to 40 km offers no substantial improvement. The improvement to intraseasonal propagation at finer resolution is similar to that due to coupling.

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34

Purba, N. P., W. S. Pranowo, I. Faizal y H. Adiwira. "Temperature-Salinity stratification in the Eastern Indian Ocean using argo float". IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 162 (junio de 2018): 012010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/162/1/012010.

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35

Ratheesh, Smitha, Bhasha Mankad, Sujit Basu, Raj Kumar y Rashmi Sharma. "Assessment of Satellite-Derived Sea Surface Salinity in the Indian Ocean". IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters 10, n.º 3 (mayo de 2013): 428–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/lgrs.2012.2207943.

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36

Ratheesh, Smitha, Rashmi Sharma, Rajesh Sikhakolli, Raj Kumar y Sujit Basu. "Assessing Sea Surface Salinity Derived by Aquarius in the Indian Ocean". IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters 11, n.º 4 (abril de 2014): 719–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/lgrs.2013.2277391.

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37

Nyadjro, Ebenezer S. y Bulusu Subrahmanyam. "SMOS Mission Reveals the Salinity Structure of the Indian Ocean Dipole". IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters 11, n.º 9 (septiembre de 2014): 1564–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/lgrs.2014.2301594.

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38

Köhler, Julia, Nuno Serra, Frank O. Bryan, Benjamin K. Johnson y Detlef Stammer. "Mechanisms of Mixed-Layer Salinity Seasonal Variability in the Indian Ocean". Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 123, n.º 1 (enero de 2018): 466–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2017jc013640.

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39

Kido, Shoichiro, Tomoki Tozuka y Weiqing Han. "Anatomy of Salinity Anomalies Associated With the Positive Indian Ocean Dipole". Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 124, n.º 11 (noviembre de 2019): 8116–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2019jc015163.

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40

Zhang, Yuhong, Yan Du y Tangdong Qu. "A sea surface salinity dipole mode in the tropical Indian Ocean". Climate Dynamics 47, n.º 7-8 (18 de enero de 2016): 2573–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00382-016-2984-z.

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41

McLeod, M. K., P. G. Slavich, Y. Irhas, N. Moore, A. Rachman, N. Ali, T. Iskandar, C. Hunt y C. Caniago. "Soil salinity in Aceh after the December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami". Agricultural Water Management 97, n.º 5 (mayo de 2010): 605–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2009.10.014.

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42

Dunlop, JN, RD Wooller y NG Cheshire. "Distribution and abundance of marine birds in the Eastern Indian Ocean". Marine and Freshwater Research 39, n.º 5 (1988): 661. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mf9880661.

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A survey of pelagic seabird distribution in the eastern Indian Ocean was conducted during October 1987. Five seabird assemblages were identified, associated with different marine environments. Sea surface salinity appeared to be the most important factor in tropical, oceanic waters and sea surface temperature in shelf waters. A distinct and relatively species-rich community occurred over the South Equatorial Current, where seabird biomasses were relatively high, albeit patchily distributed. Overall, the patterns of abundance of pelagic seabirds north-west of Australia reflected the known patterns of nutrient enrichment and marine productivity. There was evidence of some biogeographic commonality in seabirds between the tropical Pacific and eastern Indian Oceans, resulting from a 'throughflow' of water types.

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43

Henocq, Claire, Jacqueline Boutin, Gilles Reverdin, François Petitcolin, Sabine Arnault y Philippe Lattes. "Vertical Variability of Near-Surface Salinity in the Tropics: Consequences for L-Band Radiometer Calibration and Validation". Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 27, n.º 1 (1 de enero de 2010): 192–209. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2009jtecho670.1.

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Abstract Two satellite missions are planned to be launched in the next two years; the European Space Agency (ESA) Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Aquarius missions aim at detecting sea surface salinity (SSS) using L-band radiometry (1.4 GHz). At that frequency, the skin depth is on the order of 1 cm. However, the calibration and validation of L-band-retrieved SSS will be done with in situ measurements, mainly taken at 5-m depth. To anticipate and understand vertical salinity differences in the first 10 m of the ocean surface layer, in situ vertical profiles are analyzed. The influence of rain events is studied. Tropical Atmosphere Ocean (TAO) moorings, the most comprehensive dataset, provide measurements of salinity taken simultaneously at 1, 5, and 10 m and measurements of rain rate. Then, observations of vertical salinity differences, sorted according to their vertical levels, are expanded through the tropical band (30°S–30°N) using thermosalinographs (TSG), floats, expendable conductivity–temperature–depth (XCTD), and CTD data. Vertical salinity differences higher than 0.1 pss are observed in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans, mainly between 0° and 15°N, which coincides with the average position of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ). Some differences exceed 0.5 pss locally and persist for more than 10 days. A statistical approach is developed for the detection of large vertical salinity differences, knowing the history of rain events and the simultaneous wind intensity, as estimated from satellite measurements.

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44

Doi, Takeshi, Andrea Storto, Swadhin K. Behera, Antonio Navarra y Toshio Yamagata. "Improved Prediction of the Indian Ocean Dipole Mode by Use of Subsurface Ocean Observations". Journal of Climate 30, n.º 19 (1 de septiembre de 2017): 7953–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-16-0915.1.

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Abstract The numerical seasonal prediction system using the Scale Interaction Experiment–Frontier version 1 (SINTEX-F) ocean–atmosphere coupled model has so far demonstrated a good performance for prediction of the Indian Ocean dipole mode (IOD) despite the fact that the system adopts a relatively simple initialization scheme based on nudging only the sea surface temperature (SST). However, it is to be expected that the system is not sufficient to capture in detail the subsurface oceanic precondition. Therefore, the authors have introduced a new three-dimensional variational ocean data assimilation (3DVAR) method that takes three-dimensional observed ocean temperature and salinity into account. Since the new system has successfully improved IOD predictions, the present study is showing that the ocean observational efforts in the tropical Indian Ocean are decisive for improvement of the IOD predictions and may have a large impact on important socioeconomic activities, particularly in the Indian Ocean rim countries.

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45

Seelanki, Vivek, P. Sreenivas y K. V. S. R. Prasad. "Impact of Aquarius Sea-Surface Salinity Assimilation in Improving the Ocean Analysis Over Indian Ocean". Marine Geodesy 41, n.º 2 (18 de enero de 2018): 144–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01490419.2017.1422817.

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46

Bhaskar, Tata V. S. Udaya y Chiranjivi Jayaram. "Evaluation of Aquarius Sea Surface Salinity With Argo Sea Surface Salinity in the Tropical Indian Ocean". IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters 12, n.º 6 (junio de 2015): 1292–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/lgrs.2015.2393894.

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47

Johnson, Gregory C., Sarah G. Purkey y John L. Bullister. "Warming and Freshening in the Abyssal Southeastern Indian Ocean*". Journal of Climate 21, n.º 20 (15 de octubre de 2008): 5351–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2008jcli2384.1.

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Abstract Warming and freshening of abyssal waters in the eastern Indian Ocean between 1994/95 and 2007 are quantified using data from two closely sampled high-quality occupations of a hydrographic section extending from Antarctica northward to the equator. These changes are limited to abyssal waters in the Princess Elizabeth Trough and the Australian–Antarctic Basin, with little abyssal change evident north of the Southeast Indian Ridge. As in previous studies, significant cooling and freshening is observed in the bottom potential temperature–salinity relations in these two southern basins. In addition, analysis on pressure surfaces shows abyssal warming of about 0.05°C and freshening of about 0.01 Practical Salinity Scale 1978 (PSS-78) in the Princess Elizabeth Trough, and warming of 0.1°C with freshening of about 0.005 in the abyssal Australian–Antarctic Basin. These 12-yr differences are statistically significant from zero at 95% confidence intervals over the bottom few to several hundred decibars of the water column in both deep basins. Both warming and freshening reduce the density of seawater, contributing to the vertical expansion of the water column. The changes below 3000 dbar in these basins suggest local contributions approaching 1 and 4 cm of sea level rise, respectively. Transient tracer data from the 2007 occupation qualitatively suggest that the abyssal waters in the two southern basins exhibiting changes have significant components that have been exposed to the ocean surface within the last few decades, whereas north of the Southeast Indian Ridge, where changes are not found, the component of abyssal waters that have undergone such ventilation is much reduced.

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48

Seo, Hyodae, Shang-Ping Xie, Raghu Murtugudde, Markus Jochum y Arthur J. Miller. "Seasonal Effects of Indian Ocean Freshwater Forcing in a Regional Coupled Model*". Journal of Climate 22, n.º 24 (15 de diciembre de 2009): 6577–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2009jcli2990.1.

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Abstract Effects of freshwater forcing from river discharge into the Indian Ocean on oceanic vertical structure and the Indian monsoons are investigated using a fully coupled, high-resolution, regional climate model. The effect of river discharge is included in the model by restoring sea surface salinity (SSS) toward observations. The simulations with and without this effect in the coupled model reveal a highly seasonal influence of salinity and the barrier layer (BL) on oceanic vertical density stratification, which is in turn linked to changes in sea surface temperature (SST), surface winds, and precipitation. During both boreal summer and winter, SSS relaxation leads to a more realistic spatial distribution of salinity and the BL in the model. In summer, the BL in the Bay of Bengal enhances the upper-ocean stratification and increases the SST near the river mouths where the freshwater forcing is largest. However, the warming is limited to the coastal ocean and the amplitude is not large enough to give a significant impact on monsoon rainfall. The strengthened BL during boreal winter leads to a shallower mixed layer. Atmospheric heat flux forcing acting on a thin mixed layer results in an extensive reduction of SST over the northern Indian Ocean. Relatively suppressed mixing below the mixed layer warms the subsurface layer, leading to a temperature inversion. The cooling of the sea surface induces a large-scale adjustment in the winter atmosphere with amplified northeasterly winds. This impedes atmospheric convection north of the equator while facilitating it in the austral summer intertropical convergence zone, resulting in a hemispheric-asymmetric response pattern. Overall, the results suggest that freshwater forcing from the river discharges plays an important role during the boreal winter by affecting SST and the coupled ocean–atmosphere interaction, with potential impacts on the broadscale regional climate.

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49

Thompson, Bijoy, Claudio Sanchez, Boon Chong Peter Heng, Rajesh Kumar, Jianyu Liu, Xiang-Yu Huang y Pavel Tkalich. "Development of a MetUM (v 11.1) and NEMO (v 3.6) coupled operational forecast model for the Maritime Continent – Part 1: Evaluation of ocean forecasts". Geoscientific Model Development 14, n.º 2 (23 de febrero de 2021): 1081–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-1081-2021.

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Abstract. This article describes the development and ocean forecast evaluation of an atmosphere–ocean coupled prediction system for the Maritime Continent (MC) domain, which includes the eastern Indian and western Pacific oceans. The coupled system comprises regional configurations of the atmospheric model MetUM and ocean model NEMO at a uniform horizontal resolution of 4.5 km × 4.5 km, coupled using the OASIS3-MCT libraries. The coupled model is run as a pre-operational forecast system from 1 to 31 October 2019. Hindcast simulations performed for the period 1 January 2014 to 30 September 2019, using the stand-alone ocean configuration, provided the initial condition to the coupled ocean model. This paper details the evaluations of ocean-only model hindcast and 6 d coupled ocean forecast simulations. Direct comparison of sea surface temperature (SST) and sea surface height (SSH) with analysis, as well as in situ observations, is performed for the ocean-only hindcast evaluation. For the evaluation of coupled ocean model, comparisons of ocean forecast for different forecast lead times with SST analysis and in situ observations of SSH, temperature, and salinity have been performed. Overall, the model forecast deviation of SST, SSH, and subsurface temperature and salinity fields relative to observation is within acceptable error limits of operational forecast models. Typical runtimes of the daily forecast simulations are found to be suitable for the operational forecast applications.

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Rathore, Saurabh, Nathaniel L. Bindoff, Caroline C. Ummenhofer, Helen E. Phillips, Ming Feng y Mayank Mishra. "Improving Australian Rainfall Prediction Using Sea Surface Salinity". Journal of Climate 34, n.º 7 (abril de 2021): 2473–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-20-0625.1.

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AbstractThis study uses sea surface salinity (SSS) as an additional precursor for improving the prediction of summer [December–February (DJF)] rainfall over northeastern Australia. From a singular value decomposition between SSS of prior seasons and DJF rainfall, we note that SSS of the Indo-Pacific warm pool region [SSSP (150°E–165°W and 10°S–10°N) and SSSI (50°–95°E and 10°S–10°N)] covaries with Australian rainfall, particularly in the northeast region. Composite analysis that is based on high or low SSS events in the SSSP and SSSI regions is performed to understand the physical links between the SSS and the atmospheric moisture originating from the regions of anomalously high or low, respectively, SSS and precipitation over Australia. The composites show the signature of co-occurring La Niña and negative Indian Ocean dipole with anomalously wet conditions over Australia and conversely show the signature of co-occurring El Niño and positive Indian Ocean dipole with anomalously dry conditions there. During the high SSS events of the SSSP and SSSI regions, the convergence of incoming moisture flux results in anomalously wet conditions over Australia with a positive soil moisture anomaly. Conversely, during the low SSS events of the SSSP and SSSI regions, the divergence of incoming moisture flux results in anomalously dry conditions over Australia with a negative soil moisture anomaly. We show from the random-forest regression analysis that the local soil moisture, El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), and SSSP are the most important precursors for the northeast Australian rainfall whereas for the Brisbane region ENSO, SSSP, and the Indian Ocean dipole are the most important. The prediction of Australian rainfall using random-forest regression shows an improvement by including SSS from the prior season. This evidence suggests that sustained observations of SSS can improve the monitoring of the Australian regional hydrological cycle.

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