Artículos de revistas: "Storage reservoir"

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Fitriana, Indri Rahmandhani, Djoko Legono y Heriantono Waluyadi. "Reservoir sedimentation regime analysis: case study of Kedungombo reservoir and Sermo reservoir". MEDIA KOMUNIKASI TEKNIK SIPIL 27, n.º 1 (20 de agosto de 2021): 80–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.14710/mkts.v27i1.35978.

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The Kedungombo and the Sermo Reservoirs have problems in fulfilling basic services because of sedimentation. Sedimentation that occurs in each of the reservoirs would form a specific reservoir sedimentation pattern that is supposed to be similar because the hydrology and physiography conditions of the reservoir's catchment area are similar. This study aims to determine the dynamics of sedimentation patterns that occur in the dead storage for reviewing the characteristics/sedimentation regime of the two reservoirs. The analysis was carried out by processing bathymetrical data which were processed into a digital terrain model (DTM) using ArcGIS. Furthermore, the storage volume, sedimentation volume, storage percentage, and specific reservoir sedimentation rate are calculated. The results showed that the two reservoirs showed an increase in sedimentation volume each year so that the reservoir characteristic curve shifted from the plan graph. The dead storage capacity of Kedungombo Reservoir is 100% in 1989 to 43% in 2016 and 100% of Sermo Reservoir in 1997 to 58% in 2011. The specific reservoir sedimentation rate, i.e. 0.0031 and 0.0042 million m3/year/km2 for the Kedungombo Reservoir (between 1989 and 2016) and the Sermo Reservoir (between 1997 and 2011) respectively, indicating that the two reservoirs are in the same regime

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Zhou, Tian, Bart Nijssen, Huilin Gao y Dennis P. Lettenmaier. "The Contribution of Reservoirs to Global Land Surface Water Storage Variations*". Journal of Hydrometeorology 17, n.º 1 (21 de diciembre de 2015): 309–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jhm-d-15-0002.1.

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Abstract Man-made reservoirs play a key role in the terrestrial water system. They alter water fluxes at the land surface and impact surface water storage through water management regulations for diverse purposes such as irrigation, municipal water supply, hydropower generation, and flood control. Although most developed countries have established sophisticated observing systems for many variables in the land surface water cycle, long-term and consistent records of reservoir storage are much more limited and not always shared. Furthermore, most land surface hydrological models do not represent the effects of water management activities. Here, the contribution of reservoirs to seasonal water storage variations is investigated using a large-scale water management model to simulate the effects of reservoir management at basin and continental scales. The model was run from 1948 to 2010 at a spatial resolution of 0.25° latitude–longitude. A total of 166 of the largest reservoirs in the world with a total capacity of about 3900 km3 (nearly 60% of the globally integrated reservoir capacity) were simulated. The global reservoir storage time series reflects the massive expansion of global reservoir capacity; over 30 000 reservoirs have been constructed during the past half century, with a mean absolute interannual storage variation of 89 km3. The results indicate that the average reservoir-induced seasonal storage variation is nearly 700 km3 or about 10% of the global reservoir storage. For some river basins, such as the Yellow River, seasonal reservoir storage variations can be as large as 72% of combined snow water equivalent and soil moisture storage.

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Mu, Mengfei, Qiuhong Tang, Songjun Han, Xiaomang Liu y Huijuan Cui. "Using GRanD Database and Surface Water Data to Constrain Area–Storage Curve of Reservoirs". Water 12, n.º 5 (27 de abril de 2020): 1242. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w12051242.

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Basic information on global reservoirs is well documented in databases such as GRanD (Global Reservoir and Dam) and ICOLD (International Commission on Large Dams). However, though playing a critical role in estimating reservoir storage variations from remote sensing or hydrological models, area–storage curves of reservoirs are not conveniently obtained nor publicly shared. In this paper, we combine the GRanD database and Landsat-based global surface water extent (GSW) data to derive area–storage curves of reservoirs. The reported storage capacity in the GRanD database and water surface area from GSW data were used to constrain the area–storage curve. The proposed method has the potential to derive area–storage curves of reservoirs larger than 1 km2 archived in the GRanD database. The derived curves are validated with in situ reservoir data collected in US and China, and the results show that in situ records are well captured by the derived curves both in large and small reservoirs with various shapes. The derived area–storage curves could be employed to advance global monitoring or modeling of reservoir storage dynamics.

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Longuevergne, L., C. R. Wilson, B. R. Scanlon y J. F. Crétaux. "GRACE water storage estimates for the Middle East and other regions with significant reservoir and lake storage". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 17, n.º 12 (5 de diciembre de 2013): 4817–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-4817-2013.

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Abstract. While GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment) satellites are increasingly being used to monitor total water storage (TWS) changes globally, the impact of spatial distribution of water storage within a basin is generally ignored but may be substantial. In many basins, water is often stored in reservoirs or lakes, flooded areas, small aquifer systems, and other localized regions with areas typically below GRACE resolution (~200 000 km2). The objective of this study was to assess the impact of nonuniform water storage distribution on GRACE estimates of TWS changes as basin-wide averages, focusing on surface water reservoirs and using a priori information on reservoir storage from radar altimetry. Analysis included numerical experiments testing effects of location and areal extent of the localized mass (reservoirs) within a basin on basin-wide average water storage changes, and application to the lower Nile (Lake Nasser) and Tigris–Euphrates basins as examples. Numerical experiments show that by assuming uniform mass distribution, GRACE estimates may under- or overestimate basin-wide average water storage by up to a factor of ~2, depending on reservoir location and areal extent. Although reservoirs generally cover less than 1% of the basin area, and their spatial extent may be unresolved by GRACE, reservoir storage may dominate water storage changes in some basins. For example, reservoir storage accounts for ~95% of seasonal water storage changes in the lower Nile and 10% in the Tigris–Euphrates. Because reservoirs are used to mitigate droughts and buffer against climate extremes, their influence on interannual timescales can be large. For example, TWS decline during the 2007–2009 drought in the Tigris–Euphrates basin measured by GRACE was ~93 km3. Actual reservoir storage from satellite altimetry was limited to 27 km3, but their apparent impact on GRACE reached 45 km3, i.e., 50% of GRACE trend. Therefore, the actual impact of reservoirs would have been greatly underestimated (27 km3) if reservoir storage changes were assumed uniform in the basin. Consequently, estimated groundwater contribution from GRACE would have been largely overestimated in this region if the actual distribution of water was not explicitly taken into account. Effects of point masses on GRACE estimates are not easily accounted for via simple multiplicative scaling, but in many cases independent information may be available to improve estimates. Accurate estimation of the reservoir contribution is critical, especially when separating estimating groundwater storage changes from GRACE total water storage (TWS) changes. Because the influence of spatially concentrated water storage – and more generally water distribution – is significant, GRACE estimates will be improved by combining independent water mass spatial distribution information with GRACE observations, even when reservoir storage is not the dominant mechanism. In this regard, data from the upcoming Surface Water Ocean Topography (SWOT) satellite mission should be an especially important companion to GRACE-FO (Follow-On) observations.

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Asfaw, Tilahun Derib, Khamaruzaman Wan Yusof y Ahmad Mustafa Hashim. "Sensitivity Analysis of Hydroelectric Power Generation from Cascading Reservoirs". Advanced Materials Research 622-623 (diciembre de 2012): 1152–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.622-623.1152.

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The cascading reservoirs in Perak, Malaysia, were used to test the sensitivity analysis of hydroelectric power generation during refill and deplete period of the reservoirs. The cascading scheme comprises four reservoirs namely Temenggor, Bersia, Kenering and Chenderoh. The test was conducted after the analysis of water balance and stage-storage relationship of each reservoir in the cascading scheme. The result showed that power generation from the smaller reservoir, Bersia, is more sensitive to the change of headrace level, while the larger storage capacity and rated head reservoir is the most sensitive to the change of release. Therefore, to maximize the power generation from the cascading reservoir, the refill operations should be ranked according to the increasing order of the reservoir storage capacity and a reverse order should be followed during deplete period.

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McVay, D. A. y J. P. Spivey. "Optimizing Gas-Storage Reservoir Performance". SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering 4, n.º 03 (1 de junio de 2001): 173–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/71867-pa.

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Summary As gas storage becomes increasingly important in managing the nation's gas supplies, there is a need to develop more gas-storage reservoirs and to manage them more efficiently. Using computer reservoir simulation to rigorously predict gas-storage reservoir performance, we present specific procedures for efficient optimization of gas-storage reservoir performance for two different problems. The first is maximizing working gas volume and peak rates for a particular configuration of reservoir, well, and surface facilities. We present a new, simple procedure to determine the maximum performance with a minimal number of simulation runs. The second problem is minimizing the cost to satisfy a specific production and injection schedule, which is derived from the working gas volume and peak rate requirements. We demonstrate a systematic procedure to determine the optimum combination of cushion gas volume, compression horsepower, and number and locations of wells. The use of these procedures is illustrated through application to gas-reservoir data. Introduction With the unbundling of the natural gas industry as a result of Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) Order 636, the role of gas storage in managing the nation's gas supplies has increased in importance. In screening reservoirs to determine potential gas-storage reservoir candidates, it is often desirable to determine the maximum storage capacity for specific reservoirs. In designing the conversion of producing fields to storage or the upgrading of existing storage fields, it is beneficial to determine the optimum combination of wells, cushion gas and compression facilities that minimizes investment. A survey of the petroleum literature found little discussion of simulation-based methodologies for achieving these two desired outcomes. Duane1 presented a graphical technique for optimizing gas-storage field design. This method allowed the engineer to minimize the total field-development cost for a desired peak-day rate and cyclic capacity (working gas capacity). To use the method, the engineer would prepare a series of field-design optimization graphs for different compressor intake pressures. Each graph consists of a series of curves corresponding to different peak-day rates. Each curve, in turn, shows the number of wells required to deliver the given peak-day rate as a function of the gas inventory level. Thus, the tradeoff between compression horsepower costs, well costs, and cushion gas costs could be examined to determine the optimum design in terms of minimizing the total field-development cost. Duane's method implicitly assumes that boundary-dominated flow will prevail throughout the reservoir. Henderson et al. 2 presented a case history of storage-field-design optimization with a single-phase, 2D numerical model of the reservoir. They varied well placement and well schedules in their study to reduce the number of wells necessary to meet the desired demand schedule. They used a trial-and-error method and stated that the results were preliminary. They found that wells in the poorest portion of the field should be used to meet demand at the beginning of the withdrawal period. Additional wells were added over time to meet the demand schedule. The wells in the best part of the field were held in reserve to meet the peak-day requirements, which occurred at the end of the withdrawal season. Coats3 presented a method for locating new wells in a heterogeneous field. His objective was to determine the optimum drilling program to maintain a contractual deliverability during field development. He provided a discussion of whether wells should be spaced closer together in areas of high kh or in areas of low kh. He found that when f h is essentially uniformly distributed, the wells should be closer together in low kh areas. On the other hand, if the variation in kh is largely caused by variations in h, or if porosity is highly correlated with permeability, wells should be closer together in areas of high kh. Coats' method assumes boundary-dominated flow throughout the reservoir. Wattenbarger4 used linear programming to solve the problem of determining the withdrawal schedule on a well-by-well basis that would maximize the total seasonal production, subject to constraints such as fixed demand schedule and minimum wellbore pressure. Van Horn and Wienecke5 solved the gas-storage-design optimization problem with a Fibonnaci Search algorithm. They expressed the investment requirement for a storage field in terms of four variables: cushion gas, number of wells, purification equipment, and compressor horsepower. They chose as the optimum design the combination of these four variables that minimized investment cost. The authors used an empirical backpressure equation, combined with a simplified gas material-balance equation, as the reservoir model. In this paper we present systematic, simulation-based methodologies for optimizing gas-storage reservoir performance for two different problems. The first is maximizing working gas volume and peak rates for a particular configuration of reservoir, well, and surface facilities. The second problem is minimizing the cost to satisfy a specific production and injection schedule, which is derived from the working gas volume and peak rate requirements. Constructing the Reservoir Model To optimize gas-storage reservoir performance, a model of the reservoir is required. We prefer to use the simplest model that is able to predict storage-reservoir performance as a function of the number and locations of wells, compression horsepower, and cushion gas volume. Although models combining material balance with analytical or empirical deliverability equations may be used in certain situations, a reservoir-simulation model is usually best, owing to its flexibility and its ability to handle well interference and complex reservoirs accurately. It is important to calibrate the model against historical production and pressure data; we must show that the model reproduces past reservoir performance accurately before we can use it to predict future performance with reliability. However, even calibrating the model by history matching past performance may not be adequate. It is our experience that information obtained during primary depletion of a reservoir is often not adequate to predict its performance under storage operations. Primary production over many years may mask layered or dual-porosity behavior that significantly affects the ability of the reservoir to deliver large volumes of gas within a 4- or 5-month period. Wells and Evans6 presented a case history of the Loop gas storage field, which exhibited this behavior. It may be necessary to implement a program of coring, logging, pressure-transient testing, and/or simulated storage production/injection testing to characterize the reservoir accurately.

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Solander, Kurt C., John T. Reager, Brian F. Thomas, Cédric H. David y James S. Famiglietti. "Simulating Human Water Regulation: The Development of an Optimal Complexity, Climate-Adaptive Reservoir Management Model for an LSM". Journal of Hydrometeorology 17, n.º 3 (12 de febrero de 2016): 725–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jhm-d-15-0056.1.

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Abstract The widespread influence of reservoirs on global rivers makes representations of reservoir outflow and storage essential components of large-scale hydrology and climate simulations across the land surface and atmosphere. Yet, reservoirs have yet to be commonly integrated into earth system models. This deficiency influences model processes such as evaporation and runoff, which are critical for accurate simulations of the coupled climate system. This study describes the development of a generalized reservoir model capable of reproducing realistic reservoir behavior for future integration in a global land surface model (LSM). Equations of increasing complexity relating reservoir inflow, outflow, and storage were tested for 14 California reservoirs that span a range of spatial and climate regimes. Temperature was employed in model equations to modulate seasonal changes in reservoir management behavior and to allow for the evolution of management seasonality as future climate varies. Optimized parameter values for the best-performing model were generalized based on the ratio of winter inflow to storage capacity so a future LSM user can generate reservoirs in any grid location by specifying the given storage capacity. Model performance statistics show good agreement between observed and simulated reservoir storage and outflow for both calibration (mean normalized RMSE = 0.48; mean coefficient of determination = 0.53) and validation reservoirs (mean normalized RMSE = 0.15; mean coefficient of determination = 0.67). The low complexity of model equations that include climate-adaptive operation features combined with robust model performance show promise for simulations of reservoir impacts on hydrology and climate within an LSM.

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Nawaz, N. R., A. J. Adeloye y M. Montaseri. "The Impact of Climate Change on Storage-Yield Curves for Multi-Reservoir Systems". Hydrology Research 30, n.º 2 (1 de abril de 1999): 129–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/nh.1999.0007.

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In this paper, we report on the results of an investigation into the impacts of climate change on the storage-yield relationships for two multiple-reservoir systems, one in England and the other in Iran. The impact study uses established protocol and obtains perturbed monthly inflow series using a simple runoff coefficient approach which accounts for non-evaporative losses in the catchment, and a number of recently published GCM-based scenarios. The multi-reservoir analysis is based on the sequent-peak algorithm which has been modified to analyse multiple reservoirs and to accommodate explicitly performance norms and reservoir surface fluxes, i.e. evaporation and rainfall. As a consequence, it was also possible to assess the effect of including reservoir surface fluxes on the storage-yield functions. The results showed that, under baseline conditions, consideration of net evaporation will require lower storages for the English system and higher storages for the Iranian system. However, with perturbed hydroclimatology different impacts were obtained depending on the systems' yield and reliability. Possible explanations are offered for the observed behaviours.

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Lee, Sang-Hyun, Sungtae Shin, Jin-Yong Choi, Jihoon Park y Seung-Hwan Yoo. "Assessing the Resilience of Agricultural Reservoirs in Ungauged Catchments under Climate Change Using a Ratio Correction Factors-Based Calibration and Run Theory". Water 12, n.º 6 (6 de junio de 2020): 1618. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w12061618.

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This study applied ratio correction factor (RCF) optimization to calibrate the daily storage of agricultural reservoirs located in ungauged catchments that lack stream flow data. Using Run theory, we then assessed the impacts of climate change on the resilience of agricultural reservoir operations during reservoir drought conditions. First, we optimized the RCFs of inflow and outflow in three agricultural reservoirs in Korea using limited measurement data from 2008 to 2017; the results showed high performance regarding the simulation of daily reservoir storage. Second, we simulated daily storage volume in reservoirs from 2018 to 2099, using future climate change data, and analyzed the duration and intensity of reservoir drought conditions, which indicated that the storage capacity is under the critical value. Without calibration, the correlation between the simulated and measured reservoir water volumes was very low, but the correlation increased after calibration of the simulated water volumes. A linear relationship between the simulated and measured volumes was observed with a correlation coefficient value of 0.9, indicating that the simulated reservoir values after calibration closely match the measured values. In addition, the maximum intensity of reservoir drought in the Kicheon reservoir was determined to be 486,000 m3 before calibration but 506,000 m3 after calibration. The duration results showed that long-term reservoir drought conditions will be observed more often in the future owing to climate change, and this could be a negative factor affecting the resilience of reservoir operations.

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Zhang, Shuai y Huilin Gao. "Using the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) to Improve the Spatial Coverage of the MODIS Based Reservoir Monitoring Network in South Asia". Remote Sensing 12, n.º 5 (25 de febrero de 2020): 745. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs12050745.

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Satellite remote sensing of near real-time reservoir storage variations has important implications for flood monitoring and water resources management. However, satellite altimetry data, which are essential for estimating storage variations, are only available for a limited number of reservoirs. This lack of high-density spatial coverage directly hinders the potential use of remotely sensed reservoir information for improving the skills of hydrological modeling over highly regulated river basins. To solve this problem, a reservoir storage dataset with high-density spatial coverage was developed by combining the water surface area estimated from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) imageries with the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data collected by the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM). By including more reservoirs, this reservoir dataset represents 46.6% of the overall storage capacity in South Asia. The results were validated over five reservoirs where gauge observations are accessible. The storage estimates agree well with observations, with coefficients of determination ranging from 0.47 to 0.91 and normalized root mean square errors (NRMSE) ranging from 15.46% to 37.69%. Given the general availability of MODIS and SRTM data, this algorithm can be potentially applied for monitoring global reservoirs at a high density.

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A.D. Ampitiyawatta. "Cascade reservoirs optimal operation through combined guide curves". Global Journal of Engineering and Technology Advances 5, n.º 1 (30 de octubre de 2020): 039–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.30574/gjeta.2020.5.1.0083.

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This study is concerned with the optimal operation of cascade reservoir system for hydropower generation. The problem involves optimizing hydropower production while reducing excess water spill during the flood season. A new combined reservoir operation model is proposed based on combined guide curves for optimizing hydropower production and for better storage distribution among cascade reservoirs. The storage distribution among cascade reservoirs is achieved by the storage effectiveness index method. The model is optimized with the particle swarm optimization algorithm and applied to the Qingjiang River cascade reservoir system in China. The optimized combined guide curves for Shuibuya-Geheyan reservoirs are obtained and compared with conventional reservoir operation charts and Lund analytical solution method. Simulation results show that the proposed model can modulate water levels of the Shuibuya reservoir and effectively increase hydropower heads of the Geheyan reservoir. Comparing with the original design, the proposed model enhances hydropower production considerably while reducing the spill release. It is capable to produce an extra amount of 201 GWh electrical energy (a 2.77% increment) and save 1067 Mm3 of flood water resources (a 38.96% reduction) annually in the Qingjiang cascade reservoirs.

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Yoo, Chulsang, Changhyun Jun y Jinwook Lee. "Storage effect of dam reservoirs: evaluation of three nonlinear reservoir models". Water Supply 17, n.º 5 (25 de marzo de 2017): 1436–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2017.008.

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Three different nonlinear models – an exponential function model, a logarithmic function model, and a power function model – were evaluated as possible candidates for the storage–outflow relationship of a reservoir. Also, the storage coefficient was derived by analyzing the impulse response function of the reservoir. Additionally, by applying the theoretical results, the storage coefficients of four dam reservoirs in the Han River Basin, Korea, were estimated and evaluated with respect to the dam reservoir and basin characteristics. Summarizing the results, first, only the exponential function model was found to provide a realistic storage coefficient for a reservoir. Second, the storage coefficient was found to be strongly and linearly proportional to the flood control volume divided by the channel length.

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Feyzullayev, A. A. y A. G. Gojayev. "Influence of geological reservoir heterogeneity on exploitation conditions of Garadagh field / underground gas storage (Azerbaijan)". Gornye nauki i tekhnologii = Mining Science and Technology (Russia) 6, n.º 2 (14 de julio de 2021): 105–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.17073/2500-0632-2021-2-105-113.

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Underground oil and gas reservoirs (formations) are characterized by spatial variability of their structure, material composition and petrophysical properties of its constituent rocks: particle size distribution, porosity, permeability, structure and texture of the pore space, carbonate content, electrical resistivity, oil and water saturation and other properties. When assessing development and exploitation conditions for underground gas storages, created in depleted underground oil and gas reservoirs, the inherited nature of the reservoir development should be taken into account. Therefore, identifying the features of variations in well productivity is a crucial task, solution of which can contribute to the creation of more efficient system for underground gas storage exploitation. The paper presents the ﬁndings of comparative analysis of spatial variations in well productivity during the exploitation of the Garadagh underground gas storage (Azerbaijan), created in the depleted gas condensate reservoir. An uneven nature of the variations in well productivity was established, which was connected with the reservoir heterogeneity (variations in the reservoir lithological composition and poroperm properties). The research was based on the analysis of spatial variations of a number of reservoir parameters: the reservoir net thickness, lithological composition and poroperm properties. The analysis of variations in the net thickness and poroperm properties of the VII horizon of the Garadagh gas condensate ﬁeld was carried out based on the data of geophysical logging of about 40 wells and studying more than 90 core samples. The data on of more than 90 wells formed the basis for the spacial productivity variation analysis. The analysis of productivity variation in the space of well technological characteristics (based on data from 18 wells) in the Garadagh underground gas storage (UGS) was carried out through the example of the volume of cyclic gas injection and withdrawal in 2020–2021 season. The studies allowed revealing non-uniform spacial variations in the volumes of injected and withdrawn gas at the Garadagh UGS, created in the corresponding depleted gas condensate reservoir. The features of the UGS exploitation conditions are in good agreement with the features of the reservoir development conditions (variations in the well productivity). The inherited nature of the reservoir development and the underground gas storage exploitation is substantiated by the reservoir heterogeneity caused by the spatial variability of the reservoir lithological composition and poroperm properties. Assessing and taking into account the reservoir heterogeneity when designing underground gas storage exploitation conditions should be an important prerequisite for increasing UGS exploitation efficiency.

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Froehlich, David C. "Estimating Reservoir Sedimentation at Large Dams in India". E3S Web of Conferences 40 (2018): 03042. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20184003042.

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Mathematical expressions are developed that relate the storage capacity loss of reservoirs in India to the catchment area, the reservoir surface area, the original storage volume, and the time since the first filling of the impoundment. The relations for sedimentation of reservoirs found on eastward and westward flowing rivers differ significantly, because of meteorological and geological influences on land surface runoff and sediment yield within reservoir catchments. The formulations give good fits to the assembled data and allow an uncomplicated calculation of the half-life of reservoirs (that is, the time needed for the storage capacity to be reduced by 50%), which offers a measure of when sedimentation will have a significant adverse impact on the functioning of dams.

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Li, Fang Fang, Sheng Lai Yang, Dan Dan Yin, Hao Chen, Hui Lu y Xing Zhang. "Estimation of CO₂-Oil Phase Equilibrium and CO₂ Storage Capacity in Jilin Oil Field". Advanced Materials Research 524-527 (mayo de 2012): 1802–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.524-527.1802.

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The CO2EOR and Storage Project in Jilin oilfield is the first large CCS demonstration project in China for CO2geological storage into depleting oil reservoirs. It aims at enhancing the understanding of CO2EOR mechanisms, movement of CO2in the reservoir and relevant physical-chemical reactions involved in the storage process, meanwhile gaining practical experience of monitoring and verification of CO2storage technology in tight oil reservoirs. To have a better understanding of the naturally occurring and phase transformation between CO2and reservoir fluid and provide accurate data for designing an oil development plan, we must know the interactions between CO2and reservoir fluids. Hence, in the first part of this paper the CO2and reservoir fluid phase equilibrium is measured with laboratory experiment, then the collected data is used to calculate the theory and practical CO2Sequestration capacities.

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Zhang, Deping, Chengkai Fan y Dongqin Kuang. "Impact assessment of interlayers on geological storage of carbon dioxide in Songliao Basin". Oil & Gas Science and Technology – Revue d’IFP Energies nouvelles 74 (2019): 85. http://dx.doi.org/10.2516/ogst/2019059.

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Reservoirs in the Songliao Basin are characterized by strong heterogeneity, which increases the difficulty of exact reservoir prediction. The clay interlayer developed in the reservoir is an important factor affecting the heterogeneity of the reservoir. Using the reservoir numerical simulation technology, an attempt has been made to investigate the storage efficiency during CO2 sequestration in Songliao Basin considering different types of interlayer in underground formations. Results indicate that type I interlayer, with a large thickness embedded between the two sand bodies has function of shunting and blocking to alleviate the impacts on cap rock. The type II interlayer has a small thickness and locates inside a single sand body, with poor physical properties and continuity, which has the same blocking effect on CO2 distribution and moderating influence on the cap rock. The physical properties of type III interlayer are same as the type II interlayer, but it has uneven distribution and poor continuity. In addition, three schemes of perforated zone were designed and their effects on CO2 storage efficiency and stability were studied. For a single reservoir, the scheme I is to perforate a whole reservoir, which is more conducive to maintain the reservoir’s stability. For multiple sets of “single-reservoir”, the scheme II can be preferentially selected to perforate the reservoir section below the interlayer when the injection volume is small. However, the scheme III can be used to perforate the interlayer and the reservoir below that when the injection volume is large. The study is beneficial to provide guidance and advice for selecting a suitable CO2 geological storage and reduce the risk of CO2 leakage.

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Coerver, Hubertus M., Martine M. Rutten y Nick C. van de Giesen. "Deduction of reservoir operating rules for application in global hydrological models". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 22, n.º 1 (31 de enero de 2018): 831–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-831-2018.

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Abstract. A big challenge in constructing global hydrological models is the inclusion of anthropogenic impacts on the water cycle, such as caused by dams. Dam operators make decisions based on experience and often uncertain information. In this study information generally available to dam operators, like inflow into the reservoir and storage levels, was used to derive fuzzy rules describing the way a reservoir is operated. Using an artificial neural network capable of mimicking fuzzy logic, called the ANFIS adaptive-network-based fuzzy inference system, fuzzy rules linking inflow and storage with reservoir release were determined for 11 reservoirs in central Asia, the US and Vietnam. By varying the input variables of the neural network, different configurations of fuzzy rules were created and tested. It was found that the release from relatively large reservoirs was significantly dependent on information concerning recent storage levels, while release from smaller reservoirs was more dependent on reservoir inflows. Subsequently, the derived rules were used to simulate reservoir release with an average Nash–Sutcliffe coefficient of 0.81.

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Głowski, Robert y Robert Kasperek. "The grain size distribution of settled sediment within storage reservoir Otmuchów". Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW. Land Reclamation 49, n.º 1 (28 de marzo de 2017): 3–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/sggw-2017-0001.

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Abstract The grain size distribution of settled sediment within storage reservoir Otmuchów. The river Nysa Kłodzka is flowing through the flat-reduction Otmuchów. There are localized two storage reservoirs Otmuchów and Nysa. The first of these reservoirs have been constructed in the period 1928-1933 and the filling was completed in 1934. Reservoir Nysa was completed in 1971. Both reservoirs are located within walking distance of each other, creating since 1971 cascade. Reservoir Otmuchów is located above the Nysa reservoir what cause, that in the bowl of the Otmuchów reservoir, the significant part of transported by Nysa Kłodzka sediments is deposited. When established after the 1997 flood damming levels, summer and winter, the length of the reservoir Otmuchów is suitably from 4.5 to 5 km. At the maximum impoundment level and a maximal capacity of 130.45 million m3 the reservoir length reach approx. 7 km. From the analysis of the satellite image can be seen advancing silting of the reservoir Otmuchów especially in the estuary zone of the Nysa Kłodzka. Obtained archival data about changes of the sediment grain size distribution in the longitudinal reservoir profile cover only the region of the still capacity extending a distance of 3 km from the cross-section of the dam. In this zone the fine particles of the suspended load with characteristic diameters ranging from 0.030 to 0.088 mm were embedded. In 2010, the authors presented the results of preliminary analysis of the silting process of the reservoir Otmuchów. The authors pointed out that there is a lack of the data about the dimension of the particles embedded in the usable capacity and flood capacity reserve (above 3 km from the dam) causing visible on satellite photo silting. This paper presents the results of the sediment grain size distribution in the usable capacity of the reservoir and in the estuary region of the Nysa Kłodzka located in flood capacity reserve, obtained from the sediment samples analysis. Obtained results allowed to supplement the image of the particle size distribution of the sediment being deposited in the reservoir Otmuchów longitudinal profile and an evaluation of the parameters of mobility rubble with fixed diameters.

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19

Bai, Xiangwu, Zhiping Li y Fengpeng Lai. "Optimal Selection Method for Sweet Spots in Low-Permeability Multilayered Reservoirs". Geofluids 2021 (18 de enero de 2021): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/6698010.

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Low-permeability oil reservoirs account for more than two-thirds of China’s proven reserves, and most of them are multilayered; the traditional sweet spots focus on single-layered reservoirs. The sweet spots of low-permeability reservoirs have two meanings: the geologically superior reservoir and the beneficial development of the reservoir. In this study, a concept of reservoir stratification coefficient is proposed to evaluate the characteristics of multilayered reservoirs, and three indicators are proposed, namely, reservoir stratification coefficient, energy storage coefficient, and stratigraphic coefficient, as the indicators of sweet spots of multilayered reservoirs. The three indicators are combined into a single indicator using a weighted approach, and the sweet spots can be identified based on the combined indicator. The Xiliu A area of the North China oilfield was selected for a case study. According to the structural, sedimentary, and reservoir characteristics of the block, combined with the development and production conditions, the Sha 3 Member I oil group was selected as the study object of sweet spots of the low-permeability reservoir. The results show that the reservoir stratification coefficient, energy storage coefficient, and stratigraphic coefficient proposed in this study are effective indicators for the preferential selection of sweet spots, which can reflect the longitudinal heterogeneity, energy storage size, and flow capacity of multilayered reservoirs. After a comparative analysis with actual blocks, it was found that the results obtained using the method are consistent with the actual capacity of the reservoir. The production capacity is high. The evaluation effect is ideal, and the applicability is good. Thus, this study provides a new technical method for the evaluation of similar multilayered reservoirs. The findings of this study can help for a better understanding of the development and production conditions and optimization basis of low-permeability reservoirs.

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20

Cheong, T. S., I. Ko y J. W. Labadie. "Development of multi-objective reservoir operation rules for integrated water resources management". Journal of Hydroinformatics 12, n.º 2 (14 de noviembre de 2009): 185–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/hydro.2009.054.

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Real-time monitoring, databases, optimization models and visualization tools have been integrated into a Decision Support System (DSS) for optimal water resources management of two water supply reservoirs, the Daechung Reservoir and the Yongdam Reservoir of the Geum River basin, Daejeon, Korea. The KModSim as a DSS has been designed to provide information on current reservoir conditions to operational staff and to help in making decisions for short- and long-term management. For the physical calibration, the network simulations in seasonal water allocation of both reservoirs are performed for 23 years from January 1 1983 to June 30 2006. Linear and nonlinear operating rules are developed by using the actual reservoir operation data obtained from both reservoirs which are then used in KModSim by the hydrologic state method to estimate optimized target storages of both reservoirs. For validation of hydrologic states in KModSim and scenario testing for the management simulations, the optimal network simulation for the seasonal water allocations from October 1 2002 to June 30 2006 were also performed. The results' simulation by new rules fit the measured actual reservoir storage and represent well the various outflow discharge curves measured at the gauging stations of Geum River. The developed operating rules are proven to be superior in explaining actual reservoir operation as compared to the simulated target storages by existing optimization models.

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21

Wang, Jinlong, Weibin Huang, Guangwen Ma y Yuhua Wang. "Determining the optimal year-end water level of a multi-year regulating storage reservoir: a case study". Water Supply 16, n.º 2 (7 de septiembre de 2015): 284–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2015.138.

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An operational model that analyzes the relationship between annual energy output and year-end stored energy of a reservoir system was developed and used for determining the optimal year-end water level of a multi-year regulating storage reservoir. The model accounts for the capacity benefit of a multi-annual storage plant and was validated using the case of the Longyangxia reservoir in the upper reaches of the Yellow River, China. The critical elements for determining the optimal year-end water level for multi-year regulating storage reservoirs were revealed through analysis of the impacts of runoff and year-start water level on year-end water level. Simulated operational results from the model were compared with practical operational results for the Longyangxia reservoir system from 1990–2012. A comparison shows that the operating mode for Longyangxia reservoir (after 2006) achieved significant improvement versus before 2006, in making the reservoir run at a higher water level and increasing benefits. In addition, our study indicates that the model can be effectively used for multi-year regulating storage reservoir operation.

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22

Hidayat, Fahmi, Pitojo T. Juwono, Agus Suharyanto, Alwafi Pujiraharjo, Djoko Legono, Dian Sisinggih, David Neil, Masaharu Fujita y Tetsuya Sumi. "Assessment of Sedimentation in Wlingi and Lodoyo Reservoirs: A Secondary Disaster Following the 2014 Eruption of Mt. Kelud, Indonesia". Journal of Disaster Research 12, n.º 3 (29 de mayo de 2017): 617–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2017.p0617.

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Wlingi and Lodoyo reservoirs in the Brantas River basin, Indonesia, provide numerous benefits including reliable irrigation water supply, flood control, power generation, fisheries and recreation. The function of both reservoirs particularly in relation to flood control has declined due to severe sedimentation that has reduced their storage capacities. The sedimentation in Wlingi and Lodoyo reservoirs is mainly caused by sediment inflow from the areas most affected by ejecta from eruptions of Mt. Kelud, one of the most active volcanoes in Indonesia. The main objective of this research is to assess the sedimentation problem in Wlingi and Lodoyo reservoirs, particularly as they are affected by eruptions of Mt Kelud. We performed reservoir bathymetric surveys and field surveys after the most recent eruption of Mt. Kelud in February 2014 and compared the results with surveys undertaken before the eruption. The assessment revealed that both reservoirs were severely affected by the 2014 eruption. The effective storage capacity of Wlingi reservoir in March 2013 was 2.01 Mm3and the survey in May 2015 indicated that the effective storage of Wlingi reservoir had decreased to 1.01 Mm3. Similarly, the effective storage capacity of Lodoyo reservoir in March 2013 was 2.72 Mm3, reduced to 1.33 Mm3in May 2015. These findings underpin the analysis of the impacts of the secondary disaster due to reservoir sedimentation following the volcanic eruption and the implications for mitigating and managing the risks for sustainable use of reservoirs to control floods, supply water, generate electricity, etc. To cope with the extreme sedimentation problem in Wlingi and Lodoyo reservoirs, diverse sediment management strategies have been applied in these reservoirs and their catchments. However sediment disaster management strategies for both reservoirs, an integral part of the Mt. Kelud Volcanic Disaster Mitigation Plan, require continuous maintenance and recurrent operations, and ongoing evaluation and improvement.

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23

Akai, Takashi, Naoki Saito, Michiharu Hiyama y Hiroshi Okabe. "Numerical Modelling on CO2 Storage Capacity in Depleted Gas Reservoirs". Energies 14, n.º 13 (2 de julio de 2021): 3978. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en14133978.

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Making an accurate estimate of the CO2 storage capacity before the commencement of a carbon capture and storage (CCS) project is crucial to the project design and feasibility investigation. We present herein a numerical modelling study on the CO2 storage capacity in depleted gas reservoirs. First, we show a simple volumetric equation that gives the CO2 storage capacity in a depleted gas reservoir, which considers the same volume of CH4 at reservoir pressure and temperature conditions produced from the reservoir. Next, the validity and the limitations of this equation are investigated using a numerical reservoir simulation with the various reservoir characteristics of reservoir heterogeneity, aquifer water encroachment, and rock compaction and its reversibility. Regardless of the reservoir heterogeneity, if a reservoir is subjected to a weak or moderate aquifer support, the volumetric equation provides an estimate of the CO2 storage capacity as structurally trapped gas within 1% of that estimated from numerical simulations. The most significant factor influencing the CO2 storage capacity is the reversibility of rock compaction, rather than the degree of rock compaction. If reservoir rocks have a strong hysteresis in their compaction and expansion behaviour, the material balance equation will overestimate the amount of structural CO2 trapping. All the simulation results show a fairly consistent amount of trapped CO2 as a dissolved component in water, which is 15%∼17% of the structurally trapped CO2. Overall, our study presents the validity and the limitation of the simple material balance equation for estimating the CO2 storage capacity, which helps with designing a CCS project at the early stage.

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24

Glynn, John E. y Peter W. Glynn. "On the behaviour of a long cascade of linear reservoirs". Journal of Applied Probability 37, n.º 02 (junio de 2000): 417–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s002190020001562x.

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This paper describes the limiting asymptotic behaviour of a long cascade of linear reservoirs fed by stationary inflows into the first reservoir. We show that the storage in the nth reservoir becomes asymptotically deterministic as n → ∞, and establish a central limit theorem for the random fluctuations about the deterministic approximation. In addition, we prove a large deviations theorem that provides precise logarithmic asymptotics for the tail probabilities associated with the storage in the nth reservoir when n is large.

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25

Glynn, John E. y Peter W. Glynn. "On the behaviour of a long cascade of linear reservoirs". Journal of Applied Probability 37, n.º 2 (junio de 2000): 417–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1239/jap/1014842547.

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This paper describes the limiting asymptotic behaviour of a long cascade of linear reservoirs fed by stationary inflows into the first reservoir. We show that the storage in the nth reservoir becomes asymptotically deterministic as n → ∞, and establish a central limit theorem for the random fluctuations about the deterministic approximation. In addition, we prove a large deviations theorem that provides precise logarithmic asymptotics for the tail probabilities associated with the storage in the nth reservoir when n is large.

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26

Imanshoar, Farhad, Afshin Jahangirzadeh, Hossein Basser, Shatirah Akib, Babak Kamali, Mohammad Reza M. Tabatabaei y Masoud Kakouei. "Reservoir Sedimentation Based on Uncertainty Analysis". Abstract and Applied Analysis 2014 (2014): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/367627.

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Reservoir sedimentation can result in loss of much needed reservoir storage capacity, reducing the useful life of dams. Thus, sufficient sediment storage capacity should be provided for the reservoir design stage to ensure that sediment accumulation will not impair the functioning of the reservoir during the useful operational-economic life of the project. However, an important issue to consider when estimating reservoir sedimentation and accumulation is the uncertainty involved in reservoir sedimentation. In this paper, the basic factors influencing the density of sediments deposited in reservoirs are discussed, and uncertainties in reservoir sedimentation have been determined using the Delta method. Further, Kenny Reservoir in the White River Basin in northwestern Colorado was selected to determine the density of deposits in the reservoir and the coefficient of variation. The results of this investigation have indicated that by using the Delta method in the case of Kenny Reservoir, the uncertainty regarding accumulated sediment density, expressed by the coefficient of variation for a period of 50 years of reservoir operation, could be reduced to about 10%. Results of the Delta method suggest an applicable approach for dead storage planning via interfacing with uncertainties associated with reservoir sedimentation.

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27

Van Den Hoek, Jamon, Augusto Getirana, Hahn Jung, Modurodoluwa Okeowo y Hyongki Lee. "Monitoring Reservoir Drought Dynamics with Landsat and Radar/Lidar Altimetry Time Series in Persistently Cloudy Eastern Brazil". Remote Sensing 11, n.º 7 (6 de abril de 2019): 827. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs11070827.

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Tropical reservoirs are critical infrastructure for managing drinking and irrigation water and generating hydroelectric power. However, long-term spaceborne monitoring of reservoir storage is challenged by data scarcity from near-persistent cloud cover and drought, which may reduce volumes below those in the observational record. In evaluating our ability to accurately monitor long-term reservoir volume dynamics using spaceborne data and overcome such observational challenges, we integrated optical, lidar, and radar time series to estimate reservoir volume dynamics across 13 reservoirs in eastern Brazil over a 12-year (2003–2014) period affected by historic drought. We (i) used 1560 Landsat images to measure reservoir surface area; (ii) built reservoir-specific regression models relating surface area and elevation from ICESat GLAS and Envisat RA-2 data; (iii) modeled volume changes for each reservoir; and (iv) compared modeled and in situ reservoir volume changes. Regression models had high goodness-of-fit (median RMSE = 0.89 m and r = 0.88) across reservoirs. Even though 88% of an average reservoir’s volume time series was based on modeled area–elevation relationships, we found exceptional agreement (RMSE = 0.31 km3 and r = 0.95) with in situ volume time series, and accurately captured seasonal recharge/depletion dynamics and the drought’s prolonged drawdown. Disagreements in volume dynamics were neither driven by wet/dry season conditions nor reservoir capacity, indicating analytical efficacy across a range of monitoring scenarios.

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28

Szeląg, Bartosz y Maciej Mrowiec. "The methods of evaluating storage volume for single-chamber reservoir in urban catchments". Archives of Environmental Protection 42, n.º 2 (1 de junio de 2016): 20–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/aep-2016-0016.

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Abstract The article presents a method of designing single-chamber rectangular detention reservoirs based on nomographs connecting the parameters and the shape of the inflow with the reservoir hydrograph (triangular, described by the power function and described by the gamma distribution) as well as the hydraulic characteristics of the accumulation chamber and the orifice. The preparation of nomographs involved using the SWMM (Storm Water Management Model) program with the application of numerical calculations’ results of a differential equation for the stormwater volume balance. The performed analyses confirm a high level of similarity between the results of calculating the reservoir volume obtained by using the above mentioned program and using the developed nomographs. The examples of calculations presented in the paper confirm the application aspects of the discussed method of designing the detention reservoir. Moreover, based on the conducted analyses it was concluded that the inflow hydrograph described by the gamma distribution has the greatest impact on the reservoir’s storage volume, whereas the hydrograph whose shape in the rise and recession phases is described by the power function has the smallest effect.

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29

Longuevergne, L., C. R. Wilson, B. R. Scanlon y J. F. Crétaux. "GRACE water storage estimates for the Middle East and other regions with significant reservoir and lake storage". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions 9, n.º 10 (1 de octubre de 2012): 11131–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hessd-9-11131-2012.

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Abstract. While GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment) satellites are increasingly being used to monitor water storage changes globally, the impact of spatial distribution of water storage within a basin is generally ignored but may be substantial. In many basins, water may be stored in reservoirs, lakes, flooded areas, small aquifer systems, and other localized regions with sizes typically below GRACE resolution. The objective of this study was to assess the impact of non-uniform water storage distribution on GRACE estimates as basin-wide averages, focusing on surface water reservoirs. Analysis included numerical experiments testing the effect of mass size and position within a basin, and application to the Lower Nile (Lake Nasser) and Tigri–Euphrates (TE) basins as examples. Numerical experiments show that by assuming uniform mass distribution, GRACE estimates may under- or over-estimate basin-average water storage by up to a factor of two, depending on reservoir location and extent. Although their spatial extent may be unresolved by GRACE, reservoir storage may dominate in some basins. For example, it accounts for 95% of seasonal variations in the Lower Nile and 10% in the TE basins. Because reservoirs are used to mitigate droughts and buffer against climate extremes, their influence on interannual time scales can be large, for example accounting for 50% of total water storage decline during the 2007–2009 drought in the TE basin. Effects on GRACE estimates are not easily accounted for via simple multiplicative scaling, but in many cases independent information may be available to improve estimates. Accurate estimation of the reservoir contribution is critical, especially when separating groundwater from GRACE total water storage changes. Because the influence of spatially concentrated water storage – and more generally water distribution – is significant, GRACE estimates will be improved when it is possible to combine independent spatial distribution information with GRACE observations, even when reservoir storage is not a major factor. In this regard, data from the upcoming Surface Water Ocean Topography (SWOT) satellite mission should be an especially important companion to GRACE-FO observations.

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30

Holloway, S. "Storage capacity and containment issues for carbon dioxide capture and geological storage on the UK continental shelf". Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part A: Journal of Power and Energy 223, n.º 3 (19 de diciembre de 2008): 239–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1243/09576509jpe650.

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Carbon dioxide (CO2) can be stored in geological formations beneath the UK continental shelf (UKCS) as a greenhouse gas mitigation option. It can be trapped in subsurface reservoirs in structural or stratigraphic traps beneath cap rocks, as a residual CO2 saturation in pore spaces along the CO2 migration path within the reservoir rock, by dissolution into the native pore fluid (most commonly brine), by reaction of acidified groundwater with mineral components of the reservoir rock, or by adsorption onto surfaces within the reservoir rock, e.g. onto the carbonaceous macerals that are the principal components of coal. Estimates of the CO2 storage capacity of oil and gas fields on the UKCS suggest that they could store between 1200 and 3500×106 t of CO2 and up to 6100×106 t CO2, respectively. Estimating the regional CO2 storage potential of saline water-bearing sedimentary rocks is resource-intensive and no UK estimates have yet taken into account all the factors that should be considered. Existing studies estimate the pore volume and the likely CO2 saturation in the closed structures in a potential reservoir formation but do not take account of the potentially limiting regional pressure rise likely to occur as a result of the very large-scale CO2 injection that would be necessary to make an impact on national emissions. There is undoubtedly great storage potential in the saline water-bearing reservoir rocks of the basins around the UK, but the real challenge for studies of aquifer CO2 storage capacity in the UK is perhaps not to estimate the total theoretical CO2 storage capacity, as this is not a particularly meaningful number. Rather it is to thoroughly investigate selected reservoirs perceived to have good storage potential to a standard where there is scientific consensus that the resulting storage capacity estimates are realistic. This will allow it to be considered as closer to the status of a reserve rather than a resource and will help define the scope for CO2 capture and storage in the UK.

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31

Such, Piotr. "Magazynowanie wodoru w obiektach geologicznych". Nafta-Gaz 76, n.º 11 (noviembre de 2020): 794–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.18668/ng.2020.11.04.

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Hydrogen economy became one of the main directions in EU’s Green Deal for making Europe climate neutral in 2050. Hydrogen will be produced with the use of renewable energy sources or it will be obtained from coking plants and chemical companies. It will be applied as ecological fuel for cars and as a mix with methane in gas distribution networks. Works connected with all aspects of hydrogen infrastructure are conducted in Poland. The key problem in creating a hydrogen system is hydrogen storage. They ought to be underground (RES) because of their potential volume. Three types of underground storages are taken into account. There are salt caverns, exploited gas reservoirs and aquifers. Salt caverns were built in Poland and now they are fully operational methane storages. Oli and Gas Institute – National Research Institute has been collaborating with the Polish Oil and Gas Company since 1998. Salt cavern storage exists and is used as methane storages. Now it is possible to use them as methane-hydrogen mixtures storages with full control of all operational parameters (appropriate algorithms are established). Extensive study works were carried out in relation to depleted gas reservoirs/aquifers: from laboratory investigations to numerical modelling. The consortium with Silesian University of Technology was created, capable of carrying out all possible projects in this field. The consortium is already able to undertake the project of adapting the depleted field to a methane-hydrogen storage or, depending on the needs, to a hydrogen storage. All types of investigations of reservoir rocks and reservoir fluids will be taken into consideration.

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32

Liu, Q., H. Xu, Z. Lei, Z. Li, Y. Xiong, S. Li, B. Luo y D. Chen. "Fault Mesh Petroleum Plays in the Donghetang Area, Tabei Uplift, Tarim Basin, Northwestern China, and Its Significance for Hydrocarbon Exploration". Russian Geology and Geophysics 62, n.º 07 (1 de julio de 2021): 808–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.2113/rgg20183939.

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Abstract —The hydrocarbon formation mechanism and potential targets in clastic strata from the Tabei Uplift, Tarim Basin, are documented using the fault mesh petroleum plays theory, based on integrating seismic, well log, well core, and geochemical data. The reservoirs in the Donghetang area are typical allochthonous and far-source fault mesh petroleum plays. There are two sets of fault meshes in the study area: (1) the combination of the Donghe sandstone and Permian–Triassic strata and (2) the combination of the fourth and third formations in the Jurassic strata. The fault mesh petroleum play in the Jurassic is a secondary reservoir that originates from the Carboniferous Donghe sandstone reservoir adjustment based on source correlation. The fault mesh carrier systems show the fully connected, fault–unconformity–transient storage relay, fault–transient storage–unconformity relay, and transient storage–fault relay styles, according to the architecture of the fault mesh. Based on the characteristics of the fault mesh petroleum plays, the reservoirs are divided into three categories (upper-, inner-, and margin-transient storage styles) and 15 styles. Integrated analysis of the hydrocarbon generation and faulting time periods reveals that there were four periods of hydrocarbon charging, with the first three stages charging the reservoirs with oil and the last stage charging the reservoirs with gas. There are multiple stages of reservoir accumulation and adjustment in the fault mesh in the study area. These stages of fault mesh accumulation and adjustment are the main reason why the reservoir distribution multiple vertical units have different hydrocarbon properties. Fault-block and lithologic reservoirs related to the inner- and upper-transient storage styles are the main exploration targets in the clastic strata in the study area.

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33

Mphande, Goodfellow y Henry M. Sichingabula. "Effects of Sedimentation on Small Reservoirs in the Mushibemba Catchment, Mkushi Farm Block, Central Zambia". Journal of Geography and Geology 11, n.º 1 (28 de febrero de 2019): 55. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jgg.v11n1p55.

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Sedimentation is one of the problems that affects the storage capacity of most small reservoirs, and if not addressed on time it may lead to the dams being filled up with sediment. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of sedimentation on the storage capacity losses of Moffat dam and GRZ Weir located in the Mushibemba Catchment of Mkushi Farm Block, Central Zambia. The method used to understand reservoir storage capacity loss was bathymetry survey using the hydrographic survey boat (RC-S2) which consists of an echo sounder and a Differential GPS. Information on the initial storage capacity of the two reservoirs was obtained from the Water Resources Management Authority (WARMA). The analysis of the data revealed that the measured volumes of Moffat dam and GRZ Weir were 1,180,462 m3 and 197,218 m3, respectively. The estimated storage capacity losses for Moffat reservoir was found to be 223,789 m³ and 53,312 m3 for the GRZ Weir.  The estimated rates of sedimentation loss were found to be 13,986.81 m3 yr-1 (Moffat reservoir), with a lifespan of 84 years, and 1,480.89 m3 yr-1 (GRZ Weir) with a lifespan of 133 years. The source of the accumulated sediment was mainly attributed to originate from the cleared commercial agricultural land which predominantly consists of clayey to loamy soils. This also accounted for the high turbidity of the reservoir water. This situation therefore calls for periodic dredging of the deposited sediment to increase reservoir storage capacity.

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34

Prajapati, Keyur Y., Dr H. S. Patel Dr. H. S. Patel y Prof A. R. Darji Prof. A. R. Darji. "Analysis of Hybrid Staging Systems for Elevated Storage Reservoir". Paripex - Indian Journal Of Research 3, n.º 6 (15 de enero de 2012): 71–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.15373/22501991/june2014/23.

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35

Muhammad Amir, Rana, Sikandar Ali, Muhammad Jehanzeb Masud Cheema, Saddam Hussain, Muhammad Mohsin Waqas, Muhammad Sohail Waqas, Rao Husnain Arshad, Muhammad Salam, Ahsan Raza y Muhammad Aslam. "ESTIMATING SEDIMENT YIELD AT TARBELA DAM AND FLOOD FORECASTING THROUGH CONTINUOUS PRECIPITATION-RUNOFF MODELING OF UPPER INDUS BASIN". Big Data In Water Resources Engineering (BDWRE) 1, n.º 2 (19 de marzo de 2020): 43–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.26480/bdwre.02.2020.43.48.

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The live water storage of the reservoirs is decreasing by the sedimentation, which is affecting the reservoir’s capacity and cause a severe problem for the irrigation system at the downstream side. Floods occur at the downstream by the poor management at upstream due to the heavy rainfall and snow melting. For annual accumulations of sediment load and estimation of the peak flow at Tarbela reservoir near Besham Qila station having area of 170,000 km2 was selected. Estimation of the peak flow and sediment yield at the Tarbela reservoir, SWAT (distributed hydrological model) was used. The expected decrease in reservoir storage capacity was also estimated with the SWAT model. For runoff modelling, calibration was done for three years (2004-2006) and validation was also done for three years (2007-2009). Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE) and Standard Error of Estimate existed the statistical indices to evaluate the results. Coefficient of determination (R2) was found as 0.75 for the calibration period and 0.80 for the validation. Whereas, NSE for calibration was observed 0.69 and 0.70 for the validation. Monthly mean sediment yield was about 0.13 BCM estimated at the Tarbela reservoir near Besham Qila.

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36

Latif, Sarmad Dashti, Suzlyana Marhain, Md Shabbir Hossain, Ali Najah Ahmed, Mohsen Sherif, Ahmed Sefelnasr y Ahmed El-Shafie. "Optimizing the Operation Release Policy Using Charged System Search Algorithm: A Case Study of Klang Gates Dam, Malaysia". Sustainability 13, n.º 11 (24 de mayo de 2021): 5900. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13115900.

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In planning and managing water resources, the implementation of optimization techniques in the operation of reservoirs has become an important focus. An optimal reservoir operating policy should take into consideration the uncertainty associated with uncontrolled reservoir inflows. The charged system search (CSS) algorithm model is developed in the present study to achieve optimum operating policy for the current reservoir. The aim of the model is to minimize the cost of system performance, which is the sum of square deviations from the distinction between the release of the target and the actual demand. The decision variable is the release of a reservoir with an initial volume of storage, reservoir inflow, and final volume of storage for a given period. Historical rainfall data is used to approximate the inflow volume. The charged system search (CSS) is developed by utilizing a spreadsheet model to simulate and perform optimization. The model gives the steady-state probabilities of reservoir storage as output. The model is applied to the reservoir of Klang Gates for the development of an optimal reservoir operating policy. The steady-state optimal operating system is used in this model.

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37

Liang, Zhiming, Gao Fengxian, Zhang Hairong, Ren Yufeng y Xiao Yao. "Research on the impact of upstream reservoirs regulation on the operation of Xiluodu Reservoir". MATEC Web of Conferences 246 (2018): 01101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201824601101.

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In order to explore the influence of reservoirs regulation in the upper basin of Xiluodu Reservoir, 11 key reservoirs in the upper reaches of Xiluodu Reservoir are studied. Based on the analysis of its overall regulation performance, the data of upstream reservoir group from 2006 to 2016 is used to analyze the impact of the upstream reservoir group. By dividing scheduling period of Xiluodu Reservoir into different stages, the impact of each stage and the proportion of impacts of each river basin is analyzed, the degree of impact of each basin is clarified. The results reveals that the upstream reservoir group storage accounts for about 20% of the inflow of Xiluodu Reservoir, which can contribute to the actual dispatching work of Xiluodu Reservoir.

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Avisse, Nicolas, Amaury Tilmant, Marc François Müller y Hua Zhang. "Monitoring small reservoirs' storage with satellite remote sensing in inaccessible areas". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 21, n.º 12 (18 de diciembre de 2017): 6445–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-6445-2017.

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Abstract. In river basins with water storage facilities, the availability of regularly updated information on reservoir level and capacity is of paramount importance for the effective management of those systems. However, for the vast majority of reservoirs around the world, storage levels are either not measured or not readily available due to financial, political, or legal considerations. This paper proposes a novel approach using Landsat imagery and digital elevation models (DEMs) to retrieve information on storage variations in any inaccessible region. Unlike existing approaches, the method does not require any in situ measurement and is appropriate for monitoring small, and often undocumented, irrigation reservoirs. It consists of three recovery steps: (i) a 2-D dynamic classification of Landsat spectral band information to quantify the surface area of water, (ii) a statistical correction of DEM data to characterize the topography of each reservoir, and (iii) a 3-D reconstruction algorithm to correct for clouds and Landsat 7 Scan Line Corrector failure. The method is applied to quantify reservoir storage in the Yarmouk basin in southern Syria, where ground monitoring is impeded by the ongoing civil war. It is validated against available in situ measurements in neighbouring Jordanian reservoirs. Coefficients of determination range from 0.69 to 0.84, and the normalized root-mean-square error from 10 to 16 % for storage estimations on six Jordanian reservoirs with maximal water surface areas ranging from 0.59 to 3.79 km2.

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39

Myers, B. R., S. Beecham, J. A. van Leeuwen y A. Keegan. "Depletion of E. coli in permeable pavement mineral aggregate storage and reuse systems". Water Science and Technology 60, n.º 12 (1 de diciembre de 2009): 3091–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2009.753.

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Permeable pavement reservoirs provide an important opportunity for the harvesting and storage of stormwater for reuse. This research aims to determine whether storage in dolomite, calcite and quartzite mineral aggregates in the base course of a permeable pavement impacts on the survival of the pathogen indicator organism Escherichia coli (E. coli) in storage. The reasons for depletion were also investigated. Twelve model permeable pavement storage reservoirs were filled, in triplicate, with dolomite, calcite and quartzite. Three reservoirs contained no aggregate. After filling with pathogen spiked rainwater, the concentration of E. coli was examined for 22 days in the reservoirs. The reservoirs were then agitated to determine if there was E. coli present which was not in aqueous suspension. The results of the experiments show that there is no significant difference in the depletion of E. coli found in reservoirs without aggregate, and those filled with dolomite or calcite. The rate of depletion was found to be significantly lower in the quartzite filled reservoirs. Agitation of the reservoirs yielded increases in the aqueous concentration of E. coli in all reservoir types, suggesting that the bacteria are adhering to the surface of the mineral aggregate and to the reservoir walls.

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40

Johnson, William K., Ralph A. Wurbs y Jean E. Beegle. "Opportunities for Reservoir‐Storage Reallocation". Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 116, n.º 4 (julio de 1990): 550–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0733-9496(1990)116:4(550).

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41

Phatarfod, R. M. "Riverflow and reservoir storage models". Mathematical and Computer Modelling 12, n.º 9 (1989): 1057–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0895-7177(89)90227-6.

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42

Wurbs, Ralph A. y L. Moris Cabezas. "Analysis of reservoir storage reallocations". Journal of Hydrology 92, n.º 1-2 (junio de 1987): 77–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(87)90090-4.

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43

Wang, Ting, Jun Hua Zhang, Shu Kui Chen, Huai Bao Ma y Kun Peng Li. "Experimental Study on Zhenshui Sand Bar and its Treatment in Xiaolangdi Reservoir". Applied Mechanics and Materials 204-208 (octubre de 2012): 2318–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.204-208.2318.

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Zhenshui is the biggest tributary of Xiaolangdi Reservoir and its original storage capacity is 1.767 billion m3. By October 2010, the amount of sediment in Zhenshui reached 0.1691 billion m3, and the sand bar at Zhenshui estuary was 7m in height. Influenced by operational mode of reservoir and terrain, the formation of sand bar has certain inevitabilities. The sand bar can prevent water and sediment exchange between mainstream and tributary, and the internal storage capacity of tributary is not effectively used. The experimental result shows that during the later sediment retaining period, some small reservoirs can be built at the end of Zhenshui. By restoring water during the high water level in non-flood season in these small reservoirs and discharging flow during the low water level in flood season to scour sand bar, the tributary and main channel in Xiaolangdi Reservoir can be linked up in long term, service efficiency and life of tributary storage can be increased.

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44

Jiang, Zhiqiang, Hui Qin, Changming Ji y Wenjie Wu. "Extraction and application of energy storage operation chart in Yangtze River cascade reservoirs". Water Supply 18, n.º 6 (2 de febrero de 2018): 2003–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2018.024.

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Abstract Reservoir operation charts have been widely researched and applied to reservoir operation. However, these achievements are generally used for a single reservoir and have rarely been applied to cascade reservoirs. Considering the requirements of flood control and water supply, this paper studied the extraction and application of energy storage operation chart (ESOC) for cascade reservoirs. Steps in the methodology mainly include: (1) model building of cascade reservoirs operation optimization (CROO), (2) extracting ESOC based on discriminant coefficient method (DCM) and CROO model, (3) simulation operation of ESOC based on DCM, (4) choosing the optimal ESOC and verifying its efficiency through the results. Cascade reservoirs in the Yangtze River of China were selected for a case study. Compared with the conventional operation method, the simulation results show that the ESOC presents better performance in terms of power generation, guaranteed output and assurance rate. In detail, the annual power generation of ESOC can be increased by 0.9%, the total guaranteed output can be increased by 3.4% and the assurance rate can be increased by 9.6%, which indicates that the proposed ESOC method can greatly improve the hydropower energy efficiency and reliability of cascade reservoirs’ power supply.

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45

Kim, Donghyun, Jongsung Kim, Wonjoon Wang, Joonseok Lee, Jaewon Jung y Hung Soo Kim. "Analysis of Morphological Characteristics of Collapsed Reservoirs in Korea". Journal of the Korean Society of Hazard Mitigation 20, n.º 5 (31 de octubre de 2020): 207–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.9798/kosham.2020.20.5.207.

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The purpose of this study is to analyze the basic specifications or items of 17,313 reservoirs distributed throughout Korea and in particular, to establish the relationships among the morphological characteristics of the reservoirs. In addition, the morphology index, the storage (S)–area of full water (A)–levee height (H) (S–A–H) relationship, and the storage(S)–area of full water (A) (S–A) relationship were determined for collapsed reservoirs. In this study, histograms for 11 parameters, such as storage capacity, area of full water, levee height, and basin area, were plotted, and the distributions of the reservoir parameters were examined. The morphology index was used to classify the reservoirs based on the depth, and the coefficient values of the relationships of S–A–H and S–A were used to compare S with both A and H or only A. The coefficient value of S–A–H was inversely proportional to S, and when the coefficient value was high, the storage was small. The coefficient value of S–A was proportional to S, and when the coefficient value was small, the storage wassmall. Cluster analysis was performed based on the given items to determine the characteristics of all the reservoirs and only the collapsed reservoirs. From the cluster analysis results, the reservoirs were divided into five groups: A, B, C, D, and E. There were 7,714 (14) in Group A, 6,053 (4) in B, 2,633 (2) in C, 745 (1) in D, and 168 (0) in E for all the reservoirs and collapsed reservoirs (with the values of the collapsed reservoirs in parenthesis). The morphological indexes werelow in the order of A > B > C > D > E, and the coefficient values of S–A–H were high in the order of A > B > C > E > D. The coefficient values of S–A were low in the order of A > B > D > C > E. Based on the clustered analysis results for 21 collapsed reservoirs, the reservoirs were clustered in the order of A (14) > B (4) > C (2) > D (1) > E (0). A reservoir with shallow water depth and small storage capacity has an inherent probability of collapsing. Therefore, the results of this study are useful for reservoir management and operation, as well as for the prevention of reservoir collapse.

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46

Adeloye, Adebayo, Ibrahim Wuni, Quan Dau, B. S. Soundharajan y K. Kasiviswanathan. "Height–Area–Storage Functional Models for Evaporation-Loss Inclusion in Reservoir-Planning Analysis". Water 11, n.º 7 (10 de julio de 2019): 1413. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w11071413.

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Reservoir planning without the explicit accommodation of evaporation loss leads to errors in capacity estimates. However, whenever evaporation loss is considered, its quantification uses linear approximations of the intrinsically nonlinear height–area–storage (H–A–S) relationship to estimate the reservoir area, leading to bias in capacity estimates. In this work, biases resulting from using various H–A–S models are evaluated. These models include linear and nonlinear functions, either specifically developed for the case-study sites or available in the Global Reservoir and Dam (GRanD) database. All empirically derived approximations used data for two dams in India: the Bhakra on Sutlej River and the Pong on the Beas River, both tributaries of the Indus River. The results showed that linear H–A–S models underestimate the exposed surface area of the Pong reservoir by up to 11.19%; the bias at Bhakra was much less. The GRanD H–A–S model performed very poorly at both reservoirs, producing overprediction in exposed reservoir area of up to 100% and 415% at the Pong and Bhakra reservoirs, respectively. Analyses also showed that up to 29% increase in reservoir capacity is required to compensate for the effect of net evaporation loss at low demand levels. As demand increases, the required evaporation-correction capacity decreases in proportional terms and is indistinguishable for all H–A–S models. Finally, recommendations are made on using the results for evaporation adjustment at nongauged sites in the region.

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47

Zhou, Chao, Na Sun, Lu Chen, Yi Ding, Jianzhong Zhou, Gang Zha, Guanglei Luo, Ling Dai y Xin Yang. "Optimal Operation of Cascade Reservoirs for Flood Control of Multiple Areas Downstream: A Case Study in the Upper Yangtze River Basin". Water 10, n.º 9 (14 de septiembre de 2018): 1250. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w10091250.

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The purpose of a flood control reservoir operation is to prevent flood damage downstream of the reservoir and the safety of the reservoir itself. When a single reservoir cannot provide enough storage capacity for certain flood control points downstream, cascade reservoirs should be operated together to protect these areas from flooding. In this study, for efficient use of the reservoir storage, an optimal flood control operation model of cascade reservoirs for certain flood control points downstream was proposed. In the proposed model, the upstream reservoirs with the optimal operation strategy were considered to reduce the inflow of the reservoir downstream. For a large river basin, the flood routing and time-lag cannot be neglected. So, dynamic programming (DP) combined with the progressive optimality algorithm (POA) method, DP-POA, was proposed. Thus, the innovation of this study is to propose a two-stage optimal reservoir operation model with a DP-POA algorithm to solve the problem of optimal co-operation of cascade reservoirs for multiple flood control points downstream during the flood season. The upper Yangtze River was selected as a case study. Three reservoirs from upstream to downstream, Xiluodu, Xiangjiaba and the Three Gorges reservoirs (TGR) in the upper Yangtze River, were taken into account. Results demonstrate that the two-stage optimization algorithm has a good performance in solving the cascade reservoirs optimization problem, because the inflow of reservoir downstream and the division volumes were largely reduced. After the optimal operation of Xiluodu and Xiangjiaba reservoirs, the average reduction of flood peak for all these 13 typical flood hydrographs (TFHs) is 13.6%. Meanwhile, the cascade reservoirs can also store much more storm water during a flood event, and the maximum volumes stored in those two reservoirs upstream in this study can reach 25.2 billion m3 during a flood event. Comprising the proposed method with the current operation method, results demonstrate that the flood diversion volumes at the flood control points along the river decrease significantly.

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48

Wang, Dong, Jin Yun Deng, Yi Tian Li y Juan Juan Fang. "Study on the Impounding Process Optimization of Cascade Reservoirs in Upper Changjiang River". Applied Mechanics and Materials 353-356 (agosto de 2013): 2520–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.353-356.2520.

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Overlapping storage periods of the cascade reservoirs would lead to the unreasonable using of the water resources, and each reservoir in the cascade might not be filled, that would influence the comprehensive benefit of the cascade reservoirs. In this paper, the Runoff regulation model of the cascade reservoirs is established and verified, the flood regulating calculation of the Xiluodu-Xiangjiaba-Three Gorges cascade reservoirs is done, and based on the flood regulating calculation, the earliest dates of the starting impounding of the cascade reservoirs are as below: Xiluodu and Xiangjiaba reservoirs are both not earlier than Sep.11, and Three Gorges Reservoir is not earlier than Sep.1. Then by using the comparative analysis and based on an overall analysis of generating electricity and transport of the cascade reservoirs, the most reasonable impounding date are calculated as below: the Xiluodu reservoir starts impounding in Sep.1, the Xiangjiaba reservoir starts impounding in Oct.1, and the Three Gorges Reservoir starts impounding in Sep.1.

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49

Liu, Weifu. "Fuzzy Logic in Carbonate Reservoir Quality Assessment: A Case Study from Tarim Basin, China". Open Petroleum Engineering Journal 10, n.º 1 (12 de octubre de 2017): 195–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874834101710010195.

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Introduction: To address reservoir quality assessment in highly complex and heterogeneous carbonate reservoirs, a methodology utilizing fuzzy logic is developed and presented in this paper. Based on carbonate reservoir characteristics, three parameters reflecting the macroscopic and microscopic of storage abundance, permeability, and median of pore throat radius were selected to establish the factor set and the evaluation criteria. After analysis of core and test data, a membership function is constructed by semi-drop trapezoid method and the weight formula is also determined by reservoir factor sub-index. The developed method then is used to evaluate a carbonate reservoir in the Tarim Basin in China. Based on the result of single well evaluation, the plane classification map of the carbonate reservoir quality is constructed. Results obtained from reservoir quality assessment in the K32 well show that I-level, II-level, and III-level reservoir qualities account for 58%, 37%, 5% of the reservoir, respectively. The results are consistent with the actual production data demonstrating reliability of the proposed method for reservoir quality assessment practices in usually very complex and heterogeneous carbonate reservoirs. Background: Carbonate reservoirs are complex and heterogeneous and this makes their evaluation a difficult task. Objective: To overcome the uncertainties associated with evaluation of complex carbonate reservoirs a reliable method to accurately evaluate carbonate reservoirs is presented. Methods: Fuzzy logic is used to evaluate a carbonate reservoir from Tarim Basin in China. Based on carbonate reservoir characteristics, three parameters reflecting the macroscopic and microscopic of storage abundance, permeability, and median of pore throat radius are selected to establish the factor set and to evaluate the criteria of carbonate reservoir. After the analysis of core and test data, a membership function is reasonably constructed by semi-drop trapezoid method and the weight formula is also determined by reservoir factor sub-index. Results: An effective methodology for the evaluation of reservoir quality in carbonate reservoirs is established by using fuzzy logic. In addition, an example reservoir from China is used to demonstrate the applicability of the developed method. Conclusion: Based on the result of single well evaluation, the plane classification map of the carbonate reservoir is constructed. Favorable zones in the reservoir are also delineated. Evaluation results are consistent with the actual production data of gas and oil which proves that the proposed method is instrumental in reservoir quality assessment.

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50

Campos, José N. B., Iran E. Lima Neto, Ticiana M. C. Studart y Luiz S. V. Nascimento. "Trade-off between reservoir yield and evaporation losses as a function of lake morphology in semi-arid Brazil". Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências 88, n.º 2 (31 de mayo de 2016): 1113–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0001-3765201620150124.

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This study investigates the relationships between yield and evaporation as a function of lake morphology in semi-arid Brazil. First, a new methodology was proposed to classify the morphology of 40 reservoirs in the Ceará State, with storage capacities ranging from approximately 5 to 4500 hm3. Then, Monte Carlo simulations were conducted to study the effect of reservoir morphology (including real and simplified conical forms) on the water storage process at different reliability levels. The reservoirs were categorized as convex (60.0%), slightly convex (27.5%) or linear (12.5%). When the conical approximation was used instead of the real lake form, a trade-off occurred between reservoir yield and evaporation losses, with different trends for the convex, slightly convex and linear reservoirs. Using the conical approximation, the water yield prediction errors reached approximately 5% of the mean annual inflow, which is negligible for large reservoirs. However, for smaller reservoirs, this error became important. Therefore, this paper presents a new procedure for correcting the yield-evaporation relationships that were obtained by assuming a conical approximation rather than the real reservoir morphology. The combination of this correction with the Regulation Triangle Diagram is useful for rapidly and objectively predicting reservoir yield and evaporation losses in semi-arid environments.

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