Literatura académica sobre el tema "Usufruct contract"

Purpose This paper aims to investigate sale with the temporary exclusion of usufruct, a format debated in classical Islamic jurisprudence. More specifically, it examines the application of this sale format in the diminishing partnership arrangement used by American Finance House LARIBA to finance house purchases. It analyzes the Sharīʿah issues and assesses the risks involved. Design/methodology/approach The research is qualitative, surveying and critically analyzing classical fiqh literature and contemporary juristic resolutions, as well as LARIBA’s financing documents. Finally, it systematically surveys the associated risk factors, first qualitatively, and then by quantifying them. Findings The research concludes that sale with the temporary exclusion of usufruct is a valid contract in Islamic law. When the usufruct is priced at market rate, the financing arrangement is genuinely Islamic and brings added value. Moreover, it is very effective in addressing risks for Islamic banks, particularly in countries with legal systems not designed to accommodate Islamic finance. Originality/value This study systematically examines all aspects of a contract that has not received sufficient academic attention, that has been underutilized by the Islamic finance industry and that is more fitting for implementation than many of the contracts currently being used.

D. 7,4,29 and in iure cessio ususfructus domino proprietatisSummaryThe problem discussed in my article concerns the non-transferability of the usufruct right and a remedy for this non-transferibility that consisted in the possibility of selling or hiring the usufruct to third parties. The usufruct as being servitus personarum was strictly attached to the person of usufructuary and could not be validly transferred to third parties. In iure cessio ususfructus could be done exclusively toward the bare owner, inwhich case the right of usufruct was extinguished through consolidationwith the property right, but not in favor of the third parties (Gai. 2,30; D. 23,3,66; I. 2,4,3). Nevertheless usufructuary could dispose his right on the contractual level and grant the enjoyment of the usufruct to otherpersons on the basis of the contract of sale or hire or donation orprecarium (such a contract could be validly stipulated until the death ofusufructuary in which moment the usufruct right was always extinguishedthrough the consolidation with the property right).In all cases mentioned above the usufructuary retained his right which was not extinguished by non usus since it was possible to recognize a purchaser, a hirer, a donee and any other person authorized by usufructuary as exercising this right in the name of the usufructuary. Even though that person who was enjoying the right of usufruct subsequently sold or hired it to another person the right of usufruct did not extinguish because any other person to whom a person authorized by usufructuary granted the enjoyment of the usufruct was still exercising this right in the name of the actual usufructuary.The particular case of such contract made by the usufructuary was analyzed by Pomponius in D. 7,4,29pr.-1: the owner of the land has rented it from the usufructuary and then sold it without reserving the right of usufruct. In this case, even though the vendor pays the rent to the usufructuary (the bare owner is liable to the usufructuary for quanti interfuit) the righ of usufruct is lost because the purchaser would have held the land in his own name, not that of the usufructuary. Similarly in case in which the bare owner purchased the usufruct from the usufructuary and then sold it to another person, the usufructuary lost his right since the buyer could not be deemed recognized as exercising this right in the name of the usufructuary.We can thus note that the effects of selling or hiring the usufruct to the bare owner were in fact very close to the effect of in iure cessio ususfructus domino proprietatis - the usufructuary lost his right and the bare owner could dispose his property without any limitations. The formal difference concerned the moment in which the right of usufruct was extinguished. In case of in iure cessio ususfructus domino proprietatis it was extinguished through the consolidation with the property in the moment in which the usufructuary ceased his right toward the bare owner. In case of selling or hiring this right to the bare owner, theoretically the usufructuary retained his usufruct until this owner dispose his property to third person in his own name (without reserving the existing usufruct), but in fact since the moment he sold or hired his right to the owner he lost the possibility of exercising his right and the owner could dispose his property as if it was not limited by any existing servitude. Such a solution did not cause any damage to the usufructuary (in both cases he was paid by the owner an economical value of his right) and at the same time it became possible to avoid the maintaining of limitations of one’s property and to protect the person who bought the thing from the owner without being informed ofthe existence of any servitude.

Introduction: the reform of modern civil legislation cannot be completed without the adoption of a package of amendments to the section of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation devoted to real rights. Moreover, the lack of a developed and consistent concept of real rights has a negative impact on the development of all related areas. Real rights are designed to solve strategic problems of state development, among which social issues are currently coming to the fore. In this regard, it is important to study individual real rights proposed for introduction into civil legislation in terms of their potential to promote not only the economic but also the social development of the country. This paper focuses on usufruct in the aspect of its historical identity, powerful functional message, and internationality. Purpose: the research aims to clarify the significance of real law[1] regulation in solving nationally significant problems. Based on the achievements of foreign doctrine and legislation, we attempt to show the prospects of the introduction of usufruct in the Russian system of real rights. Methods: general (philosophical), general scientific, special scientific (including special legal) methods of cognition: dialectical, logical, historical, sociological, comparative-legal and formal-legal. Results: we have studied civil legislation of thirty countries of the world. The study has shown that the introduction of usufruct can have a positive social and economic effect, but only provided that the legislator does not deviate from the historically established concept of usufruct embodied in foreign law. Conclusions:the Draft of Section II of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation ‘Real Rights’ needs revision, with the initial social function of usufruct taken into consideration. It is necessary to work out a system of grounds for the emergence and termination of usufructuary rights, to introduce a mandatory notarial form of a contract for the establishment of usufruct, to provide for the possibility of establishing usufruct by virtue of law in relation to socially significant objects and on the basis of a court decision, to enshrine non-use of the right among the grounds for termination; to allow the establishment of usufruct in relation to citizens and legal entities, and not only non-profit organizations; to allow multiple usufructuaries; to describe in detail the rights and obligations of the owner and the usufructuary, including the duties of treating the property with care, and to indicate the possible limits of the disposal of the property by the usufructuary, including via transactions; to work out the rules for the exercise of the right of usufruct in relation to certain categories of objects, for example: property of minors, inheritance, agricultural land, forests, minerals, etc.

In this paper, we present a generalization of Mandell’s model for the estimation of ground lease pricing. We adjust the model so that it fits, in particular, the Polish legal regulations and situation of the Polish real estate market. The model involves two aspects. The first is the perpetual usufruct, a form of owning the ground similar to a long-term lease, but having some specific features. The second is allowing lease rent adjustments after some fixed period, meaning we consider the situation where the payments are fixed during certain periods as defined in the contract. The proposed model determines the minimum lease amount for the owner, which is the rate at which it is beneficial to lease the property, and the maximum for the lessee, which is the amount above which the lease is unprofitable for the leaseholder or perpetual usufruct.

"Land doesn't expand and it doesn't contract; we'll find your piece of it."(Judge in a court case over land)"Hey! Since when did my garden shrink?" "It didn't shrink, it stretched."(Two neighbors arguing over the boundary between their gardens)"The day will come when a man will go out into his field and not know where it begins or ends."(Biblical reference by villagers to the imminent end of the world)In memory of loan AluaşIn February 1991 the Romanian Parliament passed a law for the restoration of land to its former owners. Known as Law 18/1991, the Law on Agricultural Land Resources (Legea Fondului Funciar) liquidated collective farms and returned their lands to the households that had given them over at collectivization (1959-1962).' The former owners recover not merely usufruct, or use rights, but full rights of ownership.

“A system of private ownership must provide for something more sophisticated than absolute ownership of the property by one person. A property owner needs to be able to do more than own it during his lifetime and pass it on to someone else on his death.”1 Those who own things with a long life quite naturally feel the urge to deal in segments of time. Most of the owner's ambitions in respect of time can be met by the law of contract. But contract does not offer a complete solution, since contracts create only personal rights. Certain of the owner's legitimate wishes can be achieved only if the law allows them to be given effect in rem—that is, as proprietary rights. Legal systems have responded differently to the need for proprietary rights limited in time. Roman law created usufruct and other iura in re aliena; English law created different legal estates. Every system has faced similar problems. One issue has been the extent to which the holder of a limited interest should be restricted in his or her use and enjoyment in order to protect the holders of other interests in the same thing. A common core of principles regulates the relationship between those who hold temporary interests and the reversioners. For instance, every system forbids holder of the possessory interest to damage the thing arbitrarily. But other rules are more controversial. This study focuses upon the rules which do not forbid, but compel, certain courses of action.

El artículo examina algunos aspectos de la la obra del escritor argentino contemporáneo Washington Cucurto, seudónimo de Norberto Santiago Vega, director de la editorial Eloísa Cartonera. En particular, los relacionados con el desplazamiento, la migración y la poesía, mediante un contraste con otras representaciones de la diáspora dominicana. La poesía de Cucurto constituye un intento literario por crear un espacio para la exploración de los lazos de unión entre migración, cultura, crimen y sexo, elementos reunidos subsecuentemente para crear una estética del robo discursivo, de algún modo análoga a la economía del usufructo que se puede apreciar en su proyecto editorial. De este modo, la obra de Cucurto muestra el vínculo entre el activismo cultural y la migración económica, en particular esos movimientos migratorios que rara vez antes recibieron atención académica o mediática en Argentina. Palabras clave: Washington Cucurto, Eloísa Cartonera, Junot Díaz, Mario Vargas Llosa, migración, diáspora dominicana en la Argentina. This article examines certain aspects of the work of the contemporary Argentine writer, Washington Cucurto, the pseudonym of Norberto Santiago Vega, director of the cardboard recyclers’ publishing collective, Eloísa Cartonera, in particular those related to displacement, migration and poetry, by means of a contrast with other representations of the Dominican Republican Diaspora. Cucurto’s poetry offers a literary attempt to create a space to explore the connections between migration, culture, crime and sex, elements that come together to create an aesthetic of discursive theft, analogous to the economics of usufruct found in his publishing project. Thus Cucurto’s work demonstrate the link between cultural activism and economic migration, in particular those migratory movements which have as yet received little academic or media attention in Argentina. Keywords: Washington Cucurto, Eloísa Cartonera, Junot Díaz, Mario Vargas Llosa, migration, Dominican Republican diaspora in Argentina.

ABSTRACTChina has had very active markets for both the sale and the rental of land since Song times (960–1279), if not longer. By the sixteenth century, most of the institutional arrangements that would characterize these markets until 1949 were in place. These institutions differed sharply from those of emerging land markets in early modern Western Europe: in particular, government played a lesser role in adjudicating disputes over land contracts, and customary arrangements included features that (a) gave some sellers of land claims on purchasers that could last for many years and (b) gave some tenants, especially in South and East China, very strong usufruct rights, which themselves became a form of tradable property. However, despite these and other differences from Western models, Chinese land markets were quite efficient, and provided the incentives needed for a very productive agriculture; secure tenants, for instance, responded to their strong position by behaving like owners and investing heavily in improving the land.

AbstractIn this article I attempt to analyze the transformation of savanna-originated spirit or suman shrines in a cocoa-producing migrant society in the Eastern Region of the Republic of Ghana. At the beginning of the twentieth century, various suman shrines were established as places where people were accused of witchcraft or exorcized in Akan societies. Earlier studies have called these 'anti-witchcraft shrines' and interpreted this phenomenon as being a result of the social change caused by the booming cocoa industry. In the meantime, the main function of suman shrines has been transformed from one associated with witchcraft, which is connected with kinship order in Akan societies, into one offering treatment against magic relating to ethnic conflicts over land. I point out that this shift in the function of suman shrines reflects a shift in local political disputes, namely from maintaining the birthrate within matrilineal kin groups in order to keep up numbers in the work force to the inter-ethnic relations found in the usufruct and contracts concerning farmland between landowners and tenants.

The Cuban government has implemented a series of agricultural transformations since 2007 to increase the country’s agricultural self-sufficiency and reduce its dependency on food imports. These include the transfer (in usufruct) of State-owned land to non-State producers (e.g. cooperatives and private farmers), moderate price reforms, the decentralization of decision making, and the gradual relaxation of existing forms of agricultural commercialization. As a result of these measures, the area planted, as well as physical output and agricultural yields (in selected non-sugar crop categories) have shown mixed results, but still remain below desired levels. There are three (3) fundamental unresolved aspects that have prevented Cuba’s agricultural sector from achieving the desired outcomes: (1) the need to achieve the “realization of property,” (2) the recognition and acceptance of the market as a complementary economic coordination mechanism, and (3) the absence of a systemic focus to achieve the successful completion of the agricultural production cycle. These unresolved aspects should be addressed through: (1) the consolidation of input markets, where producers can obtain essential inputs at prices that correspond to the prices they can obtain for their output, (2) greater autonomy to allow agricultural producers to freely decide when, where, and to whom they could sell their output, after social contracts have been fulfilled, (3) the diversification of the forms of agricultural commercialization to permit greater participation by non-State economic actors, (4) allowing agricultural producers to freely hire the labor necessary to sustain and increase production, and (5) providing agricultural producers with the financing and technical assistance necessary.

Syftet med detta arbete är att undersöka vilken rättighetsupplåtelse olika bredbandsutbyggare föredrar att använda för att ordna markåtkomst för bredband via fiber. Mer specifikt undersöks i arbetet om valet av rättighetsupplåtelse skiljer mellan olika typer av bredbandsutbyggare och/eller i områden inom och utanför detaljplan. Med tanke på att bredbandsutbyggnad framför allt behöver ske utanför tätort för att det slutliga bredbandsmålet ska nås år 2025, undersöks särskilt hur bredbandsutbyggare tycker att markåtkomst i område för allmän väg fungerar. Detta då lokalisering av fiberkablar i allmän väg är ett särskilt viktigt alternativ utanför tätort. Vidare undersöks vilka huvudsakliga problem bredbandsutbyggare upplever i samband med markåtkomst. För att uppfylla syftet har kommunägda- och kommersiella bolag samt fiberföreningar intervjuats. Totalt har åtta intervjuer utförts. Alla med personer som är ansvariga för fiberutbyggnad från respektive bolag/förening. Urval har skett utifrån ledningsägare i tre kommuner, alla belägna i Stockholms län. Utöver detta har rättsfall analyserats för att illustrera delar av den problematik som föreligger vid markåtkomst för bredband via fiber. Resultatet från intervjuerna visar att markavtal, som är en nyttjanderättsform, är det alternativ som föredras av alla tre typer av bredbandsutbyggare. Detta gäller både i områden inom och utanför detaljplan. Vidare är både kommunägda- och kommersiella aktörer samt fiberföreningar restriktiva i användningen av ledningsrätt, främst för att underlätta för framtida relationer och med respekt för markägare men också på grund av hög kostnad och lång tid för upplåtelse. Intervjuerna visar att bredbandsutbyggare tenderar att värdera en relation med markägare högre än att markåtkomst ska ske på ett snabbt sätt. Någon större skillnad i val av markåtkomst mellan olika typer av aktörer eller i områden inom eller utanför detaljplan kunde ej urskiljas. Studien indikerar att det snarare handlar om den enskilde markägarens inställning till att upplåta mark. De upplevda problemen kring markåtkomst för bredband uppstår främst då fiberetablering i område för allmän väg sker, detta har framför allt att göra med samarbetssvårigheter med den statliga väghållaren. Ett annat förekommande problem i samband med markåtkomst är gemensamt ägd mark, sådan mark gör att processen med att ordna markåtkomst ofta drar ut på tiden.
This study aims to investigate what legal right different broadband developers prefer to use to get access to the land they want to establish fiber. More specifically, it investigates if the type of developer or the area's planning influences the choice of land access. For the final broadband goal to be reached in 2025, broadband expansion needs to occur mainly outside urban areas. According to this, special consideration has been given to how broadband developers experience land access in areas for public roads. This is because locating fiber cables in public roads is an essential alternative outside urban areas. To fulfill the purpose, municipal-owned and commercial companies and fiber associations have been interviewed. A total of eight persons responsible for fiber expansion from the respective company/association have been conducted. The selection has been made by asking different actors in three municipalities located in Stockholm County.Moreover, court cases have been analyzed to create a picture of the different problems that can arise when getting land access for this purpose. The interviews show that usufruct agreements are exclusively the alternative used in the first place, both within and outside the detailed plan. The results from the interviews show that usufruct agreements are used by all the different types of broadband developers. Furthermore, the actors in this study are restrictive in the use of utility easement. This in order to facilitate future relationships and to show respect for landowners. The usufruct agreements thus appear to be a better alternative from the perspective of active actors. The relationship with the landowners tends to have a higher value than the time aspect to get land access.Moreover, no distinction between whether the choice of land access between different types of broadband developers or the area's planning could be distinguished in the study. It has somewhat to do with the landowner's attitude to leasing land. The perceived problems regarding land access for broadband arise mainly when fiber establishments in public roads are made, and this has to do with the Swedish Transport Administration's cooperation. Another problem arises when access to land on joint-owned land is required, this often leads to an extended process in time.

Notre conception de la propriété oscille, depuis l'Antiquité, entre une propriété unifiée et une propriété divisée. Le Code civil a opté pour la première solution. Pourtant, dans le même temps, il a admis l'existence des démembrements de la propriété et accordé aux parties une liberté contractuelle. On pouvait donc penser que, dès 1804, le ver était dans le fruit et qu'il suffisait de repousser les frontières de la liberté contractuelle pour faire ressurgir les propriétés simultanées. Mais, la doctrine a défendu l'unité du droit en limitant le nombre des droits réels puis en contestant la notion de démembrement. Pourtant, le démembrement de la propriété est une technique largement consacrée en droit positif. Quant au numerus clausus des droits réels, il n'y a aucune raison de le soutenir. En exploitant les silences du Code civil, il est possible de créer de nouveaux démembrements de la propriété. Sous l'effet du contrat est réapparue l'idée d'un dédoublement du droit de la propriété
Our conception of the ownership has been swaying, since the Antiquity, between the unified and divided ownership. By pitting an end to feudal system, the " Code civil " has chosen the first solution but, in the same time, our law has admitted the existence of the " démembrements " of the ownership and granted to the contracting parties the contractual liberty. So we could think it would be enough to push the borders of the Liberty in order to make revival the division of ownership but, the doctrine has defended the unity first by limiting the number of real rights and then by contesting the " démembrement ". We contest these two ideas. First, the " démembrement " of ownership is recognized in our Law. Then, there is no reason to defend the numerus clausus of the real rights. By exploiting the permissive silences of the law, it is possible to create new decompositions of ownership dealing with various objects. Because of the contract, the idea of a division of the ownership has reappeared

Confrontée depuis des années à la diversification des techniques d’organisation du patrimoine, la qualité d’associé n’apparaît plus réellement unifiée. Et les critères proposés par la doctrine ne semblent pas permettre d’y remédier, ce qui pose de nombreuses difficultés. L’usufruitier, le fiduciaire, le locataire de parts sociales ou d’actions, ou bien encore l’investisseur et l’empty voter ont-ils la qualité d’associé ? La question est loin d’être théorique puisqu’elle conditionne, en particulier, l’attribution des prérogatives telles que le droit de demander la dissolution de la société, d’exercer l’action sociale, de participer aux décisions collectives ou encore de percevoir le boni de liquidation. Mais elle s’avère également déterminante s’agissant de l’obligation aux dettes et, à cet égard, présente un réel intérêt pour les tiers. Les praticiens tentent aujourd’hui d’éloigner les difficultés qu’ils rencontrent en utilisant le critère de la propriété des parts sociales et des actions. Cependant, la présente étude révèle qu’il ne peut être considéré comme un critère satisfaisant. Au contraire, il apparaît que l’élément caractéristique de la qualité d’associé, qui permet de distinguer l’associé des tiers et qui s’impose à toutes les formes d’associé, est le risque de contribuer aux pertes sociales. Et l’application de ce critère conduit en particulier à refuser à l’usufruitier et au locataire la qualité d’associé
The notion of corporation’s partner seems to have lost its unity due to the development of innovative skills and techniques in asset management. Criterions for corporations’ partnership that are proposed by legal doctrine appear to be inadequate. Can usufructuary, trustee and lessee of shares be considered as partners ? This question raises numerous difficulties in practice and the answer to be brought will determine the significant rights and duties attached to a partner such as the right to ask for the liquidation and dissolution of the corporation, the right to participate to a general assembly meeting or the liability for corporation’s debts. Given these uncertainties, the stakeholders often use the criterion of ownership of shares to establish who is partner. However this criterion is unsatisfactory. The research tries to demonstrate that risk is the key and distinctive criterion of partnership. The criterion of risk enables to distinguish partners from third parties and applies to partners of all types of corporations. Therefore, it provides for effectiveness, for instance to prevent from granting the quality of partner to usufructuary and lessee of shares

Dans les Droits antérieurs à la codification de 1804, les conventions ne suffisaient pas, en principe, à constituer et à transférer les droits réels : pour atteindre ce résultat, un mode acquisitif, comme la tradition de la chose, était nécessaire. Quand ce n’était exceptionnellement pas le cas, le droit réel, qui était constitué ou transféré par la seule convention, était néanmoins constitué et transféré erga omnes. Or, à partir du code civil et des réformes législatives postérieures, il n’en va plus ainsi : le principe adopté est celui de la constitution et de la translation des droits réels sola conventione.Mais l’étude des textes législatifs et réglementaires ainsi que des opinions doctrinales du XIXe siècle révèle que le changement initié en 1804 est bien plus profond : si la convention suffit à constituer et à transférer les droits réels, ces droits ne sont constitués et transférés qu’à l’égard des parties.Ainsi, en Droit français actuel, la vente d’un bateau en transfère la propriété à l’égard du vendeur, mais non à l’égard des tiers et, en particulier, des créanciers chirographaires du vendeur ou de l’État. Tant que l’inscription de l’acte de vente n’est pas accomplie, ces tiers peuvent ignorer le transfert de la propriété causé par la vente. Dès lors, certaines questions se posent inévitablement : la vente a-t-elle réellement transféré la propriété ? Une propriété à l’égard du seul vendeur est-elle encore réellement une propriété ? De même, en Droit français actuel, une convention peut constituer une hypothèque, mais ce droit n’est pas opposable aux tiers tant que cet acte n’a pas été inscrit. Ainsi, les créanciers chirographaires du constituant peuvent ignorer le droit du créancier hypothécaire. Mais une hypothèque qui n’est pas un droit de préférence n’est-elle pas un concept absurde ? Cette thèse explique comment le législateur et la doctrine du XIXe siècle, en réduisant le mode acquisitif au titre acquisitif et en distinguant entre effet inter partes et effet extra partes, ont construit un mythe : celui des conventions constitutives et translatives de droits réels. Contrairement aux formules généralement retenues par la loi et les manuels, en Droit français actuel, les droits réels sont constitués et transférés par la convention et la tradition ou l’inscription
The Law prior to the 1804 codification is ruled by the principle that agreements are not sufficient to establish and transfer real rights: in order to reach this result, an additional modus of acquisition, like the delivery of the thing, is required. When it is not the case, the real right, established or transferred by mere agreement, is nevertheless established and transferred erga omnes. However, since the civil code and the successive legislative reforms, the situation is no longer the same: the principle adopted is the establishment and the transference of real rights sola conventione. Nonetheless, the study of laws and regulations as well as the nineteenth century scholars’ opinions reveals that the change initiated in 1804 is much deeper: if the agreement is sufficient to establish and transfer real rights, these rights are established and transferred to the parties only. For example, in current French Law, the sale of a boat transfers its property regarding to the seller, but not towards to third parties and, in particular, not regarding to the seller’s unsecured creditors or to the State. As long as the registration of the deed of sale is not completed, these third parties may ignore the transfer of property resulting from the sale. A lot of questions can be raised: has the sale really settled a transfer of property? Is a property regarding only to the seller still really a property? Similarly, in current French Law, an agreement may establish a mortgage, but this right is not enforceable against third parties as long as this act has not been registered. Thus, the unsecured creditors of the settlor may ignore the right of the mortgagee. But does it make sense to consider a mortgage without a preference right?This thesis describes how the legislator and nineteenth century scholars, in reducing the acquisitive modus into the acquisitive titulus and in distinguishing between inter partes effect and extra partes effect, have built a myth : the one of the agreements establishing and transferring real rights. Unlike formulas generally used by law and textbooks, in current French Law, real rights are established and transferred by agreement and delivery or registration

Este libro es resultado de una estrecha colaboración entre el Grupo Tierra del CESMECA, el Centro de Derechos de la Mujer de Chiapas y el Movimiento en Defensa de la Tierra, el Territorio y por el Derecho de las Mujeres a Decidir; también constituye una experiencia de trabajo colectivo que articula a la sociedad y la academia para evidenciar la situación de las mujeres rurales, en el campo y la ciudad, derivada de los cambios ocasionados por las dinámicas neoliberales y neoextractivistas de las políticas oficiales en el estado. Se abordan las respuestas organizadas de las mujeres relacionadas con la tenencia, uso y usufructo de la tierra, así como su derecho al territorio. Hacemos énfasis en la propuesta de tenencia familiar de la tierra, una importante herramienta de lucha con y desde las mujeres contra el despojo patriarcal y capitalista de la tierra/territorio en los ejidos y comunidades; los antecedentes, el devenir de la propuesta en sí y su discusión con las mujeres interesadas en ella son abordadas en estas páginas.

This chapter discusses how the contracts of istisna’ and ijara, alone and in combination, have found common modern application. The combination of istisna’ and ijara contracts in particular has found prominence in the project finance and asset finance sector, where in practice they operate like their conventional counterparts. Istisna’ is a contract of sale of specified items to be manufactured or constructed with an obligation on the part of the manufacturer (contractor) to deliver them to the customer on completion. Meanwhile, ijara is a term that means to give something in return for a rent. The ijara contract occurs principally in two situations. First, with respect to the provision of services. And second, with respect to the transfer of usufruct (or right of use) of an asset. In the second application, ijara is comparable to a conventional asset lease.

Foreigner is a person who does not have any citizenship with the Republic of Turkey. According to the third paragraph of Article 35 of the Deed Law, the Council of Ministers/President of the Republic, in the interests of the country, is entitled to define, limit and prohibit, the limited real rights of the foreign real persons and foreign trade companies, in terms of country, person, geographical region, time, number, rate, type, quality, square measurement and amount. To entitle the Council of Ministers/President of the Republic to limit and prohibit the use of limited rights of the foreigners, may be contrary to Article 16 of the Constitution. The limited real rights are the usufruct rights (TCC 794), the right of residence (TCC 823), the right of construction (TCC 837) and the right of pledge and immovable load (TCC 839). It may be established the right of usufruct, right of construction and immovable load in favor of foreigners in Turkey who can acquire real estates. It may be established pledge rights without being subject to restrictions in favor of foreign real and legal persons.