Literatura académica sobre el tema "Ventral telencephali pars ventralis"

Connections of the thalamo-hyperstriatal system of hatchling chicks were investigated using multiple injections of cholera toxin B subunit (CTb) in the wulst. In the diencephalon, cells with CTb-like immunoreactivity (CTb-LI) were seen bilaterally in n. dorsolateralis anterior thalami, pars lateralis dorsalis and ventralis, n. dorsolateralis anterior thalami, pars magnocellularis, and pars lateralis rostralis. Within this complex, more CTb-LI cells were observed in the ventral portions of the ipsilateral side, whereas more labeled cells were found in the dorsolateral portions of the contralateral side. Moreover, CTb-LI cells were seen bilaterally in n. superficialis magnocellularis. In the nonvisual thalamic structures, numerous CTb-LI cells were seen in n. dorsolateralis anterior thalami, pars medialis and n. dorsolateralis posterior thalami. In the ventral thalamus, intense CTb-LI fibers/terminals were present in the external half of the external laminae of n. geniculatus lateralis, pars ventralis. Moderate to minor concentrations of fibrous labeling were found in n. intercalatus thalami and n. ventrolateral thalami. Moreover, efferent projections of the wulst were evident in the most ventral half of the optic tectum and the pretectal areas. The latter included n. pretectalis medialis, n. spiriformis medialis, n. principalis precommissuralis, n. lentiformis mesencephali, pars magnocellularis, and n. superficialis synecephali. Also, CTb-LI fibers were seen in n. basal optic root. The present study provides strong evidence that neuronal connections of the thalamo-hyperstriatal system are well established by the time of hatching. Additionally, efferent projections from the wulst to the diencephalic, mesencephalic, and pretectal structures are evident.

The neurotransmitter dopamine plays important roles in motor control, learning, and motivation in mammals and probably other animals as well. The strong dopaminergic projection to striatal regions and more moderate dopaminergic projections to other regions of the telencephalon predominantly arise from midbrain dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) and ventral tegmental area (VTA). Homologous dopaminergic cell groups in songbirds project anatomically in a manner that may allow dopamine to influence song learning or song production. The electrophysiological properties of SNc and VTA neurons have not previously been studied in birds. Here we used whole cell recordings in brain slices in combination with tyrosine-hydroxylase immunolabeling as a marker of dopaminergic neurons to determine electrophysiological and pharmacological properties of dopaminergic and nondopaminergic neurons in the zebra finch SNc and VTA. Our results show that zebra finch dopaminergic neurons possess physiological properties very similar to those of mammalian dopaminergic neurons, including broad action potentials, calcium- and apamin-sensitive membrane-potential oscillations underlying pacemaker firing, powerful spike-frequency adaptation, and autoinhibition via D2 dopamine receptors. Moreover, the zebra finch SNc and VTA also contain nondopaminergic neurons with similarities (fast-firing, inhibition by the μ-opioid receptor agonist [d-Ala2, N-Me-Phe4, Gly-ol5]-enkephalin (DAMGO)) and differences (strong h-current that contributes to spontaneous firing) compared with GABAergic neurons in the mammalian SNc and VTA. Our results provide insight into the intrinsic membrane properties that regulate the activity of dopaminergic neurons in songbirds and add to strong evidence for anatomical, physiological, and functional similarities between the dopaminergic systems of mammals and birds.

The first virtual cranial endocast of a lungfish from the Early Devonian,Dipnorhynchus sussmilchi, is described.Dipnorhynchus,only the fourth Devonian lungfish for which a near complete cranial endocast is known, is a key taxon for clarifying primitive character states within the group. A ventrally-expanded telencephalic cavity is present in the endocast ofDipnorhynchusdemonstrating that this is the primitive state for “true” Dipnoi.Dipnorhynchusalso possesses a utricular recess differentiated from the sacculolagenar pouch like that seen in stratigraphically younger lungfish (Dipterus, Chirodipterus, Rhinodipterus), but absent from the dipnomorphYoungolepis. We do not find separate pineal and para-pineal canals in contrast to a reconstruction from previous authors. We conduct the first phylogenetic analysis of Dipnoi based purely on endocast characters, which supports a basal placement ofDipnorhynchuswithin the dipnoan stem group, in agreement with recent analyses. Our analysis demonstrates the value of endocast characters for inferring phylogenetic relationships.

We have used in situ hybridisation to establish the temporal and spatial expression patterns of the mouse homeobox-containing gene; Hox-7, in the developing embryonic cranium and nervous system of the mouse between embryonic days 9.5 (E9.5) and E15.5. Hox-7 has previously been associated with areas of mesenchymal-epithelial interaction and cell migration especially in neural crest ectomesenchymal cells. Aside from the expression patterns seen in the facial anlage at E9.5, Hox-7 transcripts were also detected in the neuroepithelium including cells of the dorsal midline of the neural tube. This expression pattern persisted throughout the embryonic time span studied. At E11.5, expression of Hox-7 became obvious in the neuroepithelium of the forming tela choroida and the telencephelii in areas destined to form the choroid plexus before any atrophy of the neuroepithelium took place. High expression of Hox-7 was also present in the mesenchyme cells invading the pouch formed by the involuting choroid plexus neuroepithelium. A second major site where Hox-7 was expressed was the anlage of the anterior pituitary; the Rathke's pouch. Expression became obvious at E10.5 throughout the pouch but by E12.5 became more regionalised in areas of the pouch destined to form the pars distalis. Hox-7 was also expressed in the forming meninges and skull bone precursors from E10.5 onwards. Expression of the Hox-7 gene is also seen in the external ear, the forming eye, the nasal pits and forming Jacobson's organs. When these expression patterns are considered together with characterised human and mouse retinoic acid embryopathies and the congenital malformations seen in human children associated with deletion of chromosome 4p16.1 (Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome), Hox-7 may be a good candidate as one of the genes involved in the initiation of the choroid plexus phenotype and its subsequent formation, the formation of the outer ear, formation of the dentition and the differentiation of the cell types of the anterior pituitary. The expression pattern of Hox-7 in the dorsal midline of the neural tube further suggests that it may also be involved in the specification of the dorsal-ventral axis of the developing nervous system.

Abstract Background The evolutionary origin of the telencephalon, the most anterior part of the vertebrate brain, remains obscure. Since no obvious counterpart to the telencephalon has yet been identified in invertebrate chordates, it is difficult to trace telencephalic origins. One way to identify homologous brain parts between distantly related animal groups is to focus on the combinatorial expression of conserved regionalisation genes that specify brain regions. Results Here, we report the combined expression of conserved transcription factors known to specify the telencephalon in the vertebrates in the chordate amphioxus. Focusing on adult specimens, we detect specific co-expression of these factors in the dorsal part of the anterior brain vesicle, which we refer to as Pars anterodorsalis (PAD). As in vertebrates, expression of the transcription factors FoxG1, Emx and Lhx2/9 overlaps that of Pax4/6 dorsally and of Nkx2.1 ventrally, where we also detect expression of the Hedgehog ligand. This specific pattern of co-expression is not observed prior to metamorphosis. Similar to the vertebrate telencephalon, the amphioxus PAD is characterised by the presence of GABAergic neurons and dorsal accumulations of glutamatergic as well as dopaminergic neurons. We also observe sustained proliferation of neuronal progenitors at the ventricular zone of the amphioxus brain vesicle, as observed in the vertebrate brain. Conclusions Our findings suggest that the PAD in the adult amphioxus brain vesicle and the vertebrate telencephalon evolved from the same brain precursor region in ancestral chordates, which would imply homology of these structures. Our comparative data also indicate that this ancestral brain already contained GABA-, glutamatergic and dopaminergic neurons, as is characteristic for the olfactory bulb of the vertebrate telencephalon. We further speculate that the telencephalon might have evolved in vertebrates via a heterochronic shift in developmental timing.

The distribution of the immunoreactivity to nitric oxide synthase has been examined from rostral to caudal areas of the rat central nervous system using light microscopy. Endogenous nitric oxide synthase was located using a specific polyclonal antiserum, produced against affinity purified nitric oxide synthase from whole rat brain, following the avidin-biotin peroxidase procedure. Immunoreactive cell bodies and processes showed a widespread distribution in the brain. In the telencephalon, immunoreactive structures were distributed in all areas of the cerebral cortex, the ventral endopiriform nucleus and claustrum, the main and accessory olfactory bulb, the anterior and posterior olfactory nuclei, the precommisural hippocampus, the taenia tecta, the nucleus accumbens, the stria terminalis, the caudate putamen, the olfactory tubercle and islands of Calleja, septum, globus pallidus and substantia innominata, hippocampus and amygdala. In the diencephalon, the immunoreactivity was largely found in both the hypothalamus and thalamus. In the hypothalamus, immunoreactive cell bodies were characteristically located in the perivascular—neurosecretory systems and mamillary bodies. In addition, immunoreactive nerve fibres were detected in the median eminence of the infundibular stem. The mesencephalon showed nitric oxide synthase immunoreactivity in the ventral tegmental area, the interpeduncular nucleus, the rostral linear nucleus of the raphe and the dorsal raphe nucleus. Immunoreactive structures were also found in the nuclei of the central grey, the peripeduncular nucleus and substantia nigra pars lateralis, the geniculate nucleus and in the superior and inferior colliculi. The pons displayed immunoreactive structures principally in the pedunculopontine and laterodorsal tegmental nuclei, the ventral tegmental nucleus, the reticulotegmental pontine nucleus, the parabrachial nucleus and locus coeruleus. In the medulla oblongata, immunoreactive neurons and processes were detected in the principal sensory trigeminal nucleus, the trapezoid body, the raphe magnus, the pontine reticular nuclei, the supragenual nucleus, the prepositus hypoglossal nucleus, the medial and spinal vestibular nuclei, the dorsal cochlear nucleus, the medullary reticular field, the nucleus of the solitary tract, the gracile and cuneate nuclei, the dorsal nucleus of the vagus nerve and the oral, interpolar and caudal parts of the spinal trigeminal nucleus. In the cerebellum, the stellate and basket cells showed immunoreactivity, which was also seen in the basket terminal fibres of the Purkinje cell layer. Isolated immunoreactive Purkinje cells were found in the vermis and parafloccular regions of the cerebellum. In the granular layer of the cerebellum, the granular cells and glomeruli were also immunoreactive. Numerous positive varicose nerve fibres and occasional neurons were also found in the lateral and interposed cerebellar nuclei. Immunoreactive processes were found close to and penetrating the ependymal cells of the ventricular walls, particularly the lateral ventricles. Immunoreactive cell bodies were also detected in the circumventricular organs, including the subfornical organ and area postrema. Cerebral blood vessels were largely surrounded by varicose immunoreactive neuronal processes forming dense networks. Our demonstration of the widespread distribution of the enzyme nitric oxide synthase in diverse nuclei of the rat brain generally confirms earlier histochemical studies and suggests that this enzyme may affect the function of various neurotransmitter-specific systems. The possible implication of nitric oxide synthase in the regulation of the cerebrospinal fluid system and of cerebral blood circulation is discussed.

The transmission of sex pheromone-mediated signals is essential for goldfish reproduction. However, the neural pathways underlying this reproductive signalling pathway in the goldfish brain is not well described. Lesioning experiments have shown previously that two brain areas, the preoptic area (POA) and the ventral telencephali pars ventralis (Vv) in particular, are important for reproduction. We used patch clamp electrophysiology to study the electrical activities of POA and Vv neurons. Based on the intrinsic properties of these neurons, we suggest there are five different functional classes of POA neurons and a single class of Vv neurons. In addition, by electrically stimulating the olfactory bulb (OB), we were able to show that this primary sensory structure makes monosynaptic glutamatergic connections with both POA and Vv neurons. While electrophysiology measures signalling events occurring at short time scales on the order of milliseconds to minutes, we were also interested in studying sex pheromone signalling in the goldfish brain over a long time scale. Thus, we describe changes in gene expression in male goldfish exposed to waterborne sex pheromones (17alpha,20beta dihydroxy-4-pregene-3-one and Prostaglandin-F2alpha) over 6 hours. We perform cDNA microarrays on Prostaglandin-F2alpha-treated fish to study the rapid modulation of transcription and define the signalling pathways affected. Our microarrays showed that 71 genes were differentially regulated (67 up and 4 down). Through gene ontology enrichment analysis, we found that these genes were involved in various biological processes such as RNA processing, neurotransmission, neuronal development, apoptosis, cellular metabolism and sexual reproduction. RT-PCRs were performed to validate our microarrays and to facilitate direct comparisons of the effects of the two sex pheromones, 17alpha,20beta dihydroxy-4-pregene-3-one and Prostaglandin-F2alpha. By combining electrophysiology and gene expression analyses, we were able to study sex-pheromone signalling on two different time scales. One short, occurring on the order of milliseconds to minutes, that involves electrical activities in the brain through the glutamatergic amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionate and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors; and the other long occurring several hours later that involves changes in the gene expression levels of calmodulin and ependymin among other genes underlying neuroplasticity. Reproductive neuroplasticity in the goldfish may therefore require the activation of glutamatergic receptors which then activate downstream signals like calmodulin and ependymin to transform the sex pheromones-mediate signal into gene expression.

The hypothalamus is the part of the diencephalon associated with visceral, autonomic, endocrine, affective, and emotional behaviour. It lies in the walls of the third ventricle, separated from the thalamus by the hypothalamic sulcus. The rostral boundary of the hypothalamus is roughly defined as a line through the optic chiasm, lamina terminalis, and anterior commissure, and an imaginary line extending from the posterior commissure to the caudal limit of the mamillary body represents the caudal boundary. Externally, the hypothalamus is bounded rostrally by the optic chiasm, laterally by the optic tract, and posteriorly by the mamillary bodies. Dorsolaterally, the hypothalamus extends to the medial edge of the internal capsule (Fig. 2.1.1) (1). The complicated anatomy of this area of the central nervous system (CNS) is the reason why, for a long time, little was known about its anatomical organization and functional significance. Even though the anatomy of the hypothalamus is well established it does not form a well-circumscribed region. On the contrary, it is continuous with the surrounding parts of the CNS: rostrally, with the septal area of the telencephalon and anterior perforating substance; anterolaterally with the substantia innominata; and caudally with the central grey matter and the tegmentum of the mesencephalon. The ventral portion of the hypothalamus and the third ventricular recess form the infundibulum, which represents the most proximal part of the neurohypophysis. A bulging region posterior to the infundibulum is the tuber cinereum, and the zone that forms the floor of the third ventricle is called the median eminence. The median eminence represents the final point of convergence of pathways from the CNS on the peripheral endocrine system and it is supplied by primary capillaries of the hypophyseal portal vessels. The median eminence is the anatomical interface between the brain and the anterior pituitary. Ependymal cells lining the floor of the third ventricle have processes that traverse the width of the median eminence and terminate near the portal perivascular space; these cells, called tanycytes, provide a structural and functional link between the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and the perivascular space of the pituitary portal vessels. The conspicuous landmarks of the ventral surface of the brain can be used to divide the hypothalamus into three parts: anterior (preoptic and supraoptic regions), middle (tuberal region), and caudal (mamillary region). Each half of the hypothalamus is also divided into a medial and lateral zone. The medial zone contains the so-called cell-rich areas with well-defined nuclei. The scattered cells of the lateral hypothalamic area have long overlapping dendrites, similar to the cells of the reticular formation. Some of these neurons send axons directly to the cerebral cortex and others project down into the brainstem and spinal cord.