Thèses sur le sujet « Α7 nicotinic receptor »

α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) are highly permeable to Ca2+ and are clinical targets for Alzheimer’s disease and schizophrenia. The aim of this work was to examine α7 nAChR-mediated Ca2+ signalling in neuronal cells using three different methods, and to evaluate the effects of the desensitizing agonist and prototypical smoking-cessation drug sazetidine-A on α7 nAChRs. Initial studies used 96-well plate assays with SH-SY5Y cells to characterize responses evoked by the α7 nAChR-selective agonist PNU-282987 and positive allosteric modulator PNU-120596. This was complemented by live-imaging of cortical cultures, where the compounds evoked robust Ca2+ responses from 12 % of cells. Co- application with Cd2+, ryanodine and xestospongin-C significantly inhibited these responses, suggesting the involvement of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels and Ca2+- induced Ca2+-release. CNQX and MK801 also significantly inhibited α7 nAChR mediated Ca2+ elevations, indicating a role for glutamate release. A high-content screening assay was developed to further examine these phenomena. Exploratory experiments using KCl, AMPA and NMDA validated a protocol that could be used to image Ca2+ elevations in large cell populations. Inconsistent responses to PNU-120596 and PNU2-282987 were also observed, reflecting the scarcity of α7 nAChRs in cortical cultures and the need for assay optimization. Combination with immunofluorescent labelling revealed α7 nAChR mediated Ca2+ elevations in a subpopulation of astrocytes and neurons, some of which were GABAergic. PNU-120596 potentiated the effects of sazetidine-A in SH-SY5Y cells (EC50 0.4 μM) eliciting responses in 14 % of cells in cortical cultures in a methyllycaconitine- sensitive manner, consistent with α7 nAChR activation. Pre-incubation with sazetidine-A concentration-dependently attenuated subsequent α7 nAChR-mediated responses in SH-SY5Y cells (IC50 476 nM) and cortical cultures, suggesting that α7 nAChRs could play a role in the behavioural effects of sazetidine-A. These comparative experiments enhance our understanding of α7 nAChR signalling and provide a new method to study them further.

Assessment of sustained attention in rodents can be performed using the 5-choice serial reaction-time (5-CSR) task; analogous to the continuous performance test used in man. A 5-CSR protocol was established which allowed the demonstration of nicotine-induced improvements in sustained attention in mice. In this task α7 nAChR knockout (KO) mice exhibited impaired acquisition and performance, providing additional evidence that this receptor may be a valid therapeutic target for cognitive enhancement. In order to investigate the role of nAChR manipulation on working memory, the odour span task, a test of olfactory working memory capacity, was established in mice. Nicotine administration did not improve performance of C57B1/6J mice probably as a consequence of ceiling effects. Transgenic mice over-expressing human caspase-3 (hc-3) displayed a robust impairment in the task that was attenuated by nicotine administration. Moreover α7 nAChR KO mice exhibited impaired acquisition and performance in the task but in a different pattern to that of the hc-3 mice. This pattern may reflect an impaired ability to attend to the task as opposed to a working memory deficit alone. These demonstrations provide further support for a role of the α7 nAChR in cognition. Tg2576 mice represent the best well characterised transgenic model of AD, however there remains a dearth of information on their attentional and olfactory capabilities. The mice exhibited a deficit in sustained attention in the 5-CSR task, as well as an age-related impairment in the odour span task. In conclusion the development of the 5-CSR task for mice was used to identify a nicotine-induced improvement in normal mice and impaired performance in α7 KO and Tg2576 mice. In summary these data provide some evidence for a role of the α7 nAChR in nicotine-induced improvement in cognition, and with the tasks developed provide new tools for the assessment of putative cognitive enhancing compounds.

The α7 subunit of the nicotinic receptor, a ligand gated ion channel with an affinity for nicotine, has long been implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia due to the extremely high rate of smoking within the patient population. However, the exact role of the receptor has never fully been determined. In the following studies, various functions the receptor may assume in disease state are evaluated. There is a strong relationship between the immune system and schizophrenia, with the α7 subunit possibly serving as the link between the two. One of the following studies looks at the possibility of the receptor functioning as antigen in an autoimmune response. Blood sera of schizophrenic patients, as well as controls, were analyzed for the presence of antibodies to the α7 subunit of the nicotinic receptor. A sensitive ligand-based assay revealed schizophrenic patients could possess a pathogenic level of antibody that may exacerbate the degenerative nature of the disease, allowing for the possibility that receptor antibodies may serve as a contributing factor in the etiology of the disorder in at least a subset of patients. In other studies, the expression of the α7 receptor was investigated. Recombinant α7 receptor production has eluded researchers in non-mammalian species and this was the focus of our initial studies. In general, the lack of sufficient molecular recombinant techniques utilizing the receptor makes characterization of the α7 receptor and it's specific protein interactions difficult to evaluate. The regulatory mechanisms of the nicotinic receptor α7 subunit production and receptor formation have yet to be completely elucidated. Results in this investigation found a relationship between a functional CRE-element in the promoter region.

Aims: (1) Analyze the roles of α7 and α4β2 nicotinic receptors (nAChRs) in nicotine sensitization in adolescent male and female rats neonatally treated with quinpirole as well as their effects on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) 1 h and 24 h post drug treatment. (2) Analyze the effects of behavioral sensitization to nicotine on α7 and α4β2 nAChR density in the nucleus accumbens and dorsal striatum. Methods: Animals were neonatally treated with quinpirole (1 mg/kg) or saline from postnatal days (P)1-21. Beginning on P33, animals were ip injected with nicotine (0.5 mg/kg free base) or saline and tested every second day from P33-49. Approximately 30 min before injection, animals were ip injected with either the α7 nicotinic receptor (nAChR) antagonist methllycacontine (MLA; 2 or 4 mg/kg) or the α4β2 nAChR antagonist dihyro-β-erythrodine (DhβE; 1 or 3 mg/kg). Brain tissue was taken either 1 h or 24 h after the last day of testing. In a second experiment, animals were identically treated and brain tissue analyzed for nAChR density using the autoradiographic technique. Results: Neonatal quinpirole enhanced nicotine sensitization and the 3 mg/kg dose DhβE effectively blocked nicotine sensitization on Day 9 but enhanced the hypoactive response to nicotine on Day 1. MLA appears more important in the acute response to nicotine. Neonatal quinpirole sensitized the accumbal BDNF response to nicotine, but resulted in a decrease of accumbal mTOR. The nAChR density data will be presented. Conclusions: The α4β2 receptor played a critical role in the development of adolescent nicotine sensitization, and both nAChRs appear to be important in accumbal BDNF and in the mTOR response, demonstrating their important role in synaptic strength.

Neonatal quinpirole (NQ) treatment to rats increases dopamine D2 receptor sensitivity persistent throughout the animal’s lifetime. In Experiment 1, we analyzed the role of α7 and α4β2 nicotinic receptors (nAChRs) in nicotine behavioral sensitization and on the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) response to nicotine in NQ- and neonatally saline (NS)-treated rats. In Experiment 2, we analyzed changes in α7 and α4β2 nAChR density in the nucleus accumbens (NAcc) and dorsal striatum in NQ and NS animals sensitized to nicotine. Male and female Sprague-Dawley rats were neonatally treated with quinpirole (1mg/kg) or saline from postnatal days (P)1-21. Animals were given ip injections of either saline or nicotine (0.5mg/kg free base) every second day from P33 to P49 and tested on behavioral sensitization. Before each injection, animals were ip administered the α7 nAChR antagonist methyllycaconitine (MLA; 2 or 4mg/kg) or the α4β2 nAChR antagonist dihydro beta erythroidine (DhβE; 1 or 3mg/kg). Results revealed NQ enhanced nicotine sensitization that was blocked by DhβE. MLA blocked the enhanced nicotine sensitization in NQ animals, but did not block nicotine sensitization. NQ enhanced the NAcc BDNF response to nicotine which was blocked by both antagonists. In Experiment 2, NQ enhanced nicotine sensitization and enhanced α4β2, but not α7, nAChR upregulation in the NAcc. These results suggest a relationship between accumbal BDNF and α4β2 nAChRs and their role in the behavioral response to nicotine in the NQ model which has relevance to schizophrenia, a behavioral disorder with high rates of tobacco smoking.

Les stratégies thérapeutiques mises en place dans la maladie de Parkinson sont symptomatiques et ne permettent pas de ralentir la progression de la maladie, nécessitant le développement de nouvelles approches neuroprotectrices. La neuroinflammation joue un rôle majeur dans le processus neurodégénératif où elle se manifeste précocement par l’activation de cellules gliales (microglie et astrocytes). En s’appuyant sur l’utilisation de modèles animaux mimant les stades précoces de la maladie, l’élaboration de stratégies thérapeutiques à visée anti-inflammatoire constitue donc une approche thérapeutique prometteuse. Ce travail de thèse a consisté à mettre au point et à caractériser un modèle de lésion partielle à la 6-hydroxydopamine chez le rat afin d’évaluer les effets d’une stratégie thérapeutique originale basée sur l’utilisation en combinaison d’un agoniste des récepteurs nicotiniques α7 et d’un agoniste des récepteurs σ1. En utilisant différentes approches expérimentales, nous avons tout d’abord évalué le processus neurodégénératif et la neuroinflammation dans le modèle que nous avons mis en place. Nos résultats ont montré une dégénérescence partielle et reproductible des neurones dopaminergiques nigro-striataux associée à une importante neuroinflammation. Nos analyses métabolomiques ont également révélé plusieurs altérations spécifiques, apportant ainsi de nouvelles informations sur les mécanismes intervenant dans le processus neurodégénératif. En s’appuyant sur l’utilisation de la tomographie par émission de positrons, nous avons ensuite évalué longitudinalement le profil d’expression des récepteurs nicotiniques α7 dans les structures clés de la voie nigrostriée. Nos résultats ont montré des modifications transitoires de la densité de ces récepteurs pouvant être liées à des réponses microgliales biphasiques en association avec la cinétique de la dégénérescence neuronale. Ainsi, ces résultats renforcent l’idée de cibler spécifiquement les récepteurs nicotiniques α7 dans l’atténuation des processus neuroinflammatoires. Nous avons enfin évalué les effets de notre stratégie thérapeutique dans le modèle et nos résultats ont permis de montrer que ce type de combinaison préserve partiellement l’intégrité des neurones dopaminergiques nigro-striataux et réduit les réactions gliales chez les animaux lésés. Bien qu’il sera nécessaire de confirmer et de compléter ces résultats avec d’autres analyses, ce type de combinaison pourrait constituer une nouvelle entité biochimique prometteuse dans le traitement de la maladie de Parkinson
Currently, therapeutic strategies in Parkinson’s disease are symptomatic and the progression of the disease is uncontrolled, requiring the development of new neuroprotective approaches. Neuroinflammation plays a major role in the neurodegenerative process where it occurs early through the activation of glial cells (microglia and astrocytes). Based on the use of animal models mimicking the early stages of the disease, the development of anti-inflammatory strategies is therefore a promising therapeutic approach. This thesis work consisted in the development and the characterisation of a partial 6-hydroxydopamine lesion model in rats in order to evaluate the effects of an original therapeutic strategy based on the combined use of a α7 nicotinic receptors agonist and a σ1 receptors agonist. Using different experimental approaches, we first evaluated the neurodegenerative and neuroinflammation processes in the model that we developped. Our results showed a partial and reproductible degeneration of nigro-striatal dopaminergic neurons associated with a marked neuroinflammation. Our metabolic analyses have also revealed several specific alterations, providing new insight on the mechanisms involved in the neurodegenerative process. Using positron emission tomography imaging, we then evaluated longitudinally the expression profile of α7 nicotinic receptors in the key structures of the nigro-striatal pathway. Our results showed transient changes in the density of these receptors that may be linked to biphasic microglial responses in association with the kinetics of neuronal degeneration. Thus, these results reinforce the hypothesis of specifically targeting α7 nicotinic receptors in order to reduce the neuroinflammatory processes. Finally, we evaluated the effects of our therapeutic strategy in the model and our results showed that this type of combination partially preserves the integrity of nigro-striatal dopaminergic neurons and reduces glial reactions in lesioned animals. Although it is necessary to confirm and extend these results, this type of combination could represent a promising new pharmacological approach in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease

Tobacco dependence dramatically increases health burdens and financial costs. Limitations of current smoking cessation therapies indicate the need for improved molecular targets. Nicotine, the main addictive component of tobacco, exerts its dependency effects via nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). The homomeric α7 nAChR is one of the most abundant receptors found in the brain and has unique features in comparison to other nAChR subtypes such as high calcium permeability, low probability of channel opening, and a rapid desensitization rate. α7 nAChR agonists reduce nicotine's rewarding properties in the conditioned place preference (CPP) test and i.v. self-administration. Recently, the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor type-α (PPARα) has been implicated as a downstream signaling target of the α7 nAChR in ventral tegmental area dopamine cells. It is unknown whether the intrinsic characteristics of the α7 nAChR and PPARα are involved in its attenuation of nicotine reward. Therefore, this dissertation sought to investigate the role of α7 nAChRs in a mouse model of nicotine CPP and nicotine withdrawal by 1) investigating the impact of pharmacological modulation of α7 nAChR function in nicotine dependence and 2) evaluating a possible role for PPARα as a downstream mediator of α7 nAChRs in nicotine dependence. Positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) and a silent agonist were used to investigate the role of α7 nAChR conformations. The utilization of the α7 nAChR Type I PAM NS1738, Type II PAM PNU120596, and silent agonist NS6740 provided insight about the probability of channel opening (NS1738, PNU120596), desensitization (PNU120596, NS6740), and modulation of the endogenous acetylcholine/ choline tone (NS1738, PNU120596) as it relates to the α7 nAChR in nicotine CPP and withdrawal. In addition, this dissertation sought to elucidate the role of the α7 nAChR and PPARα in nicotine dependence using pharmacological interventions. The results suggest that the role of the α7 nAChR in nicotine dependence is conformation-dependent and PPARα-mediated. This dissertation is the first to report PPARα-mediation of the effects of α7 nAChR in nicotine reward and attenuation of nicotine withdrawal signs by PPARα activation. This data supports the development of α7 nAChR agonists and PPARα activators as possible smoking cessation aids.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) activation is neuroprotective and nicotine is a cognitive enhancer. Loss of nAChRs, deposition of tau neurofibrillary tangles, cleavage of amyloid precursor protein (APP) and inflammation are well documented in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Sequential cleavage of APP by β- and γ-secretase enzymes generates soluble Aβ peptides, with oligomeric forms of Aβ implicated in both the control of synaptic excitability and dysregulation of synaptic transmission and induction of neuronal death in AD. Aβ production is inhibited by calcium-dependent recruitment of α-secretase, as exemplified by activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDAR). All neurodegenerative diseases are associated with inflammation, arising from altered homeostasis of the innate immune system, resulting in heightened activation of immune cells and induction of a pro-inflammatory environment. Stimulation of the α7 subtype of nAChR is anti-inflammatory and also enhances cognition and promotes neuronal survival. This work addressed the hypotheses that stimulation of highly calcium-permeable α7nAChR inhibits Aβ production by promoting α-secretase-mediated processing of APP and also modulates inflammatory cellular behaviour of microglia. Thus, this study assessed the role of α7nAChR at glutamatergic synapses, through probing effects on APP processing and phagocytosis in primary cortical neurons and microglia, respectively. Primary cortical neurons expressed functional α7nAChR and glutamate receptors, and through a number of experimental approaches, including immunoblotting and a cleavage reporter assay, results indicated α7nAChR activation with the α7nAChR-selective agonist PNU-282987 and positive allosteric modulator PNU-120596 had no effect on APP and Tau, in contrast to NMDAR activation that significantly modulated these proteins. Data suggest low expression of α7nAChR, coupled with distinct localisation of presynaptic α7nAChR and postsynaptic APP could explain the lack of effect. In addition, primary microglia were highly responsive to lipopolysaccharide and possessed functional α7nAChR that coupled to ERK phosphorylation. Microglial α7nAChR activation promoted neuroprotective phagocytic behaviour, in agreement with the ‘cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway’. This study supports the hypothesis that α7nAChR are modulators of anti-inflammatory behaviour, thus α7nAChR-selective ligands are viable candidates for the treatment of AD and promoting cognitive enhancement.

The upregulation of alpha 7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α7 nAChRs) are putatively reported to play a role in in vivo cortical spreading depression-elicited neuroprotection. In this study, a reliable in vitro spreading depression model was created for studying this phenomenon. In contradiction to previous studies, it was, however, shown that functional α 7 nAChRs are down-regulated upon chronic depolarisation with KCl, although the activity of this receptor subtype remained essential for the preconditioning mechanism. Evidence was provided for a differential mechanism underlying protection against NMDA-mediated and hypotonic-shock induced cell loss. Non-pharmacological upregulation of the α 7 nAChRs in pure neuronal cortical cultures by means of a recombinant adenovirus led to the increased cell death subsequent to an excitotoxic glutamate insult. In addition, in order to study the relationship between α7 nAChRs and its function-dependent regulator Ric3, a novel anti-Ric3 antibody and a recombinant adenovirus expressing the ric3 gene were created. Ric3 was found to be expressed in many important brain structures, including hippocampus, perhinal cortex, thalamic and hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus, structures implicated in both cognitive and emotional behaviours. Interestingly, Ric3 was also expressed in the choroid plexus, a non-neuronal cell type not known to α 7 nAChRs, indicating additional roles for this protein. The recombinant constructs expressing ric3, α 7 nAChRs and dual ric3/ α 7 nAChRs were all validated in vitro.

The exact mechanism and progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD) at present is not fully understood. In patients suffering from AD, damage to the hippocampal region and impairment of learning and memory is present. It is also known that a buildup of β-amyloid plaques occur in AD patients and that β-amyloid interacts with some subtypes of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (neuronal nAChRs). These receptors are composed of five subunits. The most prevalent nAChR subunit composition through the brain as a whole is α7. Previous data produced from our lab suggests that α7 nAChRs are also one of the most prevalent subunits expressed by interneurons within the hippocampal region, a part of the brain known to be involved in memory and learning. It is hypothesized that one mechanism through which learning and memory becomes impaired in AD is through the interaction of β-amyloid with these nAChRs. It has previously been established that nanomolar amounts of β-amyloid inhibit the peak currents of α7 nAChRs. However, concentrations of β-amyloid in the picomolar range, in some studies show an activation of α7 nAChRs, while other studies no activation is seen. In this experiment we show that human α7 subunit nAChRs are not activated by β-amyloid42 at 1 pM- 30 nM concentrations. We also show that short, seven-second applications of β-amyloid interact with the α7 nAChRs to alter the kinetics of the channel, however, the exact mechanism and pattern by which it effects the channel is still unclear.

Abnormalities in the connectivity and activity of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is the cause of many of the symptoms of neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia and Alzheimer’s disease. The PFC relies on a complex regulation of network activity and synaptic plasticity for healthy PFC function. These fundamental processes can be modulated by the neuromodulator acetylcholine, acting at α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α7 nAChRs), a system also compromised in neuropsychiatric disorders. Despite the evidence that α7 nAChRs are essential for healthy PFC function relatively little is known about how activity at this receptor can modulate the fundamental network activity and synaptic plasticity within the PFC. This thesis aims to address some of these issues by using brain slice electrophysiology to measure network activity and synaptic plasticity in response to α7 nAChR activity within the prelimbic cortex (PrL) of C57BL/6J mice. Extracellular field recordings revealed that the selective α7 nAChR antagonist MLA, can reduce and enhance the levels of stimulus- induce long-term potentiation (LTP) and depression (LTD) respectively. In contrast global activation of α7 nAChRs with the selective α7 nAChRs agonist PNU-282987 and positive allosteric modulator PNU-120596 also reduced the levels of LTP. To provide a mechanism for these observations, whole-cell patch clamp recordings were carried out. These experiments revealed that α7 nAChRs reside presynaptically on glutamate inputs and somatodendritically on non-fast-spiking inhibitory interneurons enabling them to enhance both excitation and inhibition in a dynamic way. Further work demonstrated that tonic endogenous ACh acting at α7 nAChRs preferentially enhances excitation rather than inhibition. To further investigate if presynaptic α7 nAChRs were expressed selectively on a subset of the many afferent fibres connecting to the PrL, optogenetic methodologies were used to selectively evoke glutamate release from discrete afferent inputs, these experiments revealed α7 nAChRs may potentially reside on thalamic inputs to the PrL.

α7 Neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are one of two major classes of receptors responsible for cholinergic neurotransmission in the central nervous system. The existence of α7 neuronal nAChRs in different regions of the nervous system suggests their involvement in certain essential physiological functions as well as in disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD), drug dependence, and depression. This project was aimed toward the discovery and development of small–molecule arylguanidines that modulate α7 nAChR function with improved subtype-selectivity through an allosteric approach. Identifying the required structural features of these small molecules allowed optimization of their negative allosteric modulator (NAM) actions at α7 neuronal nAChRs. MD-354 (3-chlorophenylguanidine) was the first small–molecule NAM at α7 nAChRs; however, it also binds at 5-HT3 receptors. The N-methyl analog of MD-354 appeared to be more selective toward α7 nAChRs than 5-HT3 receptors. Comparative studies using two series of novel compounds based on MD-354 and its N-methyl analog explored the aryl 3-position and investigated whether or not the MD-354 series and the N-methyl series bind in the same manner. Biological potencies of the MD-354 series and the N-methyl series of compounds, obtained from electrophysiological assays with Xenopus laevis oocytes expressing human α7 nAChRs in two-electrode voltage-clamp assays, showed that N-(3-iodophenyl)-N- methylguanidine (28) is the most potent analog at α7 nAChRs. Our comparative study and Hansch analyses indicated different binding modes of the two series. In addition, we investigated: i) the length/size of the aliphatic side chain at the anilinic nitrogen, ii) the effect of alkylating the guanidine nitrogen atoms, and iii) the necessity of the presence of these nitrogen atoms for the inhibitory effects of arylguanidines at α7 nAChRs. In efforts to explain the varied functional activity of these arylguanidines, homology models of the extracellular domain and the transmembrane domain of human α7 nAChRs were developed, allosteric sites identified, and docking studies and hydropathic analysis conducted. The 3D quantitative structure-activity relationships for our compounds were also analyzed using CoMFA. A pharmacophore for arylguanidines as α7 nAChR NAMs was identified. Together, these data should be useful for the subsequent design of novel arylguanidine analogs for their potential treatment of neurological disorders.

Bien que la maladie d’Alzheimer (MA) soit la cause de démence la plus fréquente, lesmécanismes qui sous-tendent les déficits cognitifs chez les patients restent mal connus.Cependant, les peptides amyloïdes (Aβ) semblent être un acteur majeur impliqué dansl’apparition des troubles mnésiques au cours de l’évolution de la maladie, notamment de parleur capacité à induire un hypofonctionnement du système cholinergique associé au déclinmnésique. Sur la base de ces observations, le rôle joué par les récepteurs cholinergiquesnicotiniques α7 (α7-nAChRs) a été largement étudié, au vue de leur capacité à interagir avecles Aβ, sans toutefois dégager un consensus quant à l’implication de ces récepteurs dans lesdéficits mnésiques induits par les Aβ.Afin d’améliorer notre compréhension quant aux mécanismes sous-tendant les effetsdélétères induits par les Aβ dans les déficits mnésiques, notre travail visait à identifier le rôlejoué par les récepteurs α7-AChRs via une approche comportementale, pharmacologique etmoléculaire. Ainsi, nous avons utilisé un modèle « souris » basé sur des injections de formesoligomériques d’Aβ(1-42) (Aβo(1-42)) dans la région CA1 de l’hippocampe dorsal (dCA1),structure cérébrale impliquée dans les processus mnésiques, atteinte de manière précoce dansla MA et exprimant fortement les récepteurs α7-nAChRs.La première partie de cette étude a consisté à mettre au point et à valider notre modèleanimal d’étude des effets induits par les Aβo(1-42) dans le dCA1 par une approchecomportementale et moléculaire. Nous montrons que les injections répétées d’Aβo(1-42) dans ledCA1 induisent une perturbation spécifique de la mémoire de travail alors que la mémoirespatiale est préservée lorsque les performances mnésiques sont évaluées 7 jours après ladernière injection. Nous avons également montré que cette perturbation de la mémoire detravail est associée à une absence d’activation/phosphorylation de ERK1/2 au sein du réseauhippocampo-frontal et septo-hippocampique. Ces données nous ont permis de valider notremodèle expérimental permettant d’étudier spécifiquement l’impact des Aβo(1-42) dansl’hippocampe dorsal.Dans une seconde partie, nous nous sommes focalisés sur le rôle joué par lesrécepteurs α7-nAChRs dans les perturbations mnésiques induites par les Aβo(1-42). Nosrésultats montrent que (1) les souris KOα7 ne présentent pas de déficits de mémoire de travailconsécutivement aux injections intra-dCA1 d’Aβo(1-42), (2) les déficits mnésiques ainsi que lala perturbation de l’activation de ERK1/2 induits par les Aβo(1-42) sont compensés par destraitements pharmacologiques agoniste partiel et antagoniste des récepteurs α7-nAChRs, (3)le traitement par un agoniste complet des récepteurs α7-nAChRs ne permet pas de prévenir lesdéficits mnésiques. Au regard de ces résultats, le récepteur α7-nAChRs semble être essentielau développement des déficits mnésiques induits par les Aβo(1-42), et l’utilisationd’antagonistes de ces récepteurs pourraient être une cible potentielle pour le développementde nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques
Although Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has been considered as one of the major causesfor dementia, the mechanisms by which cognitive decline appear still remain unclear.However, amyloid-β peptides (Aβ) seem to play a central role in the appearance of memoryimpairments in the time course of the disease, inducing down-regulation of the cholinergicsystem which is associated with cognitive decline. Based on these observations, the role of α7nicotinic receptors (α7-nAChRs) which can interact with Aβ was widely studied withoutconsensus about the involvement of these receptors in memory deficits induced by Aβ.In order to improve our knowledge about the mechanisms involved in Aβ side effects,our work aims at identify the role of α7-nAChRs via behavioral and molecular approaches.Thus, we used a mice model based on injections of oligomeric assemblies of Aβo(1-42) (Aβo(1-42)) in the CA1 field of the dorsal hippocampus (dCA1) which is a brain structure stronglyinvolved in memory processes, precociously affected in the AD and with a high density of α7-nAChRs.The first part of this study was to develop and validate this animal model to studythe effects induced by Aβo(1-42) in the dCA1 by behavioral and molecular approaches. Weshow that repeated injections of Aβo(1-42) in the dCA1 induce a specific disruption of workingmemory 7 days after the last injection whereas spatial memory is spared. We also showed thatworking memory disturbance is associated with decreased activation / phosphorylation ofERK1 / 2 in the hippocampo-frontal and septo-hippocampal networks. These data allowed usto validate our experimental model to specifically study the impact of Aβo(1-42) into the dorsalhippocampus.In the second part, we focused on the role played by the α7- nAChRs receptors inmemory disturbances induced by Aβo(1-42). Our results show that (1) KOα7 mice do notexhibit working memory deficits consecutively to intra-dCA1 Aβo(1-42) injections, (2) thememory deficits and decreasing activation of ERK1/2 induced by Aβo(1-42) are offset bypharmacological treatments partial agonist and antagonist of α7-nAChRs receptors, (3)treatment with a full agonist of α7-nAChRs receptors does not prevent memory deficits .Given these results, the α7-nAChRs receptor appears to be essential to the development ofmemory deficits induced by Aβo(1-42), and the use of antagonists of these receptors might be apotential target for developing new therapeutic strategies for AD

碩士
國立臺灣大學
藥理學研究所
97
Disrupted-in-Schizophrenia 1 (DISC1) is one of the most promising risk genes for schizophrenia and other major mental disorders, which is disrupted by a balanced chromosomal translocation (1; 11) (q42.1; q14.3) in a large Scottish family. On the other hand, α7 nicotinic receptor (α7 nAChR) is well-known to be involved in a wide variety of behavioral functions including cognition. Post-mortem studies have revealed a disturbance of α7 nAChRs expression in various cerebral areas in schizophrenia patients. Genetic linkage studies have also shown that the α7 subunit is involved in schizophrenia. In this study, we investigated the relationship between DISC1 (1-597 a.a.) and α7 nAChR. It was found that transfection of mutant DISC1 (C-terminal truncation, 1-597 a.a.) in human neuroblastoma cells, SH-SY5Y, significantly inhibited the mRNA and protein expression of α7 nAChR. In addition, the acutely isolated cortex from fetal heterozygous (+/-) C57BL/6J; 129S6/SvEv (B6/Sv129) mice (E18), which have DISC1 gene mutation, had less expression of α7 nAChRs. Previously, we have found that α7 nAChR is involved in the clearance of Aβ via autophagosome process. We thus examined the effect of mutant DISC1 on the Aβ-induced neuronal death by using primary cortex neuronal culture. It was found that there were more NeuN (+) cells in primary cortical culture derived from wild-type mice than in heterozygous (+/-) B6/Sv129 mice. This result indicated that DISC1 mutation is more sensitive to Aβ1-42–induced neuronal toxicity and may play a role in cognition impairment in schizophrenia. Furthermore, we also found that there were more α7 nAChRs in the striatum, more ChAT protein expression in the amygdale and striatum from adult wild-type than in heterozygous (+/-) B6/Sv129 mice. This result may partially explain that the heterozygous (+/-) B6/Sv129 mice had impairment in fear-memory of shuttle avoidance test. In addition, we also found that acute administration of nicotine exerted anxiogenic effect and the effect was reduced in heterozygous (+/-) B6/Sv129 mice. There was no significant difference of startle response in response to prepulse inhibition test between wild-type and heterozygous (+/-) B6/Sv129 mice. In conclusion, our results demonstrated that influence on cholinergic system may be involved in the impairment of emotion, cognition following the defect of DISC1.

博士
臺北醫學大學
臨床醫學研究所
97
Smoking is a wourdwide health problem. It increased the risk of cardiovascular disease and caused variant cancers. The treatment of cardiovascular disease improved in recent years but the therapy for cancer remains to be improved. There were more than 100 carcinogens within the tobacco and the devastating link between smoking and cancer is nicotine and its metabolites like NNK, which is one of the most potent carcinogens in tobacco. Long-term cigarette smoking increases the risk of colorectal cancer mortality. Because the major cause of cancer death is metastasis, the influence of nicotine and NNK on the migration of colon cancer cells remains to be determined. Since nicotine and NNK exhibited biologic function by receptor binding, receptor for nicotine and NNK in colon cancer cells was identified by PCR and real time PCR. The influence of nicotine and NNK on migration of colon cancer cells was evaluated by trans-well and wound healing assay. The role of receptor for migration was studied by both inhibitor and small interfering RNA (siRNA). The α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7-nAChR) was identified in two colon cancer cell lines, HT29 and DLD-1. NNK enhanced HT29 cell migration in both trans-well and wound healing assays. NNK also enhanced DLD-1 cell migration in dose dependent manner. We used inhibitor and siRNA to demonstrate that α7-nAChR mediated NNK-enhanced colon cancer cell migration and down-regulation of E-cadherin were involved in NNK-enhanced migration of colon cancer cells. Furthermore, Snail and ZEB1, two major transcription repressors of E-cadherin in colon cancers, were induced by NNK treatment. Nicotine also enhanced DLD-1 cell migration at concentration of 1 and 10 μM through α7-nAChR. The nicotine-enhanced migration was mediated by induction of another EMT molecule — Fibronectin, but not E-cadherin. Besides, nicotine also increased expression level of COX-2, VEGF and VEGFR1 which might further caused autocrine loop to enhance the colon cancer cell migration. In conclusion, tobacco specific carcinogen, NNK, enhanced colon cancer metastasis through α7-nAChR and E-cadherin — one of the hallmarks of epithelial mesenchymal transition — and its transcription repressors, Snail and ZEB1. Besides, the nicotine also enhanced the colon cancer cell migration through non-E-cadherin pathway. Therefore, smoking should be added into the risk factors of colorectal cancer. For people with long term smoking history, lowering the age may be considered for colorectal cancer screening. The patients with colorectal cancer should get rid of smoking to achieve the optimal therapeutic result.

Yes
Cholinergic dysfunction has been shown to be central to the pathophysiology of Alzheimer’s disease and has also been postulated to contribute to cognitive dysfunction observed in various psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia. Deficits are found across a number of cognitive domains and in spite of several attempts to develop new therapies, these remain an unmet clinical need. In the current study we investigated the efficacy of donepezil, risperidone and selective nicotinic α7 and α4β2 receptor agonists to reverse a delay-induced deficit in recognition memory. Adult female Hooded Lister rats received drug treatments and were tested in the novel object recognition (NOR) task following a 6 h inter-trial interval (ITI). In all treatment groups, there was no preference for the left or right identical objects in the acquisition trial. Risperidone failed to enhance recognition memory in this paradigm whereas donepezil was effective such that rats discriminated between the novel and familiar object in the retention trial following a 6 h ITI. Although a narrow dose range of PNU-282987 and RJR- 2403 was tested, only one dose of each increased recognition memory, the highest dose of PNU-282987 (10 mg/kg) and the lowest dose of RJR-2403 (0.1 mg/kg), indicative of enhanced cognitive performance. Interestingly, these compounds were also efficacious when administered either before the acquisition or the retention trial of the task, suggesting an important role for nicotinic receptor subtypes in the formation and retrieval of recognition memory.
This work was conducted at the University of Bradford and was funded by b-neuro. However all our recent studies mentioned in the discussion section have been conducted at the University of Manchester (UoM), and funded by b-neuro, Autifony, Innovate UK (formerly TSB) and UoM

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are a major class of ligand-gated ion channels in the brain, with the α7 subtype of nAChRs playing an important role in attention, working memory and synaptic plasticity. Alterations in expression of α7 nAChRs are observed in neurological disorders including schizophrenia and Alzheimer’s disease. Therefore, understanding the fundamentals of how α7 nAChRs are regulated will increase our comprehension of how α7 nAChRs influence neuronal excitability, cognition and the pathophysiology of various neurological disorders. The purpose of this thesis was to investigate how protein kinases modulate the function and trafficking of α7 nAChRs in CNS neurons. In chapter 2, I describe a novel fast agonist applicator that I developed to reliably elicit α7 nAChR currents in both brain slices and cultured cells. In chapter 3, I examined whether an immune protein in the brain, the T-cell receptor (TCR), can modulate α7 nAChR activity. Activation of TCRs decreased α7 nAChR whole-cell recorded currents from layer 1 prefrontal cortical (PFC) neurons. TCR attenuated α7 nAChR currents through the activation of Fyn and Lck tyrosine kinases, which targeted tyrosine 442 in the M3-M4 cytoplasmic loop of α7. The mechanisms of the attenuated α7 current were contributed by a TCR mediated decrease in surface receptor expression and an attenuation of the α7 single-channel conductance. TCR stimulation also resulted in a decrease in neuronal excitability by negatively modulating α7 activity. In chapter 4, I tested whether PKA can modulate α7 nAChR function in CNS neurons. The pharmacological agents PKA agonist 8-Br-cAMP and PKA inhibitor KT-5720, as well as over-expressing dominant negative PKA and the catalytic subunit of PKA, demonstrated that activation of PKA leads to a reduction of α7 nAChR currents in HEK 293T cells and layer 1 cortical interneurons. Serine 365 of the M3-M4 cytoplasmic domain of α7 was necessary for the PKA modulation of α7. The mechanism of down-regulation in α7 receptor function was due to decreased surface receptor expression but not alterations in single-channel conductance nor gating kinetics. The results of this thesis demonstrate that α7 nAChRs constitute a major substrate for modulation via TCR activated tyrosine kinases and the cyclic AMP/PKA pathway.
Graduate
kpragya2000504@gmail.com

Yes
Rationale: Nicotinic α7 acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) have been highlighted as a target for cognitive enhancement in schizophrenia. Aim: To investigate whether the deficits induced by sub-chronic phencyclidine (PCP) in reversal learning and novel object recognition could be attenuated by the selective α7 nAChR full agonist, PNU-282987. Methods: Adult female hooded-Lister rats received sub-chronic PCP (2 mg/kg) or vehicle i.p. twice daily for seven days, followed by 7-days washout. In cohort 1, PCP-treated rats then received PNU-282987 (5, 10, 20 mg/kg; s.c.) or vehicle and were tested in the reversal learning task. In cohort 2, PCP-treated rats received PNU-282987 (10 mg/kg; s.c.) or saline for 15 days and were tested in the novel object recognition test on day 1 and on day 15, to test for tolerance. Results: Sub-chronic PCP produced significant deficits in both cognitive tasks (P<0.01-0.001). PNU-282987 attenuated the PCP-induced deficits in reversal learning at 10 mg/kg (P<0.01) and 20 mg/kg (P<0.001), and in novel object recognition at 10 mg/kg on day 1 (P<0.01) and on day 15 (P<0.001). Conclusions: These data show that PNU-282987 has efficacy to reverse PCP-induced deficits in two paradigms of relevance to schizophrenia. Results further suggest that 15 day daily dosing of PNU-282987 (10 mg/kg s.c.) does not cause tolerance in rat. This study suggests that activation of α7 nAChRs, may represent a suitable strategy for improving cognitive deficits of relevance to schizophrenia.
SL McLean was supported by a joint University of Bradford–GSK postgraduate studentship.

L’acétylcholine (ACh) est un important neurotransmetteur qui est produit dans le système nerveux. Cependant, cette molécule est aussi produite par d’autres cellules non-neuronales du corps humain. Cette dernière est produite en abondance par les lymphocytes T CD4+, qui sont la cible principale du virus de l’immunodéficience humaine (VIH). ACh exerce ses effets sur les cellules par l’intermédiaire de ses récepteurs nicotiniques (n) et muscariniques (m) qui sont exprimés à la fois sur les cellules immunitaires et non immunitaires dans le corps. Il est bien connu que l’ACh a des effets anti inflammatoires sur les cellules immunitaires, et c’est le récepteur nicotinique qui est un joueur indispensable de cet effet. SLURP-1 (Secreted Ly6/uPAR-related Protein-1), est une autre molécule secrétée par les cellules T activées et d’autres cellules. Elle agit comme un ligand allostérique pour le récepteur α7, et module les effets de l'ACh sur les lymphocytes T. Il est peu connu comment ce système cholinergique extra-neuronal (ENCS) est régulé chez les individus infectés par le VIH. Nos résultats démontrent que le taux d'ACh et de SLURP-1 en circulation ne change pas significativement chez les sujets infectés par le VIH comparé aux témoins sains. Cependant, le niveau de ces médiateurs est plus élevé chez les sujets infectés à long termes non progresseur (LTNP), qui contrôlaient la réplication virale, depuis plus que sept ans, sans aucune thérapie. Il est tentant de spéculer que le niveau élevé de ces deux composantes de l'ENCS peut jouer un rôle dans leur capacité à contrôler la réplication du VIH. Les résultats de cette étude montrent que l’agoniste du récepteur α7 diminue, et que l’antagoniste de ce même récepteur augmente la réplication virale in vitro, dans les cellules activées par le phytohaemagglutinin (PHA). En outre, l'hémicholinium (HC-3), un composé qui inhibe la capacité des cellules à produire ACh en compétition avec leur absorption de choline, augmente la réplication virale. L'expression du récepteur α7 sur les lymphocytes T CD4 + provenant du sang périphérique, mais pas sur les monocytes, était significativement réduite (p <0,01) chez les individus infectés par le VIH, et elle n'a pas été entièrement restaurée par le traitement antirétrovirale (TAR). Tandis que l'expression du récepteur adrénergique β-2 a diminué significativement (p <0,01) sur les monocytes et les lymphocytes T CD4 + chez des individus infectés par le VIH. Ces cellules répondent à la norépinephrine via ce récepteur et l’ACh secrété. Dans l'ensemble, les résultats cette étude suggèrent que le VIH provoque une modulation significative des différentes composantes de l'ENCS chez les individus infectés par le virus. Ce système pourrait être manipulé pour réduire la réplication virale et l’inflammation chez ces patients.
Acetylcholine (ACh) is an important neurotransmitter produced in the nervous system. However, the molecule is also produced by non-neuronal cells in the body. CD4+ T cells, the main targets of HIV-1, produce it abundantly. ACh exerts its effects on cells via its nicotinic (n) and muscarinic (m) receptors that are expressed on both immune and non-immune cells in the body. ACh is well known to exert anti-inflammatory effects on immune cells. The main receptor that is indispensable for the anti-inflammatory effects of ACh is the α7 nicotinic receptor. Another molecule, secreted by activated T cells and by other cells is SLURP-1 (Secreted Ly6/uPAR-related Protein-1), which acts as an allosteric ligand for α7 and fine tunes the effects of ACh on T cells. Little is known as to how this extra-neuronal cholinergic system (ENCS) is regulated in HIV-infected individuals. Our results show that the circulating levels of ACh and SLURP-1 do not change significantly in HIV-infected individuals, as compared to the circulating levels in healthy controls. Interestingly, higher levels of these soluble mediators were detected in HIV-infected long-term non-progressors (LTNP) who control the viral replication for more than seven years without any chemotherapy. It is tempting to speculate that the increase in levels of these two soluble mediators of the ENCS present in HIV-infected LTNPs may play a role in their ability to control HIV replication. The results from this study show that an α7 agonist decreased HIV replication, whereas a receptor antagonist increased its replication in vitro in human PHA blasts. Furthermore, hemicholinium (HC-3), a compound that inhibits the ability of the cells to produce ACh, by competing with their uptake of choline, increases the viral replication. The expression of the α7 receptor on peripheral blood CD4+ T cells, but not on monocytes, was significantly reduced (p<0.01) in HIV-infected individuals, and it was not fully restored by antiretroviral therapy (ART). Interestingly, the expression of the β2 adrenergic receptor was decreased significantly (p<0.01) on both monocytes and CD4+ T cells in HIV-infected individuals. These cells respond to norepinephrine via this receptor and secrete ACh. Overall, the results of this study suggest that HIV causes significant modulation of different components of the ENCS in virus-infected individuals. This system could be manipulated to reduce viral replication and inflammation in these patients.

Οι α7 και α9 υπομονάδες των νικοτινικών υποδοχέων ακετυλοχολίνης (nAChRs) είναι οι μόνες, ανάμεσα σε μια μεγάλη ποικιλία υπομονάδων του ανθρώπινου nAChR, που σχηματίζουν ομοπενταμερείς υποδοχείς. Για την θεραπεία διαφόρων νευρολογικών διαταραχών αλλά και άλλων ασθενειών, όπου εμπλέκονται οι α7 και α9 nAChRs, απαιτούνται φαρμακευτικές ουσίες που θα στοχεύουν ειδικά σε έναν υπότυπο των nAChRs. Για τον σχεδιασμό τέτοιων φαρμάκων είναι ουσιώδης η διαλεύκανση σε ατομικό επίπεδο της δομής του nAChR. Εντούτοις, η κρυστάλλωση ολόκληρων των διαμεμβρανικών υποδοχέων, αλλά ακόμη και η έκφραση και απομόνωσή τους, σε βαθμό που να επιτρέπει δομικές μελέτες, έχει αποδειχθεί δύσκολος στόχος. Η δυσκολία έγκειται κυρίως στην παρουσία υδρόφοβων διαμεμβρανικών περιοχών και στην μεγάλη ενδοκυττάρια περιοχή που θεωρείται ευκίνητη και ότι δεν έχει σταθερή διαμόρφωση. Στο πλαίσιο αυτό, στοχεύσαμε στην παραγωγή τμημάτων των α7 και α9 υπομονάδων του nAChR, που να είναι κατάλληλα για αναλυτικές δομικές μελέτες, σχεδιάζοντας κατασκευές για την έκφραση των εξωκυτταρικών περιοχών των δύο υπομονάδων ή και κολοβών διαμεμβρανικών μορφών της α7 υπομονάδας. Σε αυτές έχουν απαλειφθεί είτε τμήματα της μεγάλης ενδοκυτταρικής περιοχής, είτε ολόκληρη αυτή η περιοχή και μεγάλα τμήματα της διαμεμβρανικής περιοχής. Στο παρελθόν, είχε εκφραστεί η α7-ΕΚΠ στο ετερόλογο σύστημα έκφρασης Pichia pastoris και είχε οδηγήσει σε συσσωματώματα μεγάλου μοριακού βάρους, ενώ η έκφραση ενός μεταλλάγματος της α7-ΕΚΠ έδειξε σημαντική βελτίωση της υδροφιλικότητας του μορίου και σχηματισμό ολιγομερών κυρίως πενταμερών μορίων (Zouridakis et al. 2009). Σε αυτήν την εργασία, έχουμε επιτύχει να απομονώσουμε τα σχηματιζόμενα πενταμερή μόρια αυτού του μεταλλάγματος, εκμεταλλευόμενοι την ιδιότητα τους να εκλούονται σε μεγάλο εύρος συγκέντρωσης ιμιδαζολίου, κατά την χρωματογραφία συγγένειας. Ακόμη, η ενζυμική απογλυκοζυλίωση του μεταλλάγματος αυτού, βοήθησε στην περαιτέρω μείωση της ετερογένειας των απομονωμένων πενταμερών μορίων. Αν και ο αρχικός έλεγχος συνθηκών κρυστάλλωσης των γλυκοζυλιωμένων πενταμερών μορίων οδήγησε στον σχηματισμό μικροκρυστάλλων, δεν στάθηκε δυνατή η βελτιστοποίηση της ανάπτυξής τους. Η έκφραση της αγρίου τύπου εξωκυτταρικής περιοχής της α9 υπομονάδας του ανθρώπινου nAChR (α9wt) στο ετερόλογο σύστημα έκφρασης P. pastoris, οδήγησε στην παραγωγή κυρίως μονομερών μορίων που διαχωρίζονται εύκολα από τα σχηματιζόμενα ολιγομερή. Η μονομερής μορφή της α9wt έδειξε αξιοσημείωτη διαλυτότητα, σταθερότητα και ομοιογένεια καθώς και ικανότητα πρόσδεσης της α-μπουγκαροτοξίνης, έναν ειδικό ανταγωνιστή του μυικού και των ομοπενταμερών νευρικών nAChRs. Προκειμένου να υποβοηθηθεί η συναρμολόγηση των εκφραζόμενων α7 και α9 ΕΚΠ προς τον σχηματισμό πενταμερών μορίων, σχεδιάσαμε μεταλλάξεις που στηρίχθηκαν σε τρισδιάστατα μοντέλα ομολογίας (3D homology modelling) αυτών, χρησιμοποιώντας ως πρότυπο την κρυσταλλική δομή της ομόλογης, διαλυτής πρωτεΐνης δεσμεύσεως της ακετυλοχολίνης (AChBP) από το μαλάκιο Lymnaea stagnalis. Οι μεταλλαγές αυτές έγιναν είτε σε υδρόφοβα επιφανειακά αμινοξικά κατάλοιπα, με στόχο να αυξήσουμε την υδροφιλικότητα του μορίου, είτε σε κατάλοιπα που εντοπίζονται στις διεπιφάνειες μεταξύ δύο πρωτομερών, ώστε να ενισχύσουμε τις διαμοριακές αλληλεπιδράσεις και να υποβοηθήσουμε την συναρμολόγηση τους προς πενταμερή μόρια. Τα προκύπτοντα μεταλλάγματα έχουν ταύτιση αμινοξικής αλληλουχίας 70-95% με την αντίστοιχη του αγρίου τύπου και σε ορισμένες περιπτώσεις η έκφρασή τους στην P. pastoris οδήγησε στον σχηματισμό αλλά και την απομόνωση πενταμερών μορίων. Η σάρωση των μεταλλαγμάτων απέτυχε στην ανεύρεση κάποιας συνθήκης κρυστάλλωσής τους. Ωστόσο, ο αρχικός έλεγχος συνθηκών κρυστάλλωσης των μονομερών μορίων της α9wt είχε ως αποτέλεσμα τον προσδιορισμό διαφορετικών συνθηκών όπου σχηματίζονται πολλαπλοί κρύσταλλοι, τόσο για την γλυκοζυλιωμένη, όσο και την απογλυκοζυλιωμένη μορφή της. Επιπλέον, η βελτιστοποίηση αυτών των κρυστάλλων στην περίπτωση της γλυκοπρωτεΐνης, οδήγησε στο σχηματισμό μονοκρυστάλλων, που περιθλούν ακτίνες-Χ σε ικανοποιητική ανάλυση, καθιστώντας αυτούς τους κρυστάλλους ως υποσχόμενο υλικό για την επίλυση της δομής της άγριου τύπου α9 ΕΚΠ. Τέλος, η έκφραση στην κυτταρική σειρά εντόμων Sf9 με το σύστημα των βακιλοϊών της ολόκληρης α7 υπομονάδας του nAChR και των «κολοβών» διαμεμβρανικών μορφών της οδήγησε στην ορθή στόχευση των σχηματιζόμενων υποδοχέων στην κυτταροπλασματική μεμβράνη, ενώ οι φαρμακολογικές τους ιδιότητες προσεγγίζουν αυτές του φυσικού α7 υποδοχέα. Παρά το γεγονός ότι η έκφραση των κατασκευών αυτών είχε χαμηλή απόδοση και παρά τις δυσκολίες διαλυτοποίησης και απομόνωσής τους, ανάλυση με χρωματογραφία μοριακού αποκλεισμού, για τουλάχιστον δύο από τα διαμεμβρανικά μεταλλάγματα, δείχνει ότι οι διαλυτοποιημένες πρωτεΐνες έχουν σχηματίσει έναν πληθυσμό ολιγομερών της πρωτεΐνης ο οποίος πιθανότατα αντιστοιχεί σε πενταμερή μόρια. Τα παραπάνω, σε συνδυασμό με την απουσία της εύκαμπτης ενδοκυττάριας περιοχής, καθιστούν αυτά τα α7 μεταλλάγματα, εφόσον ξεπεραστούν οι δυσκολίες της απόδοσης της έκφρασης και της απομόνωσης τους, κατάλληλα για λειτουργικές και δομικές μελέτες.
The neuronal α7 and α9 subunits of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) are the only amongst the known human nAChR subunits to form homopentamers, with five cholinergic ligand-binding sites. Elucidation of their crystal structure is essential in order to design highly specific drugs for treatment of several neurological diseases and disorders related to them and will serve as the prototype for understanding the structure of all other members of the ligandgated ion channel superfamily. Crystallisation of the intact receptors is a difficult task to fulfil, partially due to their hydrophobic transmembrane regions. Therefore, we aim at the expression of crystallisable human α7 and α9 extracellular domains (ECDs) or truncated α7 forms lacking either only their large and probably unordered intracellular domain or large parts of its transmembrane domain. Regarding the α7 ECD, expression of the wild type form in yeast Pichia pastoris led into formation of aggregates (Avramopoulou et al. 2004). Yet, a previously described mutant of this ECD (α7m10, Zouridakis et al. 2009) succeeded in the formation of oligomers, mostly corresponding to pentamers, due to improved solubility and subunit assembly of this mutant. In this study, we managed to isolate apparently pentameric assemblies of the various expressed oligomeric states, by optimizing its first-step purification procedure (metal affinity chromatography), using a narrow stepwise increase of imidazole concentrations. In order to further improve the protein homogeneity, we proceeded to the isolation of its deglycosylated pentameric form. The relatively low polydispersity of both the glycosylated and deglycosylated α7m10 ECDs, allowed for crystallization trials, which have resulted in microcrystallic formations. Further optimization of these microcrystals failed. As to the α9 ECD, expression of the wild type form in yeast Pichia pastoris led to the formation of both monomers and a variety of oligomers. The monomeric α9 ECD showed significant monodispersity, solubility and stability and exhibited binding ability of α- bungarotoxin, a specific nAChR antagonist. In order to facilitate the pentameric assembly and enhance the solubility of these α7 and α9 ECDs, we designed several mutants based on generated 3D homology models, using as template the crystal structure of the homologous soluble molluscan acetylcholine binding protein (AChBP). Several solvent accessible hydrophobic residues were replaced with more hydrophilic ones and some interface-located residues were mutated so as to facilitate the formation of additional inter-subunit interactions. The resulting mutants shared moderate and considerably high sequence identities (70-95%) with the wild type ECDs and in some cases, formation of pentamers was accomplished. Crystallisation screening for mutant ECDs failed in producing any hit. However, the pilot crystallisation trials of monomeric wild-type α9 ECD resulted the formation of plate-like multi crystals for both its glycosylated and deglycosylated forms. Further optimisation of these crystals succeeded in producing single crystals of the glycoprotein, to produce single crystals, which diffracted X-rays to satisfactory resolution, in a home source X-ray generator. Therefore, these crystals seem to be a promising material for solving the wild type α9 ECD structure. The intact and truncated α7 nAChRs under study were expressed in the Sf9/baculovirus system and showed surface receptor expression, while presenting near-native ligand-binding affinities for characteristic nAChR agonists and antagonists. Despite the low expression yield and solubilisation and purification difficulties, gel filtration analysis for at least two truncated mutants revealed the presence of a monodispersed oligomeric population, probably corresponding to pentamers. All these, taken together with the lack of the flexible large intracellular domain, render these α7 mutants, after overcoming the expression yield and purification difficulties, a suitable material for performing both functional and structural studies.

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The nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are transmembrane proteins, composed of five subunits and belong to the superfamily of ligand gated ion channels The nAChRs are distinguished according to their topological and pharmacological characteristics in muscle and nervous type. Both the muscle and the nervous type are involved in the execution of many physiological functions (eg, nerve impulse transmission) but respectively in the pathogenesis of many diseases (eg Myasthenia Gravis,Parkinson's,Alzheimer's).This makes imperative the need to design drugs that target specific to each type of receptor. A prerequisite for achieving this objective is to study the structure of the extracellular regions of the receptor, as it is known that the specific areas are recognised by the cholinergic ligands and the abnormal antibodies. The α7 subunit of the human nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, can be used as a model for this study as It is expressed as a homopentamer. Wanting therefore to avoid the large and hydrophobic transmembrane regions of the receptor that would hinder the achievement of the objective, we focused on the extracellular domain (ECD) of the receptor .So, according to the above, a recombinant form of the extracellular region of the receptor was constructed and expressed previously in our laboratory (Zouridakis et al., 2009). The recombinant protein was (α7-mut10-myc-His), expressed in soluble form, in sufficient concentration and showed about three times greater affinity for I125-a-bgtx compared to the wild type (α7-ΔCDwt). Furthermore, studies of dynamic light scattering and electron microscopy confirmed the formation of homopentamer molecules. Moreover, the deglycosylated form of the protein displayed all these enhanced features, allowing the entry of crystallization experiments with both the glycosylated and the deglycosylated form. In order to further improve the specific mutant, new recombinant forms of the extracellular region of the α7 subunit of the nAChR were constructed. The recombinant forms were expressed with different expression tags in their N-or C-terminal in order to improve the folding of the molecule. The FLAG-α7-mut10-myc-His was produced in greater quantity and Ηts deglycosylated form differs significantly, indicating probably a more homogeneous protein population. Also, analysis of the molecule bygel filtration showed the predominant formation of a homopentamer molecule and the absence of high molecular weight aggregates. This protein, has enhanced features compared to the α7-mut10-myc-His and thus can proceed to crystallization trials. The second part of the study refers to the construction concateremers of the α7ECD. Σwo peptide linkers varying in their length were used. The mutant which carried the smaller linker (AGS)8, showed greater solubility compared to the more extended one (AGS)11.

y
The α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) have been highlighted as a target for cognitive enhancement in schizophrenia. Adult female hooded Lister rats received sub-chronic phencyclidine (PCP) (2mg/kg) or vehicle i.p. twice daily for 7 days, followed by 7 days’ washout. PCP-treated rats then received PNU-120596 (10mg/kg; s.c.) or saline and were tested in the attentional set-shifting task. Sub-chronic PCP produced a significant cognitive deficit in the extra-dimensional shift (EDS) phase of the task (p < 0.001, compared with vehicle). PNU-120596 significantly improved performance of PCP-treated rats in the EDS phase of the attentional set-shifting task (p < 0.001). In conclusion, these data demonstrate that PNU-120596 improves cognitive dysfunction in our animal model of cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia, most likely via modulation of α7 nACh receptors.
This work was partially funded by Johnson & Johnson Pharmaceutical Research and Development.