Articles de revues sur le sujet « Ceramic shaped brick »

This work aims to study the drying of clay ceramic materials with arbitrary shapes theoretically. Advanced phenomenological mathematical models based on lumped analysis and their exact solutions are presented to predict the heat and mass transfers in the porous material and estimate the transport coefficients. Application has been made in hollow ceramic bricks. Different simulations were carried out to evaluate the effect of drying air conditions (relative humidity and speed) under conditions of forced and natural convection. The transient results of the moisture content and temperature of the brick, and the convective heat and mass transfer coefficients are presented, discussed and compared with experimental data, obtaining a good agreement. It was found that the lower the relative humidity is and the higher the speed of the drying air is, the higher the convective heat and mass transfer coefficients are at the surface of the brick and in the holes, and the faster the moisture removal material and heating is. Based on the predicted results, the best conditions for brick drying were given. The idea is to increase the quality of the brick after the process, to reduce the waste of raw material and energy consumption in the process.

There has been a substantional increase of atributes for building constructions in area of thermal protection in last decade. This was shown as increasing of requirements for materials and components intended for building of cover constructions as well. In case of shaped bricks used for perimeter walls advanced production technologies were applied. These technologies consist of decreasing thermal conductivity coefficient for brick clinker, of decreasing inner ribs thickness and in last years this concerns the technology of filling inner cavities of shaped bricks with thermal insulating materials as well. This paper describes possibilities of using alternative raw material sources (natural fibres originated in agriculture, separate textile waste, ....) as integrated insulating layers in contemporary ceramic shaped bricks with high usable qualities.

ABSTRACTThree clayey materials named MY3, KK and KG originating from the Foumban region (west Cameroon) were analysed to determine their granulometry, plasticity, major-element chemistry and mineralogy. Dilatometric and ceramic behaviour were also investigated. Clays were shaped by uniaxial pressing in a steel mould. Shaped samples were heated at 1300, 1400 and 1500°C. The end products were characterized in terms of their density, porosity and compressive strength. Raw materials differ in terms of their mineralogical composition, grain-size distribution, Al2O3 content and the nature and abundance of impurities inducing specific thermal behaviour during dilatometric analysis and sintering tests. The final material properties may be related to the main features of the raw materials used.

Scarcity of raw materials, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and reduction of waste disposal in landfills are leading to the development of more sustainable building materials. Based on these lines, this work studies the incorporation of biomass bottom ashes into ceramic materials for brick manufacture, in order to reuse this currently unused waste and reduce clay extraction operations. To this end, different groups of samples were made with different combinations of clay and biomass bottom ashes, from 100% clay to 100% biomass bottom ashes. These samples were shaped, sintered and subjected to the usual physical tests in ceramics. In turn, the mechanical resistance, color and leaching of the contaminating elements present were studied. The physical and mechanical tests showed that the results of all the families were adequate, achieving compressive strengths of over 20 MPa and leaching of the contaminating elements acceptable by the regulations. Therefore, a sustainable range of ceramics was developed, with specific properties (porosity, density, resistance and color), with a waste that is currently unused and sustainable with the environment.

Mechanical properties were determined from the organic matrix of a mollusc hard tissue using a nanomechanical testing instrument attached to an atomic force microscope (AFM). Shells of molluscs are two-tier functionally-gradient ceramic/polymer biocomposites used by organisms as impact resistant materials. The inner section of the red abalone (Haliotis refuscens)shell, nacre (mother-ofpearl), has a brick and mortar microarchitecture with pseudo-hexagonal-shaped bricks made of aragonitic (orthorhombic) CaCO3 platelets (0.25 μn thick, and 5 μm edge length) surrounded by a thin (10-25 nm thick) proteinaceous organic matrix (Fig. 1). This higly ordered biocomposite has submicron-layered structure that result in excellent bulk mechanical properties, not achieved by manmade composites with similar phase compositions and, therefore, offers biomimetic lessons for novel materials design. In this model biomimetic composite, mechanical properties of its constituents need to be evaluated in addition to the details of the microstructure. We previously determined nanomechanical properties (hardness and modulus) of individual (twinned, single crystalline) aragonitic platelets.

Ceramic brick as building material has been used for thousands of years. Nowadays, the energy performance of new products has to meet rigorous requirements; therefore, in the design of new ceramic masonry blocks, building physical simulations are essential. The aim of this research is to evaluate existing masonry block shapes filled with different thermal insulation using conjugated heat and moisture transport finite element simulations with material properties measured in laboratory. The research compared four different internal structures: trapezoidal, triangular, rectangular, and with mixed shaped gaps according to existing masonry blocks. In the gaps, different thermal insulations were considered, such as mineral wool, expanded perlite and polyurethane foam. The research demonstrated that the perlite as filling material does not have a great effect on thermal conductivity comparing to unfilled blocks; however, polyurethane foam with an optimal internal structure can improve the thermal performance. Manufacturing inaccuracies in the materials’ hygrothermal properties influences their performance, since a little difference in thermal conductivity has a noticeable impact on thermal transmittance, and it may result in underperformance according to regulations.

The properties of ceramic materials are intimately related to a variety of factors, among them shaping procedure and sintering time. These factors condition, the microstructure and properties of the materials developed. Our study has formed materials from clays commonly used in the area of Bailén (Jaén) and wet pomace proceeding from the extraction of olive oil. The materials were shaped through extrusion. In this study, raw materials have been characterized and studied interesting properties of sintered materials, such as compressive strength, water absorption, open porosity or bulk density. The study concluded that the addition of wet pomace from olive oil industry into traditional brick entails a saving of raw materials and reducing the environmental impact generated by their manufacture. The best results are obtained for the samples with waste content of 3 wt %.

Dielectric stepped-index flat lens antennas for operation at 12 GHz are presented. A brick-shaped dielectric with a permittivity profile optimized for focusing is sandwiched between the metallic plates of an open-ended parallel-plate waveguide. A tapered slot antenna is placed at the focal point of the dielectric lens, thereby creating antennas with high directivity of 16.8 and 15.8 dBi, respectively. In the two versions of the antenna, the parallel-plate waveguide operates in TEM-mode and in the first higher-order TE-mode, respectively. The dielectric profile is realized by appropriate mixtures of alumina ceramic powder and microscopic hollow glass spheres, realizing permittivity ranging from εrel= 1.31 to εrel= 3.24. The design of the complete antennas is based on geometrical optics followed by optimizations with a full-wave electromagnetic solver. Measurements show good agreement with simulations.

Mechanical properties of the structural elements of mollusk hard tissues were determined using nanoindentation techniques. Red abalone (Haliotis refuscens) has a dual laminate ceramic/polymer biocomposite, evolved for protection against impact. The nacre (mother-of-pearl) section of the shell has excellent bending strength (180 MPa) and fracture toughness (12 MPa m1/2), orders of magnitude stronger and tougher than monolithic CaCO3, it's primary component. The outer prismatic structure is comprised of columnar calcite (rhombohedral CaCO3) crystallites oriented normal to the shell surface and the inner nacreous structure consists of layers of pseudo-hexagonal shaped aragonite (orthorhombic CaCO3) platelets arranged in a brick and mortar microarchitecture (Fig. 1). The platelets (0.25 μm thick and 5 μm edge length) are surrounded by a thin layer (10-25 nm) of organic phase within and between the individual layers. This sub-um layered structure results in excellent bulk properties, not present in man-made composites of similar phase composition.

This work presents an experimental study on the behavior of clays during the drying process. Experimental tests were carried out with clay material for the production of red ceramics and white ceramic (ball clay). Different dimensions and the material initial moisture content plus temperature and relative air-drying humidity were taken into account. Drying kinetics and volume changes of parallelepiped-shaped samples were shown and analyzed. It has been verified that air-drying temperatures and body shape have an enormous influence on the drying rate process. The drying process occurs during the falling drying period and the volume changes display two linear periods.

With technological advancement on the rise, manual crushing of bricks is gradually being replaced by machine crushing to obtain coarse aggregates for construction. However, properties of the brick aggregates obtained from these two methods vary which in turn, may affect the properties of the concrete matrix as well. This study represents a comparison between the machine crushed and manually crushed brick aggregates to be used as coarse aggregates in preparation of concrete. Four types of bricks, namely first class, second class, picket (over burnt) and ceramic were investigated, and each was crushed both manually and mechanically to a usable form of aggregates. The physical and mechanical properties of the brick aggregates derived from the two methods were tested and compared. In all types of brick, aggregates size, shape and strength properties such as flakiness and elongation indices, aggregate impact and crushing values and Los Angeles abrasion value showed lower values for manually crushed aggregate indicating better properties compare to machine crushed aggregates. This was evident while comparing compressive and tensile strength of concrete prepared with both manually and machine crushed first class and picket brick aggregates. Concrete with manually crushed brick aggregates showed marginally higher compressive and tensile strength in both types of brick aggregates.

In order to lay raw materials foundation for increasing the performance of insulating brick with the low grade quartz sand along the Yangtze River, the quartz porous ceramic materials was researched in this paper. The results show the porosity of the porous quartz ceramics decreased with an increase in the sintering temperature. The pore is like the bowl shape, and the pore is closed pore, which is help to improve the heat insulation property of quartz porous ceramics. The CaSiO4 is produced in the ceramics after sintering processing. The shape is better, and the microstructure is circular and symmetrical pore, which is help to improve the mechanical property of quartz porous ceramics.

ABSTRACTPores in archaeological ceramics can form in a number of different ways, and reflect both deliberate choices and uncontrollable factors. Characterizing porosity by digital image analysis of thin sections holds a number of advantages as well as limitations. We present the results of experiments aimed at improving this method, focusing on high-resolution scans of entire thin sections. We examine the reproducibility of pore measurements by petrographic image analysis of ceramic thin sections using laboratory-prepared specimens of clay mixed with sand of known amount and size. We outline protocols for measuring Total Optical Porosity, using the Image-Pro Premier software package. We also briefly discuss use of pore size and pore shape (aspect ratio and roundness) in characterizing archaeological ceramics. While discerning reasons for observed amounts, sizes, and shapes of pores is an extremely complex problem, the quantitative analysis of ceramic porosity is one tool for characterizing a ware and comparing a product to others. The methods outlined here are applied to a case study comparing historic bricks from the Read House in New Castle, Delaware; the porosity studies indicate that different construction campaigns used bricks from different sources.

Ceramic products made from red clay to move the economy of Rio Grande do Norte. Among the most common ones are outstanding bricks, tiles and slabs in different sizes and shapes. In perspective to seek products with good quality in the ceramic industry, the characterization of the raw material is essential for obtaining an excite end product. The municipality of Apodi located in the Upper West Rio Grande do Norte has the ceramic industry as a sector of great economic importance in the site. However the absence of technology for characterization of the clays found in the region is the major problem for local entrepreneurs. The objective this study is to characterize the red clay one of the ceramics used by the municipality of Apodi-RN. The procedure will be done through the testing of Plasticity, Liquidity, linear shrinkage, absorption water, porosity, XRD and EDX.

In Siberia, ceramic tile manufacturing should be dated to the 1670s–1680s, when the stone building in To-bolsk commenced. The source base for studying the tile craft in Siberia is provided by archaeological investiga-tions on Russian settlements. This paper aims at the typology of plots and graphical reconstruction of the appear-ance and color scheme of a collection of repousse polychromic tiles acquired in the course of archaeological in-vestigations of the Governor’s Palace in Tobolsk. The collection is dated to the first half of the 18th century. Most of the tiles were fragmented and had signs of burning. The discovered tile fragments belong to the repousse poly-chromic type. We consider them to be the stove decoration sets due to the traces of smut and soot on the back side and by the presence of a box-shaped rump with some space from the edge. The rump has holes on the sides made to fix the tiles onto a stove with wire. The tiles from the Governor’s Palace can be subdivided as follows: 1) wall tiles of ‘small hand’ and ‘large hand’; 2) corner wall tiles; 3) corner wall halves; 4) flat banded tiles; 5) cor-ner flat bands; 6) roller-band; 7) cornice belt; 8) valances; 9) legs and 10) gorodki (product made of clay with variations in size used for decoration of brick furnaces). Twenty themes have been reconstructed from the pre-served fragments. The stoves with such facework belong to the Renaissance type. In the tile manufacture, opaque, dull enamels were used: blue; turquoise green; white and yellow, as well as translucent glaze producing a glossy brown color on red clay. The study of the tile drawings and ornaments revealed that most of them were borrowed from other centers of tile manufacturing. A large part of the drawings either has stylistic similarity or is an accurate copy of the drawings on the tiles manufactured in Moscow in the 1670s–1680s. The drawings on five tiles do not have records in the earlier published works, and therefore they may have local origins. The tile orna-ment is mainly floral-geometrical, except for three tiles. Two of the latter have zoomorphic drawings of birds and the third one depicts a planter. Both plots are amongst the most popular themes in Russia.

Introduction. This article discusses the possibility of expanding the colour palette of a ceramic shard. Due to the shortage of high-quality clay raw materials for the manufacture of plastic molded facing bricks, the problem of manufacturing ceramic wall materials by semi-dry pressing from low-quality clay rocks is urgent.Materials and methods. The main raw material was non-caking clay raw material with a low content of clay and a high content of silt particles. Some corrective additives were used to expand the colour palette of ceramic bricks. In the article, the authors used both standard methods for determining the physical and mechanical properties and modern methods for studying the phase composition of materials.Results. The possibility of enriching the colour range of a ceramic shard based on non-sintered clay raw materials has been experimentally confirmed, provided that the mixture contains flux additives. When receiving products with a clarified shard, light-colored flutes should be used.Conclusion. The possibility of enriching the colour range of a ceramic cap by adding white-burning clay, introducing bleaching and chromophore additives and technogenic products has been established. Due to the differences in the chemical composition of clay raw materials from individual deposits, an individual approach to each of them is required.

The Hansa formed the principal agent of trade and cultural exchange in northern Europe and the Baltic during the late medieval to early modern periods. Hanseatic urban settlements in northern Europe shared many things in common. Their cultural ‘signature’ was articulated physically through a shared vocabulary of built heritage and domestic goods, from step-gabled brick architecture to clothing, diet, and domestic utensils. The redevelopment of towns on the Baltic littoral over the past 20+ years offers an archaeological opportunity to investigate key attributes of late medieval society on the micro-scale. Such attributes include the development of mercantile capitalism, colonialism, and proto-globalization. For instance, distributions of artefacts now point to the Hansa as an agent of the Reformation movement in northern and western Europe. Where they were once almost exclusively regarded as material evidence for long-distance commercial activity, domestic artefacts, such as table and heating ceramics, are now subject to scrutiny as media for social, cultural, ethnic, and confessional relationships, and combine to create a distinctive Hanseatic material signature. Ceramic case studies illustrate how the archaeology of the Hansa now intersects with the wider historical debate about Europeanisation and proto-globalization arising from the development of long-distance maritime trade from the thirteenth century onwards.

A plastic brick clay with high clay mineral content was selected and the effects of different extruder heads on the main physical properties of the extruded products were investigated. The raw material was processed by a laboratory extruder after homogenization and wetting. Extruder heads with conical and special (spherical and torus) inner shape were applied to form and produce the green products which were examined after drying and firing. The rotation of the extruder screw was also varied between 15-55 1/min. Applying optical microscopy and SEM, the structure of the green products was analyzed. In addition to the physical properties of the products, the pressure caused by the extruder heads was determined by theoretical calculation and measurement. The results revealed that the physical properties of the products could be changed only by changing the shaping die geometry when the product size and production method remained unchanged. Maximal compressive strength of fired brick products (35.45 MPa) was obtained in case of the spherical head while the use of torus head caused some 5% decrease in the power consumption of the extruder. The density of fired products decreased and water adsorption increased when the rotation speed of the extruder screw was increased. The measurements confirmed the theoretical order of the applied extruder heads in terms of capability of pressure generation.

Objective of Study. To investigate, using the FEM, the influence of different notching angles on a zirconium dioxide coping with the aim of establishing the optimal connection conditions with veneering ceramic. Materials and Methods. To calculate the stresses in the connection between zirconia coping and veneering ceramic, a model comprising grooves cut perpendicular was adopted. Such a notch profile was used to design the shape and spacing of the grooves on an FEM model simulating a zirconium dioxide coping. For discretization purposes we used twenty-node solid BRICK elements featuring intermediate nodes with three degrees of freedom in each node. The model was divided into 117 745 finished elements and 439 131 nodes. The problem was solved with a GLU type contact. The same load F = 1N divided by the number of nodes on the external surface was applied to each node of the outer surface of the base. In subsequent computing variants the F load changed the orientation by angle α from 0° to 45° every 15°. Results. The highest level of material strain occurs at angle α = 0° σred max =309 MPa and the lowest at angle α = 45° σred max =220 MPa. The highest positive stress pressure occurs at angle α = 0° pmax=251 MPa, pmin=-354 MPa and the lowest at angle α = 15°, pmax=171 MPa, pmin=-186 MPa. In the case of tangential stresses on the coping-veneering ceramic connection, the highest values were noted at angle α = 15° τmax=44,4 MPa and the lowest at angle α = 45° τmax=32,7 MPa. Conclusions. To reduce the load on the zirconia-veneering ceramic connection, the notches should be made at an angle of α = 45°.

Ground water, rain and other environmental effects are important moisture sources which affect the durability and performance of basements, roofs, underground and other building structures in the direct contact with moisture. Waterproof materials such as bitumen sheets, polymeric foils and membranes provide basic protection of constructions against harmful moisture action. However, in some cases, the applicability of commonly applied waterproof insulation systems is limited as for example in tunnel constructions with complicated geometry or in areas with unstable subsoil. Here, advanced types of waterproof materials find use. On this account, sprayed waterproof coating based on polyurethane elastomer designed for protection of complicated shapes and extremely mechanically loaded structures is experimentally researched in the paper. The obtained data give clear evidence of a good resistance of studied coating against artificial accelerated temperature ageing. The studied material has high resistivity to impact and ductility. The interaction of accelerated aging and impact loading has no effect on vapor-and waterproof function of the insulation layer. In addition, polyurethane elastomer provides a sufficient adhesion to the typical buildings materials, such as concrete, ceramic brick, etc.

This work aims to study heat and mass transfer in solids with parallelepiped shape with particular reference to drying process. A transient three-dimensional mathematical model based on the Fick ́s and Fourier ́s Laws was developed to predict heat and mass transport in solids considering constant physical properties and convective boundary conditions at the surface of the solid. The analytical solution of the governing equations was obtained using the method of separation of variables. The study was applied in the drying of common ceramic bricks. Predicted results of the heating and drying kinetics and the moisture and temperature distributions inside the material during the process, are compared with experimental data and good agreement was obtained. It has been found that the vertices of the solid dry and heat first. This provokes thermal and hydric stresses inside the material, which may compromise the quality of the product after drying.

This paper is concerned with the free vibration of variable stiffness laminated sandwich plates with curvilinear fibers. The three-dimensional elasticity theory and the p-version of the finite element method are adopted for the analysis. The skin is composed of one or more plies with curvilinear fibers. The fiber path orientation angle in a ply is assumed to vary linearly with the x coordinate. The plies may be stacked symmetrically or anti-symmetrically with respect to the middle surface of the plate. Each layer is modeled as one brick p-element. The principle of virtual displacements is used to derive the element stiffness and mass matrices. The generalized displacements at vertices, edges, and faces shared by elements are matched to ensure inter-element compatibility. Since no solutions are available for the free vibration of such variable stiffness laminated sandwich plates, the validity, convergence, and accuracy of the present three-dimensional method are established by comparing with existing three-dimensional frequencies for constant stiffness laminated sandwich plates with rectilinear fibers. The study reveals that inter-layer modal bending stresses are discontinuous; modal transverse shearing stresses are constant in the core; the sign of modal transverse shearing stresses can change through the thickness of the skin; and the shape of modal cross-sectional warping is influenced by the mode number and stacking sequence of plies. Three-dimensional frequencies are presented for different fiber orientation angles, boundary conditions, aspect ratios, thickness ratios, core/skin thickness ratios, and stacking sequences of plies. The accurate results presented here will serve as a benchmark for future investigations.

Ritual iron spearheads are actifacts buried in tomb in the Nakdong River eastern area. In the 3rd century AD, they were made for ritual and burial rather than actual use. According to the ritual iron spearheads are form, it is classified into three kinds like the kwanbu protruding iron spearhead, the bracken pattern attach iron spearhead, the plate-shape iron spearhead. The characteristics of ritual iron spearheads were reviewed by type, and the time changes derived from them were assigned to the burial aspect to confirm regional differences. This study analyzed the meaning of the burial in the tomb in the eastern part of the Nakdong River. Consequently, the time change of the natural iron spears are 6 step of the Kwanbu protruding iron Spears, 4 step of the bracket pattern attached iron spearheads, 9 step of the plate shape Iron spearhead. These are set to 8 stages in total and the period is divided into four strokes. To verify this, the temporal changes of the tombs such as the shape of the tombs, the brick-clay pottery, and the ceramic-clay pottery were used centrally. In the first phase, Kwanbu protruding iron spearheads are widely distributed in the eastern part of the Nakdong River. In the second phase, all types of spearhead, such as he Kwanbu protruding iron spearhead, bracken pattern attached iron spearhaed, plate shape iron spearhead are buried. Especially, the bracken pattern attached iron spearhaed has the characteristic of a unique non-practice iron bars that are identified only in the Saro-guk. In the third period, Saro is transferred to Silla, the ritual iron spearheads is reduced, and the bean kwanbu protruding iron spearhead disappears. The fourth period is the time when Silla was formed, and only then the plate shap spearheads are buried. In order to understand the spatial characteristics of the ritual iron spearheads, the bury type was set up. There are six kinds of burials in the tomb form. Especially, the shape that is arranged across the main axis of the head is a characteristic of the character of the SaroGuk formed around Gyeongju. In the tomb of the head, the ritual iron spearheads were used as a floor facility and showed the hierarchy of the subject. The ritual iron spearheads can be seen as having a social function of status and application in the process of transition from Saro to Silla. As the formation of Silla is completed and centralized, the head of the ritual iron spearheads disappears in the upper class, but in the provinces, it can still be seen as one of the objects that symbolize and show the authority and wealth of the group.

In the recent decades, the use of unshaped monolithic refractories has been increasing greatly because of their significant advantages over other shaped refractory bricks of the same class. A low cement high alumina castable was synthetised and sintered at 1300?C in order to investigate thermal and mechanical properties, as well as thermal shock behavior. The water quench test was applied as an experimental method for thermal stability testing. Modification of the water quench test was performed by additional monitoring of the samples behavior during the water quench test such as implementation of image analysis and ultrasonic measurements. The image analysis program was applied on samples in order to measure the level of surface damage before and during the water quench test. Ultrasonic measurements were performed with the aim to measure the Young modulus of elasticity during the testing. Strength deterioration of the samples was calculated by the model based on ultrasonic velocity changes during the water quench test. The influence of monitoring the damage level before and during the quench experiment and its influence on thermal shock behavior will be discussed.

A ceramic brick is one of the most popular building materials used in residential, public and landscape construction, in the construction of temple structures over a long period and is still relevant today. The article presents the results of the ceramic brick market analysis to assess the demand for the market and the dynamics of the development of production over the years. An analysis of the export and import of ceramic bricks in Russia is presented; the distribution of production capacities by districts of the Russian Federation is analyzed. It has been established that the basic requirements for a ceramic brick are fully satisfied, mainly due to Russian production, the volumes of which depend on the pace and volume of construction. The nomenclature and basic consumer properties of ceramic bricks, satisfying the requirements of builders and customers, ensuring a long period of maintenance-free operation, preserving architectural expressiveness and aesthetic properties are considered. It has been revealed that the main producers with significant production capacities for the production of ceramic bricks react in a timely manner to market fluctuations and consumer demands by adjusting the change in shape, color, size and quantity of products manufactured.

AbstractMonodisperse hematite cubes about 30nm in size have been prepared by aging a refluxing acidified aqueous solution of FeCl3 in an open vessel. The as grown nano cubes were determined to be single crystalline hematite in perfect cubic shapes using transmission electron microscope and electron diffraction. The nano cube is one of the equilibrium shapes of hematite, which is resumed to be formed by preferential growth in certain crystallographic directions through the species diffusion in the aqueous solutions.Some self-assembly prototypes have been observed, such as the short range ordered buildup consisting of several brick-like hematite nano cubes and the nano box consisted of square plates of hematite nanocrystals. The drive force for the formation of the above assemblies is assumed to be the unique magnetic feature of the single crystalline hematite nano cubes.The perfect shape and the self-assembly feature give a possibility to fabricate bulk ceramics orderly assembled using hematite nano cubes.

From elephants to ABBA fans, silicon to hormone, the following discussion uses a new research method to look at printed text, motion pictures and a teenage rebel icon. If by ‘print’ we mean a mechanically reproduced impression of a cultural symbol in a medium, then printing has been with us since before microdot security prints were painted onto cars, before voice prints, laser prints, network servers, record pressings, motion picture prints, photo prints, colour woodblock prints, before books, textile prints, and footprints. If we accept that higher mammals such as elephants have a learnt culture, then it is possible to extend a definition of printing beyond Homo sapiens. Poole reports that elephants mechanically trumpet reproductions of human car horns into the air surrounding their society. If nothing else, this cross-species, cross-cultural reproduction, this ‘ability to mimic’ is ‘another sign of their intelligence’. Observation of child development suggests that the first significant meaningful ‘impression’ made on the human mind is that of the face of the child’s nurturer – usually its mother. The baby’s mind forms an ‘impression’, a mental print, a reproducible memory data set, of the nurturer’s face, voice, smell, touch, etc. That face is itself a cultural construct: hair style, makeup, piercings, tattoos, ornaments, nutrition-influenced skin and smell, perfume, temperature and voice. A mentally reproducible pattern of a unique face is formed in the mind, and we use that pattern to distinguish ‘familiar and strange’ in our expanding social orbit. The social relations of patterned memory – of imprinting – determine the extent to which we explore our world (armed with research aids such as text print) or whether we turn to violence or self-harm (Bretherton). While our cultural artifacts (such as vellum maps or networked voice message servers) bravely extend our significant patterns into the social world and the traversed environment, it is useful to remember that such artifacts, including print, are themselves understood by our original pattern-reproduction and impression system – the human mind, developed in childhood. The ‘print’ is brought to mind differently in different discourses. For a reader, a ‘print’ is a book, a memo or a broadsheet, whether it is the Indian Buddhist Sanskrit texts ordered to be printed in 593 AD by the Chinese emperor Sui Wen-ti (Silk Road) or the US Defense Department memo authorizing lower ranks to torture the prisoners taken by the Bush administration (Sanchez, cited in ABC). Other fields see prints differently. For a musician, a ‘print’ may be the sheet music which spread classical and popular music around the world; it may be a ‘record’ (as in a ‘recording’ session), where sound is impressed to wax, vinyl, charged silicon particles, or the alloys (Smith, “Elpida”) of an mp3 file. For the fine artist, a ‘print’ may be any mechanically reproduced two-dimensional (or embossed) impression of a significant image in media from paper to metal, textile to ceramics. ‘Print’ embraces the Japanese Ukiyo-e colour prints of Utamaro, the company logos that wink from credit card holographs, the early photographs of Talbot, and the textured patterns printed into neolithic ceramics. Computer hardware engineers print computational circuits. Homicide detectives investigate both sweaty finger prints and the repeated, mechanical gaits of suspects, which are imprinted into the earthy medium of a crime scene. For film makers, the ‘print’ may refer to a photochemical polyester reproduction of a motion picture artifact (the reel of ‘celluloid’), or a DVD laser disc impression of the same film. Textualist discourse has borrowed the word ‘print’ to mean ‘text’, so ‘print’ may also refer to the text elements within the vision track of a motion picture: the film’s opening titles, or texts photographed inside the motion picture story such as the sword-cut ‘Z’ in Zorro (Niblo). Before the invention of writing, the main mechanically reproduced impression of a cultural symbol in a medium was the humble footprint in the sand. The footprints of tribes – and neighbouring animals – cut tracks in the vegetation and the soil. Printed tracks led towards food, water, shelter, enemies and friends. Having learnt to pattern certain faces into their mental world, children grew older and were educated in the footprints of family and clan, enemies and food. The continuous impression of significant foot traffic in the medium of the earth produced the lines between significant nodes of prewriting and pre-wheeled cultures. These tracks were married to audio tracks, such as the song lines of the Australian Aborigines, or the ballads of tramping culture everywhere. A typical tramping song has the line, ‘There’s a track winding back to an old-fashion shack along the road to Gundagai,’ (O’Hagan), although this colonial-style song was actually written for radio and became an international hit on the airwaves, rather than the tramping trails. The printed tracks impressed by these cultural flows are highly contested and diverse, and their foot prints are woven into our very language. The names for printed tracks have entered our shared memory from the intersection of many cultures: ‘Track’ is a Germanic word entering English usage comparatively late (1470) and now used mainly in audio visual cultural reproduction, as in ‘soundtrack’. ‘Trek’ is a Dutch word for ‘track’ now used mainly by ecotourists and science fiction fans. ‘Learn’ is a Proto-Indo-European word: the verb ‘learn’ originally meant ‘to find a track’ back in the days when ‘learn’ had a noun form which meant ‘the sole of the foot’. ‘Tract’ and ‘trace’ are Latin words entering English print usage before 1374 and now used mainly in religious, and electronic surveillance, cultural reproduction. ‘Trench’ in 1386 was a French path cut through a forest. ‘Sagacity’ in English print in 1548 was originally the ability to track or hunt, in Proto-Indo-European cultures. ‘Career’ (in English before 1534) was the print made by chariots in ancient Rome. ‘Sleuth’ (1200) was a Norse noun for a track. ‘Investigation’ (1436) was Latin for studying a footprint (Harper). The arrival of symbolic writing scratched on caves, hearth stones, and trees (the original meaning of ‘book’ is tree), brought extremely limited text education close to home. Then, with baked clay tablets, incised boards, slate, bamboo, tortoise shell, cast metal, bark cloth, textiles, vellum, and – later – paper, a portability came to text that allowed any culture to venture away from known ‘foot’ paths with a reduction in the risk of becoming lost and perishing. So began the world of maps, memos, bills of sale, philosophic treatises and epic mythologies. Some of this was printed, such as the mechanical reproduction of coins, but the fine handwriting required of long, extended, portable texts could not be printed until the invention of paper in China about 2000 years ago. Compared to lithic architecture and genes, portable text is a fragile medium, and little survives from the millennia of its innovators. The printing of large non-text designs onto bark-paper and textiles began in neolithic times, but Sui Wen-ti’s imperial memo of 593 AD gives us the earliest written date for printed books, although we can assume they had been published for many years previously. The printed book was a combination of Indian philosophic thought, wood carving, ink chemistry and Chinese paper. The earliest surviving fragment of paper-print technology is ‘Mantras of the Dharani Sutra’, a Buddhist scripture written in the Sanskrit language of the Indian subcontinent, unearthed at an early Tang Dynasty site in Xian, China – making the fragment a veteran piece of printing, in the sense that Sanskrit books had been in print for at least a century by the early Tang Dynasty (Chinese Graphic Arts Net). At first, paper books were printed with page-size carved wooden boards. Five hundred years later, Pi Sheng (c.1041) baked individual reusable ceramic characters in a fire and invented the durable moveable type of modern printing (Silk Road 2000). Abandoning carved wooden tablets, the ‘digitizing’ of Chinese moveable type sped up the production of printed texts. In turn, Pi Sheng’s flexible, rapid, sustainable printing process expanded the political-cultural impact of the literati in Asian society. Digitized block text on paper produced a bureaucratic, literate elite so powerful in Asia that Louis XVI of France copied China’s print-based Confucian system of political authority for his own empire, and so began the rise of the examined public university systems, and the civil service systems, of most European states (Watson, Visions). By reason of its durability, its rapid mechanical reproduction, its culturally agreed signs, literate readership, revered authorship, shared ideology, and distributed portability, a ‘print’ can be a powerful cultural network which builds and expands empires. But print also attacks and destroys empires. A case in point is the Spanish conquest of Aztec America: The Aztecs had immense libraries of American literature on bark-cloth scrolls, a technology which predated paper. These libraries were wiped out by the invading Spanish, who carried a different book before them (Ewins). In the industrial age, the printing press and the gun were seen as the weapons of rebellions everywhere. In 1776, American rebels staffed their ‘Homeland Security’ units with paper makers, knowing that defeating the English would be based on printed and written documents (Hahn). Mao Zedong was a book librarian; Mao said political power came out of the barrel of a gun, but Mao himself came out of a library. With the spread of wireless networked servers, political ferment comes out of the barrel of the cell phone and the internet chat room these days. Witness the cell phone displays of a plane hitting a tower that appear immediately after 9/11 in the Middle East, or witness the show trials of a few US and UK lower ranks who published prints of their torturing activities onto the internet: only lower ranks who published prints were arrested or tried. The control of secure servers and satellites is the new press. These days, we live in a global library of burning books – ‘burning’ in the sense that ‘print’ is now a charged silicon medium (Smith, “Intel”) which is usually made readable by connecting the chip to nuclear reactors and petrochemically-fired power stations. World resources burn as we read our screens. Men, women, children burn too, as we watch our infotainment news in comfort while ‘their’ flickering dead faces are printed in our broadcast hearths. The print we watch is not the living; it is the voodoo of the living in the blackout behind the camera, engaging the blood sacrifice of the tormented and the unfortunate. Internet texts are also ‘on fire’ in the third sense of their fragility and instability as a medium: data bases regularly ‘print’ fail-safe copies in an attempt to postpone the inevitable mechanical, chemical and electrical failure that awaits all electronic media in time. Print defines a moral position for everyone. In reporting conflict, in deciding to go to press or censor, any ‘print’ cannot avoid an ethical context, starting with the fact that there is a difference in power between print maker, armed perpetrators, the weak, the peaceful, the publisher, and the viewer. So many human factors attend a text, video or voice ‘print’: its very existence as an aesthetic object, even before publication and reception, speaks of unbalanced, and therefore dynamic, power relationships. For example, Graham Greene departed unscathed from all the highly dangerous battlefields he entered as a novelist: Riot-torn Germany, London Blitz, Belgian Congo, Voodoo Haiti, Vietnam, Panama, Reagan’s Washington, and mafia Europe. His texts are peopled with the injustices of the less fortunate of the twentieth century, while he himself was a member of the fortunate (if not happy) elite, as is anyone today who has the luxury of time to read Greene’s works for pleasure. Ethically a member of London and Paris’ colonizers, Greene’s best writing still electrifies, perhaps partly because he was in the same line of fire as the victims he shared bread with. In fact, Greene hoped daily that he would escape from the dreadful conflicts he fictionalized via a body bag or an urn of ashes (see Sherry). In reading an author’s biography we have one window on the ethical dimensions of authority and print. If a print’s aesthetics are sometimes enduring, its ethical relationships are always mutable. Take the stylized logo of a running athlete: four limbs bent in a rotation of action. This dynamic icon has symbolized ‘good health’ in Hindu and Buddhist culture, from Madras to Tokyo, for thousands of years. The cross of bent limbs was borrowed for the militarized health programs of 1930s Germany, and, because of what was only a brief, recent, isolated yet monstrously horrific segment of its history in print, the bent-limbed swastika is now a vilified symbol in the West. The sign remains ‘impressed’ differently on traditional Eastern culture, and without the taint of Nazism. Dramatic prints are emotionally charged because, in depicting Homo sapiens in danger, or passionately in love, they elicit a hormonal reaction from the reader, the viewer, or the audience. The type of emotions triggered by a print vary across the whole gamut of human chemistry. A recent study of three genres of motion picture prints shows a marked differences in the hormonal responses of men compared to women when viewing a romance, an actioner, and a documentary (see Schultheiss, Wirth, and Stanton). Society is biochemically diverse in its engagement with printed culture, which raises questions about equality in the arts. Motion picture prints probably comprise around one third of internet traffic, in the form of stolen digitized movie files pirated across the globe via peer-to-peer file transfer networks (p2p), and burnt as DVD laser prints (BBC). There is also a US 40 billion dollar per annum legitimate commerce in DVD laser pressings (Grassl), which would suggest an US 80 billion per annum world total in legitimate laser disc print culture. The actively screen literate, or the ‘sliterati’ as I prefer to call them, research this world of motion picture prints via their peers, their internet information channels, their television programming, and their web forums. Most of this activity occurs outside the ambit of universities and schools. One large site of sliterate (screen literate) practice outside most schooling and official research is the net of online forums at imdb.com (International Movie Data Base). Imdb.com ‘prints’ about 25,000,000 top pages per month to client browsers. Hundreds of sliterati forums are located at imdb, including a forum for the Australian movie, Muriel’s Wedding (Hogan). Ten years after the release of Muriel’s Wedding, young people who are concerned with victimization and bullying still log on to http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0110598/board/> and put their thoughts into print: I still feel so bad for Muriel in the beginning of the movie, when the girls ‘dump’ her, and how much the poor girl cried and cried! Those girls were such biartches…I love how they got their comeuppance! bunniesormaybemidgets’s comment is typical of the current discussion. Muriel’s Wedding was a very popular film in its first cinema edition in Australia and elsewhere. About 30% of the entire over-14 Australian population went to see this photochemical polyester print in the cinemas on its first release. A decade on, the distributors printed a DVD laser disc edition. The story concerns Muriel (played by Toni Collette), the unemployed daughter of a corrupt, ‘police state’ politician. Muriel is bullied by her peers and she withdraws into a fantasy world, deluding herself that a white wedding will rescue her from the torments of her blighted life. Through theft and deceit (the modus operandi of her father) Muriel escapes to the entertainment industry and finds a ‘wicked’ girlfriend mentor. From a rebellious position of stubborn independence, Muriel plays out her fantasy. She gets her white wedding, before seeing both her father and her new married life as hollow shams which have goaded her abandoned mother to suicide. Redefining her life as a ‘game’ and assuming responsibility for her independence, Muriel turns her back on the mainstream, image-conscious, female gang of her oppressed youth. Muriel leaves the story, having rekindled her friendship with her rebel mentor. My methodological approach to viewing the laser disc print was to first make a more accessible, coded record of the entire movie. I was able to code and record the print in real time, using a new metalanguage (Watson, “Eyes”). The advantage of Coding is that ‘thinks’ the same way as film making, it does not sidetrack the analyst into prose. The Code splits the movie print into Vision Action [vision graphic elements, including text] (sound) The Coding splits the vision track into normal action and graphic elements, such as text, so this Coding is an ideal method for extracting all the text elements of a film in real time. After playing the film once, I had four and a half tightly packed pages of the coded story, including all its text elements in square brackets. Being a unique, indexed hard copy, the Coded copy allowed me immediate access to any point of the Muriel’s Wedding saga without having to search the DVD laser print. How are ‘print’ elements used in Muriel’s Wedding? Firstly, a rose-coloured monoprint of Muriel Heslop’s smiling face stares enigmatically from the plastic surface of the DVD picture disc. The print is a still photo captured from her smile as she walked down the aisle of her white wedding. In this print, Toni Collette is the Mona Lisa of Australian culture, except that fans of Muriel’s Wedding know the meaning of that smile is a magical combination of the actor’s art: the smile is both the flush of dreams come true and the frightening self deception that will kill her mother. Inserting and playing the disc, the text-dominant menu appears, and the film commences with the text-dominant opening titles. Text and titles confer a legitimacy on a work, whether it is a trade mark of the laser print owners, or the household names of stars. Text titles confer status relationships on both the presenters of the cultural artifact and the viewer who has entered into a legal license agreement with the owners of the movie. A title makes us comfortable, because the mind always seeks to name the unfamiliar, and a set of text titles does that job for us so that we can navigate the ‘tracks’ and settle into our engagement with the unfamiliar. The apparent ‘truth’ and ‘stability’ of printed text calms our fears and beguiles our uncertainties. Muriel attends the white wedding of a school bully bride, wearing a leopard print dress she has stolen. Muriel’s spotted wild animal print contrasts with the pure white handmade dress of the bride. In Muriel’s leopard textile print, we have the wild, rebellious, impoverished, inappropriate intrusion into the social ritual and fantasy of her high-status tormentor. An off-duty store detective recognizes the printed dress and calls the police. The police are themselves distinguished by their blue-and-white checked prints and other mechanically reproduced impressions of cultural symbols: in steel, brass, embroidery, leather and plastics. Muriel is driven in the police car past the stenciled town sign (‘Welcome To Porpoise Spit’ heads a paragraph of small print). She is delivered to her father, a politician who presides over the policing of his town. In a state where the judiciary, police and executive are hijacked by the same tyrant, Muriel’s father, Bill, pays off the police constables with a carton of legal drugs (beer) and Muriel must face her father’s wrath, which he proceeds to transfer to his detested wife. Like his daughter, the father also wears a spotted brown print costume, but his is a batik print from neighbouring Indonesia (incidentally, in a nation that takes the political status of its batik prints very seriously). Bill demands that Muriel find the receipt for the leopard print dress she claims she has purchased. The legitimate ownership of the object is enmeshed with a printed receipt, the printed evidence of trade. The law (and the paramilitary power behind the law) are legitimized, or contested, by the presence or absence of printed text. Muriel hides in her bedroom, surround by poster prints of the pop group ABBA. Torn-out prints of other people’s weddings adorn her mirror. Her face is embossed with the clown-like primary colours of the marionette as she lifts a bouquet to her chin and stares into the real time ‘print’ of her mirror image. Bill takes the opportunity of a business meeting with Japanese investors to feed his entire family at ‘Charlie Chan’’s restaurant. Muriel’s middle sister sloppily wears her father’s state election tee shirt, printed with the text: ‘Vote 1, Bill Heslop. You can’t stop progress.’ The text sets up two ironic gags that are paid off on the dialogue track: “He lost,’ we are told. ‘Progress’ turns out to be funding the concreting of a beach. Bill berates his daughter Muriel: she has no chance of becoming a printer’s apprentice and she has failed a typing course. Her dysfunction in printed text has been covered up by Bill: he has bribed the typing teacher to issue a printed diploma to his daughter. In the gambling saloon of the club, under the arrays of mechanically repeated cultural symbols lit above the poker machines (‘A’ for ace, ‘Q’ for queen, etc.), Bill’s secret girlfriend Diedre risks giving Muriel a cosmetics job. Another text icon in lights announces the surf nightclub ‘Breakers’. Tania, the newly married queen bitch who has made Muriel’s teenage years a living hell, breaks up with her husband, deciding to cash in his negotiable text documents – his Bali honeymoon tickets – and go on an island holiday with her girlfriends instead. Text documents are the enduring site of agreements between people and also the site of mutations to those agreements. Tania dumps Muriel, who sobs and sobs. Sobs are a mechanical, percussive reproduction impressed on the sound track. Returning home, we discover that Muriel’s older brother has failed a printed test and been rejected for police recruitment. There is a high incidence of print illiteracy in the Heslop family. Mrs Heslop (Jeannie Drynan), for instance, regularly has trouble at the post office. Muriel sees a chance to escape the oppression of her family by tricking her mother into giving her a blank cheque. Here is the confluence of the legitimacy of a bank’s printed negotiable document with the risk and freedom of a blank space for rebel Muriel’s handwriting. Unable to type, her handwriting has the power to steal every cent of her father’s savings. She leaves home and spends the family’s savings at an island resort. On the island, the text print-challenged Muriel dances to a recording (sound print) of ABBA, her hand gestures emphasizing her bewigged face, which is made up in an impression of her pop idol. Her imitation of her goddesses – the ABBA women, her only hope in a real world of people who hate or avoid her – is accompanied by her goddesses’ voices singing: ‘the mystery book on the shelf is always repeating itself.’ Before jpeg and gif image downloads, we had postcard prints and snail mail. Muriel sends a postcard to her family, lying about her ‘success’ in the cosmetics business. The printed missal is clutched by her father Bill (Bill Hunter), who proclaims about his daughter, ‘you can’t type but you really impress me’. Meanwhile, on Hibiscus Island, Muriel lies under a moonlit palm tree with her newly found mentor, ‘bad girl’ Ronda (Rachel Griffiths). In this critical scene, where foolish Muriel opens her heart’s yearnings to a confidante she can finally trust, the director and DP have chosen to shoot a flat, high contrast blue filtered image. The visual result is very much like the semiabstract Japanese Ukiyo-e woodblock prints by Utamaro. This Japanese printing style informed the rise of European modern painting (Monet, Van Gogh, Picasso, etc., were all important collectors and students of Ukiyo-e prints). The above print and text elements in Muriel’s Wedding take us 27 minutes into her story, as recorded on a single page of real-time handwritten Coding. Although not discussed here, the Coding recorded the complete film – a total of 106 minutes of text elements and main graphic elements – as four pages of Code. Referring to this Coding some weeks after it was made, I looked up the final code on page four: taxi [food of the sea] bq. Translation: a shop sign whizzes past in the film’s background, as Muriel and Ronda leave Porpoise Spit in a taxi. Over their heads the text ‘Food Of The Sea’ flashes. We are reminded that Muriel and Ronda are mermaids, fantastic creatures sprung from the brow of author PJ Hogan, and illuminated even today in the pantheon of women’s coming-of-age art works. That the movie is relevant ten years on is evidenced by the current usage of the Muriel’s Wedding online forum, an intersection of wider discussions by sliterate women on imdb.com who, like Muriel, are observers (and in some cases victims) of horrific pressure from ambitious female gangs and bullies. Text is always a minor element in a motion picture (unless it is a subtitled foreign film) and text usually whizzes by subliminally while viewing a film. By Coding the work for [text], all the text nuances made by the film makers come to light. While I have viewed Muriel’s Wedding on many occasions, it has only been in Coding it specifically for text that I have noticed that Muriel is a representative of that vast class of talented youth who are discriminated against by print (as in text) educators who cannot offer her a life-affirming identity in the English classroom. Severely depressed at school, and failing to type or get a printer’s apprenticeship, Muriel finds paid work (and hence, freedom, life, identity, independence) working in her audio visual printed medium of choice: a video store in a new city. Muriel found a sliterate admirer at the video store but she later dumped him for her fantasy man, before leaving him too. One of the points of conjecture on the imdb Muriel’s Wedding site is, did Muriel (in the unwritten future) get back together with admirer Brice Nobes? That we will never know. While a print forms a track that tells us where culture has been, a print cannot be the future, a print is never animate reality. At the end of any trail of prints, one must lift one’s head from the last impression, and negotiate satisfaction in the happening world. References Australian Broadcasting Corporation. “Memo Shows US General Approved Interrogations.” 30 Mar. 2005 http://www.abc.net.au>. 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Muriel’s Wedding. Dir. PJ Hogan. Perf. Toni Collette, Rachel Griffiths, Bill Hunter, and Jeannie Drynan. Village Roadshow, 1994. O’Hagan, Jack. On The Road to Gundagai. 1922. 2 Apr. 2005 http://ingeb.org/songs/roadtogu.html>. Poole, J.H., P.L. Tyack, A.S. Stoeger-Horwath, and S. Watwood. “Animal Behaviour: Elephants Are Capable of Vocal Learning.” Nature 24 Mar. 2005. Sanchez, R. “Interrogation and Counter-Resistance Policy.” 14 Sept. 2003. 30 Mar. 2005 http://www.abc.net.au>. Schultheiss, O.C., M.M. Wirth, and S.J. Stanton. “Effects of Affiliation and Power Motivation Arousal on Salivary Progesterone and Testosterone.” Hormones and Behavior 46 (2005). Sherry, N. The Life of Graham Greene. 3 vols. London: Jonathan Cape 2004, 1994, 1989. Silk Road. Printing. 2000. 20 Feb. 2005 http://www.silk-road.com/artl/printing.shtml>. Smith, T. “Elpida Licenses ‘DVD on a Chip’ Memory Tech.” The Register 20 Feb. 2005 http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/02>. —. “Intel Boffins Build First Continuous Beam Silicon Laser.” The Register 20 Feb. 2005 http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/02>. Watson, R. S. “Eyes And Ears: Dramatic Memory Slicing and Salable Media Content.” Innovation and Speculation, ed. Brad Haseman. Brisbane: QUT. [in press] Watson, R. S. Visions. Melbourne: Curriculum Corporation, 1994. Citation reference for this article MLA Style Watson, Robert. "E-Press and Oppress: Audio Visual Print Drama, Identity, Text and Motion Picture Rebellion." M/C Journal 8.2 (2005). echo date('d M. Y'); ?> <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0506/08-watson.php>. APA Style Watson, R. (Jun. 2005) "E-Press and Oppress: Audio Visual Print Drama, Identity, Text and Motion Picture Rebellion," M/C Journal, 8(2). Retrieved echo date('d M. Y'); ?> from <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0506/08-watson.php>.