Articles de revues : « Chari-Logone »

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Black, Forrest W., Jejung Lee, Charles M. Ichoku, Luke Ellison, Charles K. Gatebe, Rakiya Babamaaji, Khodayar Abdollahi et Soma San. « Biomass Burning and Water Balance Dynamics in the Lake Chad Basin in Africa ». Earth 2, n^o 2 (21 juin 2021) : 340–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/earth2020020.

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The present study investigated the effect of biomass burning on the water cycle using a case study of the Chari–Logone Catchment of the Lake Chad Basin (LCB). The Chari–Logone catchment was selected because it supplies over 90% of the water input to the lake, which is the largest basin in central Africa. Two water balance simulations, one considering burning and one without, were compared from the years 2003 to 2011. For a more comprehensive assessment of the effects of burning, albedo change, which has been shown to have a significant impact on a number of environmental factors, was used as a model input for calculating potential evapotranspiration (ET). Analysis of the burning scenario showed that burning grassland, which comprises almost 75% of the total Chari–Logone land cover, causes increased ET and runoff during the dry season (November–March). Recent studies have demonstrated that there is an increasing trend in the LCB of converting shrubland, grassland, and wetlands to cropland. This change from grassland to cropland has the potential to decrease the amount of water available to water bodies during the winter. All vegetative classes in a burning scenario showed a decrease in ET during the wet season. Although a decrease in annual precipitation in global circulation processes such as the El Niño Southern Oscillation would cause droughts and induce wildfires in the Sahel, the present study shows that a decrease in ET by the human-induced burning would cause a severe decrease in precipitation as well.

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Ngatcha, B. Ngounou, J. Mudry, J. F. Aranyossy, E. Naah et J. Sarrot Reynault. « Apport de la géologie, de l’hydrogéologie et des isotopes de l’environnement à la connaissance des «nappes en creux» du Grand Yaéré (Nord Cameroun) ». Revue des sciences de l'eau 20, n^o 1 (5 avril 2007) : 29–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/014905ar.

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La carte piézométrique de la nappe du Logone-Chari-Tchad met en évidence des anomalies piézométriques interprétées comme des « nappes en creux ». Les informations de l’hydrogéologie et des isotopes de l’environnement conduisent à remettre en question les grandes profondeurs des niveaux statiques observées par certains auteurs dans ces dépressions piézométriques. Les données hydrogéologiques démontrent que dans la zone déprimée de la surface piézométrique, l’aquifère est de type bicouche. Par ailleurs, la distribution des teneurs en isotopes stables (oxygène-18 et deutérium) et en tritium confirme le cloisonnement des aquifères : La relation δ 2H vs. δ 18O montre que les effets d’enrichissement par évaporation lors de la recharge des nappes ne sont très marqués que dans les eaux des nappes superficielles dont les niveaux statiques ne dépassent pas 20 m de profondeur. Les dépressions fermées dont les points les plus bas atteignent 60 m sous la surface du sol s’interprètent difficilement dans l’hypothèse d’une reprise évaporatoire. Il résulte de cette étude que l’absence de dépendance nette entre les niveaux piézométriques superficiels et les niveaux profonds place le problème des anomalies piézométriques du Grand Yaéré dans un contexte totalement différent de celui des anciennes interprétations qui s’appuyaient sur l’hypothèse d’une nappe libre généralisée monocouche. À l’avenir, la construction de la carte piézométrique de la nappe du Logone-Chari-Tchad devra tenir compte de la structure des deux nappes superposées.

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Candela, L., F. J. Elorza, K. Tamoh, J. Jiménez-Martínez et A. Aureli. « Groundwater modelling with limited data sets : the Chari-Logone area (Lake Chad Basin, Chad) ». Hydrological Processes 28, n^o 11 (25 juin 2013) : 3714–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hyp.9901.

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Andigué, Job, Lahoté Baohoutou, Bédjaoué Moupeng, Keudeu Passiring, Hubert Ndjafa Ouaga et Jean Riser. « Les dépôts alluviaux récents des vallées du Chari et du Logone au sud du lac Tchad (République du Tchad) [The recent alluvial deposits of the Chari and Logone valleys on the south side of the lake Chad (Republic of Chad)] ». Quaternaire 12, n^o 3 (2001) : 149–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/quate.2001.1688.

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Saha, Frédéric, Mesmin Tchindjang, Jean-Guy Dzana et Djasrabé Nguemadjita. « Risques naturels dans la région de l'Extrême-Nord du Cameroun et dynamique des extrêmes hydrologiques du système Chari-Logone ». Physio-Géo, Volume 15 (2 janvier 2020) : 69–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.4000/physio-geo.10214.

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Saha, Frédéric, Mesmin Tchindjang, Jean-Guy Dzana et Djasrabé Nguemadjita. « Risques naturels dans la région de l'Extrême-Nord du Cameroun et dynamique des extrêmes hydrologiques du système Chari-Logone ». Physio-Géo, Volume 15 (12 mars 2020) : 69–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.4000/physio-geo.10719.

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Mahamat Nour, A., C. Vallet‐Coulomb, J. Gonçalves, F. Sylvestre et P. Deschamps. « Rainfall-discharge relationship and water balance over the past 60 years within the Chari-Logone sub-basins, Lake Chad basin ». Journal of Hydrology : Regional Studies 35 (juin 2021) : 100824. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2021.100824.

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Suh, Pierre Fongho, Flobert Njiokou, Rebecca Garabed, Abdoulmoumini Mamoudou, Mouhaman Arabi et Ahmadou Tidjani Malam. « Preliminary study on potential mechanical vectors of animal trypanosomes in the Far North region of Cameroon ». Revue d’élevage et de médecine vétérinaire des pays tropicaux 72, n^o 3 (7 octobre 2019) : 133. http://dx.doi.org/10.19182/remvt.31782.

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Une étude entomologique a été menée dans la région de l’Extrême-Nord du Cameroun – foyer historiquement connu pour la trypanosomose animale et déclaré exempt de glossines à la fin des années 1970 – afin de déterminer les vecteurs mécaniques potentiels des trypanosomes et leur préférence spatiale dans cette région. Trente et un pièges Nzi ont été installés le matin (6 h 30 – 8 h 00) à Goulfey, Madiako canton, Darack Karena dans le département de Logone et Chari, ainsi qu’à Guidiguis, Kalfou et Maga-Guirvidig dans deux autres départements. Ils ont été inspectés après 10 à 11 heures d’exposition. L’échantillonnage a duré un jour. Au total 20 084 mouches hématophages (865 Stomoxys et 19 219 tabanidés) ont été récoltées. Stomoxys niger a été la seule espèce de Stomoxyinae capturée, alors que cinq espèces de tabanidés ont été relevées : Atylotus agrestis, A. albipalpus, A. fuscipes, Tabanus taeniola et T. biguttatus. A. agrestis était de loin l’espèce la plus répandue (92,7 %), suivie de T. taeniola (7,1 %). Les densités apparentes de 50,1, 409,4 et 1499,0 tabanidés par piège et par jour, respectivement à Guidiguis, Goulfey et Madiako, étaient significativement différentes (p = 0,0002). Les tabanidés étaient plus abondants dans les campements que dans les pâturages et les points d’eau. Atylotus agrestis a semblé être le principal vecteur mécanique potentiel des trypanosomes dans la région.

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Leroux, Louise, Johan Oszwald, Benjamin Ngounou Ngatcha, David Sebag, Marie-Josée Penven et Eric Servat. « Le bassin versant du Mayo-Tsanaga (Nord Cameroun) : un bassin versant expérimental pour une compréhension des relations Homme/Milieu ». Revue Française de Photogrammétrie et de Télédétection, n^o 202 (16 avril 2014) : 42–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.52638/rfpt.2013.50.

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Depuis les trente dernières années, de nombreuses études scientifiques s'intéressent aux dynamiques hydrologiques relevées dans le bassin versant du lac Tchad. En effet, ce bassin versant a été, et est encore, une zone emblématique des impacts du changement climatique sur la ressource en eau en région sub-saharienne. la gestion de cette ressource est d'autant plus complexe que ce bassin versant se partage entre le Tchad, le Niger, le Nigéria et le Cameroun. Ce dernier, bien que important pour le fonctionnement hydrique du lac Tchad, est encore trop peu étudié par la communautéscientifique. Nous nous proposons donc de travailler sur le bassin versant du Mayo-Tsanaga, situé au Nord Cameroun et connecté au fleuve Logone, affluent du fleuve Chari et principal contributeur au bilan hydrique du lac Tchad. Quelqueschercheurs de l'ORSTOM (Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique Outre-Mer) ont déjà travaillé sur ce bassin versant dans les années 1970, mais très peu de travaux ont été mis en place ces vingt-cinq dernières années sur celui-ci. de ce fait, il est primordial aujourd'hui, afin de pouvoir relancer une étude du bassin versant du Mayo-Tsanaga par instrumentation, de remettre à jour nos connaissances géomorphologiques, hydrographiques et d'occupation du sol. Pour ce faire, nous avons recours à des données récentes et plus précises (MNT Aster, images satellites landsat TM et etM+) afin de suivre les dynamiques Hommes / milieux ayant cours depuis les 25 dernières années. Ce travail montre une mutation et une organisation complexe des pratiques, en relation notamment avec la géomorphologie et la pédologie dubassin versant du Mayo-Tsanaga.

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Zhu, Wenbin, Shaofeng Jia, Upmanu Lall, Qing Cao et Rashid Mahmood. « Relative contribution of climate variability and human activities on the water loss of the Chari/Logone River discharge into Lake Chad : A conceptual and statistical approach ». Journal of Hydrology 569 (février 2019) : 519–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.12.015.

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Sylvestre, Florence, Mathieu Schuster, Hendrik Vogel, Moussa Abdheramane, Daniel Ariztegui, Ulrich Salzmann, Antje Schwalb et Nicolas Waldmann. « The Lake CHAd Deep DRILLing project (CHADRILL) – targeting ∼ 10 million years of environmental and climate change in Africa ». Scientific Drilling 24 (22 octobre 2018) : 71–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/sd-24-71-2018.

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Abstract. At present, Lake Chad (∼ 13∘′ N, ∼ 14∘ E) is a shallow freshwater lake located in the Sahel/Sahara region of central northern Africa. The lake is primarily fed by the Chari–Logone river system draining a ∼ 600 000 km2 watershed in tropical Africa. Discharge is strongly controlled by the annual passage of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) and monsoon circulation leading to a peak in rainfall during boreal summer. During recent decades, a large number of studies have been carried out in the Lake Chad Basin (LCB). They have mostly focused on a patchwork of exposed lake sediments and outcrops once inhabited by early hominids. A dataset generated from a 673 m long geotechnical borehole drilled in 1973, along with outcrop and seismic reflection studies, reveal several hundred metres of Miocene–Pleistocene lacustrine deposits. CHADRILL aims to recover a sedimentary core spanning the Miocene–Pleistocene sediment succession of Lake Chad through deep drilling. This record will provide significant insights into the modulation of orbitally forced changes in northern African hydroclimate under different climate boundary conditions such as high CO2 and absence of Northern Hemisphere ice sheets. These investigations will also help unravel both the age and the origin of the lake and its current desert surrounding. The LCB is very rich in early hominid fossils (Australopithecus bahrelghazali; Sahelanthropus tchadensis) of Late Miocene age. Thus, retrieving a sediment core from this basin will provide the most continuous climatic and environmental record with which to compare hominid migrations across northern Africa and has major implications for understanding human evolution. Furthermore, due to its dramatic and episodically changing water levels and associated depositional modes, Lake Chad's sediments resemble maybe an analogue for lake systems that were once present on Mars. Consequently, the study of the subsurface biosphere contained in these sediments has the potential to shed light on microbial biodiversity present in this type of depositional environment. We propose to drill a total of ∼ 1800 m of poorly to semi-consolidated lacustrine, fluvial, and eolian sediments down to bedrock at a single on-shore site close to the shoreline of present-day Lake Chad. We propose to locate our drilling operations on-shore close to the site where the geotechnical Bol borehole (13∘28′ N, 14∘44′ E) was drilled in 1973. This is for two main reasons: (1) nowhere else in the Chad Basin do we have such detailed information about the lithologies to be drilled; and (2) the Bol site is close to the depocentre of the Chad Basin and therefore likely to provide the stratigraphically most continuous sequence.

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Amaral, P. G. C., A. Vincens, J. Guiot, G. Buchet, P. Deschamps, J. C. Doumnang et F. Sylvestre. « Palynological evidence for gradual vegetation and climate changes during the African Humid Period termination at 13°N from a Mega-Lake Chad sedimentary sequence ». Climate of the Past 9, n^o 1 (29 janvier 2013) : 223–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cp-9-223-2013.

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Abstract. Located at the transition between the Saharan and Sahelian zones, at the center of one of the largest endorheic basins, Lake Chad is ideally located to record regional environmental changes that occurred in the past. However, until now, no Holocene archive was directly cored in this lake. In this paper, we present pollen data from the first sedimentary sequence collected in Lake Chad (13° N; 14° E; Sahel region). Dated between ca. 6700 and ca. 5000 cal yr BP, this record is continuous and encompasses part of the termination of the African Humid Period (AHP). Vegetation reconstructions are based on standard analyses of pollen diagrams and are strengthened by quantitative approaches. Potential biomes are reconstructed using the biomization method and mean annual precipitation (Pann) is estimated using the modern analogues technique. Results show that, between ca. 6700 and ca. 6050 cal yr BP, a vegetation close to humid woodland or humid savanna, including elements currently found further southward, thrived in the vicinity of the Mega-Lake Chad in place of the modern dry woodland, steppe and desert vegetation. At the same time, montane forest populations extended further southward on the Adamawa Plateau. The high abundance of lowland humid pollen taxa, particularly of Uapaca, is interpreted as the result of a northward migration of the corresponding plants during the AHP. This preferential zonal occurrence of these taxa in Lake Chad Basin (LCB) (rather than extrazonal) is driven by more humid local and regional climate conditions at this latitude, as shown by mean Pann estimated values of ca. 800 (−400/+700) mm during this period. However, we cannot rule out that an increase of the Chari–Logone inputs into the Mega-Lake Chad might have also contributed to control the abundance of these taxa. Changes in the structure and floristic composition of the vegetation towards more open and drier formations occurred after ca. 6050 cal yr BP, following a decrease in mean Pann estimates to approximately 600 (−230/+600) mm. But, the constant significant presence of lowland humid taxa until ca. 5000 cal yr BP, contemporaneous with a slight increase in steppic taxa, demonstrates that at this date, the modern vegetation was not yet established in the vicinity of Lake Chad. Our data indicate that between ca. 6700 and ca. 5000 cal yr BP vegetation and climate changes must have occurred progressively, but that century-scale climate variability was superimposed on this long-term mid-Holocene drying trend as observed around ca. 6300 cal yr BP, where pollen data indicate more humid conditions.

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Amaral, P. G. C., A. Vincens, J. Guiot, G. Buchet, P. Deschamps, J. C. Doumnang et F. Sylvestre. « Palynological evidence for gradual vegetation and climate changes during the "African Humid Period" ; termination at 13° N from a Mega-Lake Chad sedimentary sequence ». Climate of the Past Discussions 8, n^o 3 (18 juin 2012) : 2321–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cpd-8-2321-2012.

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Abstract. Located at the transition between the Saharian and Sahelian zones, at the center of one of the largest endoreic basins, the Lake Chad is ideally located to record regional environmental changes that occurred in the past. However, until now, no continuous archive from Lake Chad covering the Holocene has been studied. In this paper, we present pollen data from the first Holocene sedimentary sequence collected in Lake Chad (13° N; 14° E; Sahel region). Dated between ca. 6700 and ca. 5000 cal yr BP, this record encompasses the termination of the African Humid Period (AHP). Vegetational reconstructions are based on standard analyses of the pollen diagrams and are strengthened by quantitative approaches. Potential biomes that occurred at that time around Mega-Lake Chad are reconstructed using the biomization method and mean annual precipitation is estimated using the modern analogues technique. Results show that between ca. 6700 and ca. 6050 cal yr BP, a vegetation close to humid woodland or humid savanna, including elements currently found much further southward, thrived in the vicinity and/or the extra-local environment of the Mega-Lake Chad in place of the modern steppe, dry woodland and desert vegetation observed today. At the same time, montane forest populations extended further southward on the Adamawa plateau. This vegetation distribution is supported by biome reconstructions as well as by mean annual precipitation estimates of ca. 800 (−400/+700) mm for the period. The high abundance of lowland humid pollen taxa is interpreted as the result of a northward migration of the corresponding plants during the AHP driven by more favorable climatic conditions. Our interpretation in favor of a regional vegetation response to climatic changes is supported by other pollen data from several Northwestern African records. However, we cannot rule out that an increase of Chari-Logone inputs into the Mega-Lake Chad due to variations in hydrological regime might have contributed to the higher abundance of lowland humid pollen taxa observed in the mid-Holocene sedimentary sequence. Changes in the structure and floristic composition of the vegetation towards more open and drier formations occurred after ca. 6050 cal yr BP. This is also evidenced by a decrease in mean annual precipitation estimates to approximately 600 (−230/+600) mm. This change corresponds to the onset of the AHP termination. The constant presence of lowland humid taxa until ca. 5000 cal yr BP, even if displaying a slight decrease, contemporaneous with an increase in steppic taxa, demonstrates that at ca. 5000 cal yr BP the modern vegetation was not yet established in the vicinity of Lake Chad. Our data indicate that vegetational change during this period must have occurred progressively, at least over 1000 yr, and are inconsistent with an abrupt aridification and a collapse of the vegetation cover in the East-Central Saharan and Sahelian regions at the AHP termination.

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Perazzo, Silvia Alejandra. « Lago Chad : qué se esconde tras la crisis de sus aguas ». Relaciones Internacionales, n^o 45 (31 octobre 2020) : 275–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.15366/relacionesinternacionales2020.45.012.

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El lago Chad es un oasis en medio del desierto. Se trata de un lago tropical cuya cuenca activa se alimenta principalmente de las aguas del río Chari y de su afluente el río Logone. Cerca de cien millones de habitantes viven de sus aguas. Desde hace varias décadas, su población atraviesa una situación de emergencia hídrica y humanitaria que es producto de una combinación de factores. Este artículo busca abordar esta problemática multidimensional desde la perspectiva hidrosocial que focaliza no solamente en las cuestiones ambientales, sino que considera que las crisis hídricas son resultado de las relaciones simbióticas entre el ser humano y la naturaleza. Esta perspectiva político-ecológica supone una estrecha relación entre las transformaciones en el ciclo hidrológico a nivel local, regional y global, de una parte, y las relaciones sociales, políticas, económicas y culturales de poder, de otra. Así considerado, las crisis involucran las estructuras estatales y las decisiones políticas, las geometrías de poder, las relaciones económicas y sociales de sus habitantes, y la relación que se establece entre estos factores y el medio ambiente. Por ello, este estudio no considera la cuestión del lago Chad como el mero resultado de un proceso natural de desertización o de cambio climático influenciado o no por la acción humana. Consideramos en cambio, que esta problemática está atravesada por múltiples variables y actores que interactúan y se influencian entre sí determinando la situación actual de la región, que en este caso, involucra además a cuatro estados africanos. Se utilizará asimismo el concepto de waterscape, entendiendo por ello “una unidad de paisaje”, que es resultado de la interacción entre las sociedades y su ambiente. En su expresión actual, el waterscape del lago Chad muestra una región que sufre desplazamientos humanos constantes debido a los cambios en el régimen de lluvias, la falta de aguas y de pasturas, resultantes de la desertización. A su vez, este movimiento de pueblos provoca conflictos comunales entre ganaderos y agricultores por la posesión y el uso de la tierra. La falta de legislación y de una gestión estatal que contemple una adecuada política de tierras agrava la violencia cotidiana que, por otra parte, también se ve exacerbada por la violencia estatal a la hora de reprimir los enfrentamientos comunales. Desde hace casi dos décadas, la región ha visto la proliferación de diversos grupos armados que encuentran en esta situación una ocasión propicia para desarrollar sus actividades ilícitas vinculadas al crimen organizado. Teniendo en cuenta los lineamientos teóricos que hemos esbozado líneas arriba, en este artículo buscamos analizar la actual crisis del lago Chad como una crisis regional en la que se entremezclan factores ambientales, sociales y políticos. En este sentido, analizaremos la variación del régimen de lluvias y sus repercusiones sobre los estados del lago, los movimientos poblacionales históricos y actuales de las diversas etnias que habitan la región, el rol y las políticas impuestas para con habitantes por parte de los cuatro estados de la cuenca, la violencia estatal, comunal y terrorista que se verifica en la zona, y la vinculación entre estos factores como determinantes de la actual situación de la región.

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Hessana, Ahmat. « CONFLICTS OF LAND EXTENSION ‘POLICY’ IN LOGONE-AND-CHARI REGION OF CAMEROON (1953-2012) ». Chemchemi International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 10, n^o 1 (13 juillet 2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.33886/cijhs.v10i1.23.

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From 1953, intra-ethnic violence erupted between qabbayil (Shuwa Arab ethnic groups), and between khashm buyut (clans and fractions) in Logone-and-Chari region of Cameroon. In that year, the breakup of the Sultanate of Goulfey led to the fragmentation of Shuwa Arab authority, then land extension ‘policy’. In this study one also discovers that during Land extension in the Lake Chad basin, there was intra-ethnic violence. This paper evaluates the use of force between Shuwa Arabs from Logone-and-Chari when the need of new land supply targets the closest brother’s lands. Recurring tensions, crises and threats are employed by the qabbayil about the kalankiat (ethnic land boundaries) and illegal villages. Between Shuwa Arab clans and fractions, violence refers to bloody confrontations and personal revenge. Up to 2012, these conﬂicts between ethnic groups and those within clans involved protagonist autochthonous policy, a land regulatory from Shuwa Arab economic elites and corruption from administrative Authorities. Those are the factors which block the process of stopping land violence between these Shuwa Arabs.

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Gignoux, Etienne Marc Hugues, Olivier Tresor Donfack Sontsa, Ayoola Mudasiru, Justin Eyong, Rodrigue Ntone, Modeste Tamakloe Koku, Dalil Mahamat Adji et al. « A telephone based assessment of the health situation in the far north region of Cameroon ». Conflict and Health 14, n^o 1 (30 novembre 2020). http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13031-020-00327-4.

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Abstract Background In 2017, Field access was considerably limited in the Far North region of Cameroon due to the conflict. Médecins Sans Frontieres (MSF) in collaboration with Ministry of health needed to estimate the health situation of the populations living in two of the most affected departments of the region: Logone-et-Chari and Mayo-Sava. Methods Access to health care and mortality rates were estimated through cell phone interviews, in 30 villages (clusters) in each department. Local Community Health Workers (CHWs) previously collected all household phone numbers in the selected villages and nineteen were randomly selected from each of them. In order to compare telephone interviews to face-to-face interviews for estimating health care access, and mortality rates, both methods were conducted in parallel in the town of Mora in the mayo Sava department. Access to food was assessed through push messages sent by the three main mobile network operators in Cameroon. Additionally, all identified legal health care facilities in the area were interviewed by phone to estimate attendance and services offered before the conflict and at the date of the survey. Results Of a total of 3423 households called 43% were reached. Over 600,000 push messages sent and only 2255 were returned. We called 43 health facilities and reached 34 of them. In The town of Mora, telephone interviews showed a Crude Mortality Rate (CMR) at 0.30 (CI 95%: 0.16–0.43) death per 10,000-person per day and home visits showed a CMR at 0.16 (0.05–0.27), most other indicators showed comparable results except household composition (more Internally Displaced Persons by telephone). Phone interviews showed a CMR at 0.63 (0.29–0.97) death per 10,000-person per day in Logone-et-Chari, and 0.30 (0.07–0.50) per 10,000-person per day in Mayo-Sava. Among 86 deaths, 13 were attributed to violence (15%), with terrorist attacks being explicitly mentioned for seven deaths. Among 29 health centres, 5 reported being attacked and vandalized; 3 remained temporally closed; Only 4 reported not being affected. Conclusion Telephone interviews are feasible in areas with limited access, although special attention should be paid to the initial collection of phone numbers. The use of text messages to collect data was not satisfactory is not recommended for this purpose. Mortality in Logone-et-Chari and Mayo-Sava was under critical humanitarian thresholds although a considerable number of deaths were directly related to the conflict.

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KANA, Collins-Etienne. « L’inadéquation entre l’offre et la demande d’éducation au Cameroun : le cas du Département du Logone- et- Chari ». Recherches & ; éducations, 30 août 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4000/rechercheseducations.7133.

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