Thèses sur le sujet « Comparative law of contracts »

Thesis (LLD)--Stellenbosch University, 2003.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The various constructions of rights of pre-emption encountered in South African case law all have some merit. This is confirmed by the multiplicity of types of preference contracts encountered in German law especially. The tendency of South African courts and writers to portray one approach as the only correct one to the exclusion of all other views, results in tension and confusion, all the more because of the failure to investigate the relevant policy considerations comprehensively. The confusion is compounded by what amounts to a breakdown of the system of precedents with judgments being based on incorrect interpretations of previous decisions and with scant regard for contrary decisions. No certainty exists regarding the construction of the contractual right of pre-emption in Roman and Roman-Dutch law, nor is it clear what figure or figures were received into South African law. The Germanic concept of tiered ownership that forms the historical basis for the Oryx remedy, does not form part of our law. This accounts for the difficulty that courts and writers have in explaining this remedy in terms of Romanist terminology, and the resort to the language of fiction. German law and English law, relied upon in South African case law, do not support a uniform construction of all rights of pre-emption as creating an enforceable duty to make an offer upon manifestation of a desire to sell. The almost unanimous support of US courts for a remedy by which the holder can ultimately obtain performance of the main contract upon conclusion of a contract with a third party, challenges the hypothesis suggested by German law that the default construction of preference contracts should be the bare preference contract which only creates a negative obligation. The very cryptic way in which rights of pre-emption are normally drafted, makes it difficult to even identify the main purpose of the parties. It is therefore not easy to classify preference contracts into the different types identified in this study as notional possibilities. A default regime is therefore highly desirable in the interest of legal certainty. The choice of a default regime should be made on the basis of recognised policy considerations, particularly on the basis of an equitable balancing of typical parties' interests and in view of communal interests balanced against the demand for legal certainty. The choice of default regime cannot be based merely on historical authority or precedent (which is in any event unclear in the present context) or unsubstantiated claims that one model is more logical or commercially useful than another. When rules are chosen as the default regime, these rules must, as far as possible, be reconciled with the existing conceptual structure of our law to prevent contradictions and inconsistencies. A policy analysis reveals that three default types of preference contract should be recognised, each with a clearly delineated field of application. Firstly, where the agreement allows the grantor to contract with a third party, the holder has the right to contract with the grantor at the terms agreed with the third party. Such a preference contract can therefore be regarded as an option conditional upon conclusion of a contract with a third party. Such contracts are rare in South Africa. In other cases, the default rule should be that the grantor must first give the holder an opportunity to contract before he contracts with a third party. The default construction of this latter type of preference contracts depends on whether the preference contract itself predetermines the main contract price. If so, the holder has a right or option to contract at that price upon any manifestation of a desire to conclude the relevant type of contract. However, where the preference contract does not predetermine the price, or refers to a price that the grantor would accept from third parties, any manifestation of a desire to sell should not be sufficient to trigger the holder's right. The grantor and society have an interest in having her freedom to negotiate with third parties to obtain the best possible price curtailed as little as possible. In such cases, the default rule should be that the holder is only entitled to conclusion of the main contract upon breach in the form of a contract with or offer to a third party. The default rule should also be that such preference contracts - which will be treated as ordinary preference contracts - only terminate upon the grantor actually contracting with and performing to a third party within a reasonable time after the holder declined the opportunity to match those terms, and provided the identity of the third party was disclosed to the holder on request. The holder therefore cannot lose his preferential right by a rejection of an outrageously high offer by the grantor. Options and preference contracts are closely related and overlapping concepts. The type of preference contract that grants a conditional right to contract can often be understood as a conditional option (or at least as a conditional option subject to a resolutive condition that the grantor does not want to contract anymore). The traditional distinction between options and rights of first refusal can only be maintained in respect of some types of preference contracts. These are negative or bare preference contracts which only give rise to remedies aimed at restoring the status quo ante the breach, as well as those preference contracts creating conditional rights to contract which courts refuse to treat as conditional options because their wording implies a duty to make or accept an offer, or because the requirement of certainty precludes them from being options.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die verskillende konstruksies van voorkoopsregte aanvaar III Suid-Afrikaanse beslissings het almal meriete. Dit word bevestig deur die verskillende tipes voorkoopskontrakte wat veral in die Duitse reg erken word. Die neiging van Suid- Afrikaanse howe en skrywers om een benadering as die enigste korrekte een te tipeer veroorsaak spanning en onsekerheid, des te meer weens die versuim om die relevante beleidsoorwegings deeglik te ondersoek. Boonop is die presedentestelsel telkens verontagsaam deur verkeerde interpretasies van vorige uitsprake en deurdat teenstrydige uitsprake bloot geïgnoreer is. Geen sekerheid bestaan oor die konstruksie van die kontraktuele voorkoopsreg in die Romeinse of Romeins-Hollandse Reg nie. Dit is ook nie duidelik watter figuur of figure in die Suid-Afrikaanse reg geresipieer is nie. Die Germaanse konsep van gesplitste eiendomsreg wat die historiese basis van die Oryx-meganisme daarstel, vorm nie deel van ons reg nie. Dit verduidelik hoekom howe en skrywers sukkel om dié remedie te verduidelik aan die hand van Romanistiese verbintenisreg-terminologie, en die gevolglike gebruikmaking van fiksie-taal. Die Duitse en Engelse reg waarop gesteun is in Suid-Afrikaanse regspraak, steun nie 'n uniforme konstruksie van alle voorkoopsregte as behelsende 'n afdwingbare plig om 'n aanbod te maak by enige manifestasie van 'n begeerte om te verkoop nie. Die byna eenparige steun van Noord-Amerikaanse howe vir 'n remedie waarmee die voorkoopsreghouer uiteindelik prestasie van die substantiewe kontrak kan kry by sluiting van 'n kontrak met 'n derde, is 'n teenvoeter vir die hipotese gesuggereer deur die Duitse reg dat die verstekkonstruksie van voorkeurkontrakte behoort te wees dat slegs 'n negatiewe verpligting geskep word. Die kriptiese wyse waarop voorkeurkontrakte normaalweg opgestel word, maak dit moeilik om selfs die hoofdoelstelling van die partye te identifiseer. Dit is daarom nie maklik om voorkeurkontrakte te klassifisieer in die verskillende tipes wat in hierdie studie geïdentifiseer is nie. 'n Verstekregime is daarom wenslik in die belang van regsekerheid. Die keuse van verstekregime behoort gemaak te word op die basis van erkende beleidsoorwegings, spesifiek op die basis van 'n billike balansering van tipiese partybelange en in die lig van gemeenskapsbelange gebalanseer teen die vereiste van regsekerheid. Die keuse van verstekregime kan nie gebaseer word bloot op historiese gesag en vorige beslissings nie (wat in elk geval in die huidige konteks onduidelik is). Dit kan ook nie gebaseer word op ongemotiveerde aansprake dat een model meer logies of kommersieël bruikbaar as 'n ander is nie. Wanneer verstekreëls gekies word moet dit, sover moontlik, versoen word met die bestaande begrippe-struktuur van ons reg om teenstrydighede in die sisteem te vermy. 'n Beleidsanalise laat blyk dat drie verstektipes voorkeurkontrakte erken behoort te word, elk met 'n duidelik afgebakende toepassingsveld. Eerstens, waar die ooreenkoms toelaat dat die voorkeurreggewer eers met 'n derde party kontrakteer, het die voorkeurreghouer 'n opsie om te kontrakteer op die terme ooreengekom met die derde. Die voorkeurkontrak kan daarom beskou word as 'n opsie onderhewig aan die voorwaarde van sluiting van 'n kontrak met 'n derde. Sulke kontrakte is raar in Suid- Afrika. In ander gevalle behoort die verstekreël te wees dat die voorkeurreggewer eers die houer 'n geleentheid moet gee om te kontrakteer voordat sy met 'n derde 'n kontrak aangaan. Die verstekkonstruksie van hierdie laasgenoemde tipe voorkeurkontrak hang daarvan af of die voorkeurkontrak self die substantiewe kontraksprys vasstel. Indien wel het die houer die reg of opsie om te kontrakteer teen daardie prys by enige manifestasie van 'n begeerte om die spesifieke soort kontrak te sluit. Maar waar die voorkeurkontrak nie die prys vasstel nie, of verwys na 'n prys wat die gewer sou aanvaar van 'n derde, behoort enige manifestasie van 'n begeerte om te kontrakteer nie genoeg te wees om die houer se reg afdwingbaar te maak nie. Die voorkeurreggewer en die gemeenskap het 'n belang daarby dat die gewer se vryheid om met derdes te onderhandel so min as moontlik beperk word sodat sy die beste moontlike prys kan kry. In sulke gevalle behoort die verstekreël te wees dat die houer slegs geregtig is op die voordeel van die substantiewe kontrak by kontrakbreuk in die vorm van 'n kontrak met of aanbod aan 'n derde. Die verstekreël behoort ook te wees dat sulke voorkeurkontrakte in beginsel slegs beëindig word wanneer die voorkeurreggewer inderdaad kontrakteer met en presteer aan 'n derde binne 'n redelike tyd nadat die voorkeurreghouer die geleentheid gegee is om daardie terme te ewenaar. Dit behoort ook vereis te word dat die identiteit van die derde aan die houer geopenbaar word op sy versoek. Die houer kan dus nie sy voorkeurreg verloor deur nie-aanvaarding van 'n belaglik hoë aanbod deur die voorkeurreggewer nie. Opsies en voorkeurkontrakte is oorvleulende konsepte. Die tipe voorkeurkontrak wat 'n voorwaardelike reg om te kontrakteer verleen kan dikwels verstaan word as 'n voorwaardelike opsie (of minstens as 'n voorwaardelike opsie onderhewig aan 'n ontbindende voorwaarde dat die gewer glad nie meer wil kontrakteer nie). Die tradisionele onderskeid tussen opsies en voorkeurregte kan slegs behou word tov sommige voorkeurkontrakte. Hulle is die "negatiewe" voorkeurkontrakte, wat slegs aanleiding gee tot remedies gemik op herstel van die status quo ante kontrakbreuk sowel as daarde voorkeurkontrakte wat voorwaardelike regte om te kontrakteer skep wat howe weier om as voorwaardelike opsies te behandelomdat hulle bewoording wys op 'n plig om 'n aanbod te maak of te aanvaar, of omdat die vereiste van sekerheid hulle verhoed om opsies te wees.

This thesis is an assessment of the position of Islamic law and English law regarding the doctrine of the frustration of the contract. The thesis gave in the first general view about Islamic law and Saudi legal system, also about the contract in Islamic law in general. This study provides a detailed and critical account of the principles of frustration of contract law which operate under Islamic law and English law, where appropriate, identifies and critically evaluates the differences between the principles of frustration of contract which operate respectively under Islamic law and English law and to recognize the effect of the frustration on the performance of the contract. In the case of the absence of theory of frustration of contract in Islamic Law, an attempt will be made to create a complete doctrine of frustration of contract. Researcher discussed the frustration of contract in Islamic Law. In the case of the absence of theory of frustration of contract in Islamic Law, an attempt will be made to create a complete theory of frustration of contract in Islamic law. This is recognised owing to the fact that most cases of the application of frustration fall under the doctrine of impossibility. Impossibility can be regarded as taking place ‘when there supervening events without default of either party and for which the contract makes no sufficient provision which so significant changes the nature, if the cases where impossibility relates to the subject-matter of contracts or relates to the parties, subjective or objective impossibility. This study discusses the issue of Frustration of contract due to external factors covering cases of legal impossibility. This study examines the discharge of contract if there is circumstances do not make the performance impossibility but became difficult to perform such as impracticability and frustration of purpose. It will also look in some detail at the limitations and narrow scope of the doctrine of frustration, and also discuss contractual parties’ sometimes preferred alternatives, such as drafting force majeure clauses and hardship clauses.

In the modern world, electronic communications play a significant role in national and international electronic transactions. This issue has forced all legal systems to face up to many emerging legal problems in the context of electronic communications, such as the time and the place of formation of electronic contracts, the validation of e-contracts made by the interaction with e-agents, the legal validity of electronic documents and signatures, consumer protection in contracting electronically in particular in cross-border e-transactions, and the Internet jurisdiction and choice of law. One issue to determine is the place of formation of contracts when contracting electronically, either through email, websites or chat-rooms to see how the notion of 'place' is perceivable in cyberspace; and the way of application of the four traditional theories of information, dispatch, receipt and awareness relating to the time and place of conclusion of contracts in contracting by electronic means should be examined. Regarding the legal validity of e-contracts made through interactive websites, the legal status of electronic agents which play an important role in this process is questionable to see whether they are akin to real agents in the physical world or they are only a mere tool of communication. The responsible person for any mistakes that an electronic agent makes and causes losses or damages to the contracting parties should also be examined. There are also questions regarding meeting the formalities in the formation of some specific contracts in contracting electronically to see whether the electronic documents and signatures legally valid and admissible at the courts of law or not. Their legal weight should also be measured. Moving on the jurisdiction and choice of law issue, some argumentative questions raise. For instance, where the rule of private international law provides that the competent court is the court within which jurisdiction the contract is performed, it is necessary to see that where the place of performance of the contract in which the subject matter is digital goods such as e-books or computer software delivered online is. This is also an important question in providing electronic services such as e-teaching. Regarding the choice of law issue the same questions of jurisdiction are posed. Furthermore, as consumer protection issue in B2C contracts is important in developing electronic commerce worldwide, it should be considered that whether the consumer party is able to bring an action against the business party in his own place of domicile or habitual residence or not. These are only a sample of questions that the current research tries to analyse based on the traditional legal rules and principles and the statues on electronic commerce. Discussing the above legal doubts in the context of Iranian law shows that there are a number of legal uncertainties in the Iranian legal system hindering, or at least putting in doubt, the development of electronic commerce in both national and cross-border electronic transactions. Despite the fact that some of them have been addressed by the Iranian Electronic Commerce Act 2004 indirectly, however a detailed legal work is still definitely needed to elaborate the questions and provide solutions developing and modernizing Iranian law in the context of electronic contracts. The author in the current research tries to analyse the questions by a horizontal comparative study of the UNCITRAL Model Laws, the Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts 2005, the EU law, English law, American law and Iranian law. Also, a four-stage roadmap that acts as the guiding principle of this research is employed to develop the Iranian legal system in the context of e-commerce. The first stage focuses on whether the exact application of Iranian traditional law can address the emerging legal doubts; the second stage expands and develops traditional rules; the third introduces legal presumptions; and the fourth theorizes new rules. The research concludes that the Iranian legal system may be modernized and developed in the context of electronic contracts by adopting the legal policy and solutions of other legal systems by both scholarly legal doctrines and legislation.

This thesis is a comparative legal study of preliminary agreements in French and American law.<br>At the negotiation process, a preliminary agreement has numerous purposes. Those purposes vary with the parties' will. The contrasted concept of preliminary agreement and its hybrid legal nature give rise to legal issues, such as interpretation, enforceability and liability. Those issues are differently tackled in French and American law.<br>The ambiguity of pre-agreements allows the French and American judges to play a decisive role in the interpretation of such agreements. In accordance with its definiteness and completeness, the pre-agreement may be considered as the final contract and binds the parties. Then, in case of non respect, the blameworthy party may be held liable, and courts may grant damages to the party who has suffered prejudice.

Studies related to psychological contracts have made significant contributions to our understanding of the exchange relationship between employees and employers. However, the influence of national/organisational culture on the psychological contract has largely been neglected. The thesis examines the influence of national and organisational culture on the way in which psychological contracts are constituted, and how they may change following international assignments and repatriation. The research examines differences in the nature, and consequences of, psychological contract fulfilment or breach across two Saudi organisations in the petroleum and petrochemicals sectors. A qualitative case study approach was adopted. The data were gathered using multiple methods, including interviews, non-participant observations and analyses of organisational documents. The findings reported in the thesis draw upon 60 semi-structured interviews with employees who had been repatriated within the previous 12 months, and 14 interviews with Human Resource (HR) managers in the two organisations, triangulated with extensive documentary analysis and observations. The research findings demonstrate the influence of strong national cultural values shaping organisational culture and HR practices in both organisations, which, in turn, influence the content of the psychological contract (i.e. expectations and obligations) at an individual level, both pre- and post-international assignment. Differences were identified between the two organisations in terms of the influence of different national cultural values on organisational culture and practices; these differences influenced individuals’ perceptions of whether their psychological contract had been fulfilled or breached post-international assignment. The implications of this research are also considered.

Contemporary private law, in teh last few decades, TEMPhas been increasingly characterized by teh spread of general clauses and standards and by teh growing role of interpreters in teh framework of teh sources of law. dis process TEMPhas also consistently effected those systems dat are not typically centered on judge-made law. In particular in contract law general clauses and standards has assumed a leading role and has become protagonists of processes of integration and harmonization of teh law. Wifin dis context, teh reasonableness clause TEMPhas come to teh attention of scholars, emerging as a new element of connection between different legal systems -first of all between common law and civil law – and even between different legal traditions. dis research aims at reconstructing teh patterns of emersion and evolution of teh TEMPprincipal of reasonableness in contract law both wifin European Union Law and in teh Chinese legal system, in order to identify evolutionary trends, processes of emersion and circulation of legal models and teh scope of operation of teh TEMPprincipal in teh two contexts. In view of teh increasingly intense economic relations between Europe and China, wifin teh framework of teh new project called Belt and Road Initiative, a comparative survey of dis type can foster mutual understanding and make communications more TEMPeffective, at teh level of legal culture and commercial relations, and to support teh processes of supranational harmonization of contract law rules.

Thesis (M.A.)--City University of Hong Kong, 2005.<br>Title from title screen (viewed on 27 Mar. 2006) "Dissertation submitted for Master of arts in arbitration and dispute resolution." Includes bibliographical references.

Parties who contract at arm’s length are bound by the terms of their contracts, provided the contracts do not contravene a rule of law or public policy. The commencement of formal insolvency proceedings may however limit the ability of a debtor to perform its pre-petition contractual obligations, resulting to liabilities to creditors. Accordingly, a formal insolvency procedure ensures an orderly and efficient resolution of the debtor’s affairs -- maximising realisations to creditors or rescuing the corporate debtor as a going concern. To achieve this purpose, unilateral contract enforcement efforts and rights are replaced by a mandatory regime characterised by collectivity and equality in treatment of similarly situated creditors. This thesis comparatively evaluates the impact of the commencement of formal insolvency proceedings on corporate contracts in the UK and US. It examines the extent to which pre-petition contractual bargains are suspended, adjusted or avoided by the supervening insolvency law regime in the jurisdictions. The thesis adopts a thematic approach to examine how the legal frameworks in the jurisdictions manage the inevitable conflict between the policy considerations of contract law and those of insolvency law. The extent to which insolvency law should interfere with pre-insolvency contractual arrangements and entitlements has always been a contentious and keenly debated issue. No doubt, insolvency law has a greater number of interests to protect outside the interests of pre-petition contracting parties. These include the general body of creditors, employees, post-petition creditors etc. Nevertheless, in the absence of compelling and well-articulated policy justification, formal insolvency ought not to be a forum for the stripping of property rights or the pursuit of redistributional goals.

This thesis explores selected legal problems that arise in the formation of online contracts in the American and English legal systems. The thesis examines to what extent traditional contract law rules provide a satisfactory legal ground for governing such issues. It attempts to show that no substantial legislative reform is necessary as adaptations of traditional contract law rules are sufficient. To this end, this study focuses on questions regarding the <i>formation of email contracts, the role of electronic agent in forming website contracts, the distinction between offer and website advertisement, online errors and mistakes, web site acceptance, </i>and finally, <i>the incorporation of online terms.</i>

Le contrat de vente de biens constituant un levier du commerce transfrontière dans l'Union, le législateur européen en régit par conséquent certains aspects. La directive 1999/44/CE réformée par la directive (UE) 2019/771 et la directive 2011/83/UE comportent ainsi des règles communes aux Etats membres, propres à la vente. Le choix de l'étude spécifique de ces règles tient d'une part, à ce que, économiquement, il s'agisse du contrat le plus courant sur le marché intérieur et d'autre part, à ce que, juridiquement, la vente reste l'archétype du contrat en droit de l'UE, servant ainsi de prémices et de modèles à la législation européenne sur les contrats de consommation<br>The contract for the sale of goods constitutes a lever for cross-border trade in the Union, the European legislator therefore governs certain aspects. Directive 1999/44/EC reformed by Directive (EU) 2019/771 and Directive 2011/83/EU thus include rules common to Member States, specific to sales. The choice of the specific study of these rules is due on the one hand to the fact that, economically, it is the most common contract on the internal market and on the other hand, to the fact that, legally, the sale remains the archetype of the contract in EU law, thus serving as premises and models for European legislation on consumer contracts

The concept of good faith has an important role to play in English contract law, where the elements necessary for its recognition already exist. Nevertheless, the issue has divided the contract community. Although there is strong support for the recognition of such a concept, it is more often rejected on the basis that it would be, at best, unnecessary and, at worst, a serious disruption of contract law. These arguments are correct to the extent that it would indeed be difficult, if not impossible, to transplant an existing continental version of good faith into English law. They fail, however, to consider the possibility of good faith developing organically within the common law, as an overarching principle integral to general law of contract that governs the performance of agreements. In preparation for the argument that the elements necessary for the recognition of a concept of good faith already exist in English law, the use of the term 'good faith' in contracts uberrimae .fidei and the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations 1999 is contrasted with, respectively related to, the present debate. The analysis then focuses on the implied term of mutual trust and confidence in employment law, which is identified as a functional equivalent to the German concept of Treu und Glauben. The subsequent extension of this comparison to terms commonly implied into commercial contracts culminates in the identification of the key elements of good faith. At one level, it ensures that contracts are performed as they were intended to be, by ensuring that the parties do not abuse contractual rights for an extraneous purpose; at another, it provides an instrument for the enforcement of policy considerations within the contractual framework. The central concern is always the balancing of interests - those of the parties, those of the community within which the parties are operating, and those of society as a whole. The elements thereby identified are more than capable of refinement into a coherent theory; this thesis commences the process of conceptual analysis and thereby takes the first step towards the recognition of a truly English concept of good faith.

Thesis (LLD)--Stellenbosch University, 2004<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: An overview of the historical development of contract law and its underlying theory, spanning from Roman times to the present day, and in Western European and Anglo American systems, shows that the gradually developing will theory dominated in the early nineteenth century. It was, however, also in the nineteenth century that the first cracks in this theory were observed. First, sociological, political and economic factors, brought about by the Industrial Revolution, the rise of socialism and of labour, required a new, more humane approach. Secondly, with the emergence of a new economic system, new technical problems came to the fore: how were problems of mistake, interpretation, implied terms and derogation to be solved, unless reliance was placed, in each case, on untenable fictions? Thus, towards the last quarter of the nineteenth century, an intense and unparalleled juristic debate ensued, mainly in Europe, but later also in England and the United States of America. New approaches, e.g. that a strict and uncompromising declaration be followed, was proposed. The outcome of this debate was the emergence of the so-called confidence theory. The basis of this approach is that, whatever a person's real intention may have been, he so conducts himself as to lead the other party, as a reasonable person, to believe that the first party has assented to the contract as proposed or understood by the second party, the first party is bound by the impression he created. The principle was clearly stated by Blackburn J in Smith v Hughes (1871) LR 6 OB 597, which has since become one of the famous dicta in the law of contract, and forms part of the English law. It should be stressed that the Blackburn approach was not alien to Europe, where the gradual and natural development of the common law was overtaken by codification The French Codification retained the pure will theory. Under the Dutch code, the so-called will-reliance system was developed, akin to the Blackburn approach. In German law, however, the De Groot view was followed: the mistaken party was permitted to 'resile' from the 'contract' but under obligation to compensate the 'innocent' party's negative interest. In South Africa, the basic point of departure is the will theory but supplemented by the confidence theory This system is made possible by our law of procedure, where two remedies, the justus error approach and the contractual consent approach are available. As both these remedies have the same objective, viz. to protect the legitimate interests of the party that was misled, they require the same substantive law requirements. The confidence theory has imbedded itself so deeply in South African, European and English law, that it is now recognized by some as the key, not only to the solution of the dissensus problem, but also in cases of interpretation, supplementation and derogation. The combination of will and reliance are the foundation stones of contractual liability. These two principles have developed (and are still developing) from society's pre-positive, moral, ethical, political, economic, religious and other values, which have been and are still being absorbed in the body of legal rules. This process of development is informed by the norms and rules relating to public policy, public interest, the bani mores and good faith. These norms and rules are recognized and applied in the legal systems of the United States of America, England and Europe. They form part of our law, but unfortunately our courts are extremely conservative in recognizing and applying them. If we wish to obtain and sustain social and contractual justice, more weight should be accorded to these values.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: 'n Oorsig van die geskiedkundige ontwikkeling van die kontraktereg en die onderliggende teorie daarvan vanaf die Romeinse tyd tot vandag in sowel Wes-Europese as die Anglo-Amerikaanse stelsels, toon aan dat die geleidelik-ontwikkelende wilsteorie in die negentiende eeu die botoon gevoer het. Dis egter ook gedurende die negentiende eeu dat die eerste krake in hierdie teorie waargeneem is. Eerstens het sosiologiese, politieke en ekonomiese faktore, veroorsaak deur die Industriële Revolusie, 'n nuwe, meer menslike benadering geverg. Tweedens het nuwe, tegniese probleme ontstaan met die opkoms van 'n nuwe ekonomiese sisteem: hoe moes probleme soos dwaling, uitleg, stilswyende bepalings en derogasie opgelos word, tensy die oplossing in elke geval op onhoudbare fiksies moes berus? In die laaste kwart van die negentiende eeu het derhalwe 'n intense en ongeëwenaarde juridiese debat ontstaan, hoofsaaklik in Europa, maar later ook in Engeland en die VSA Nuwe benaderings, bv. dat slegs gelet word op die eksterne verklaring ter uitsluiting van enige subjektiewe bedoeling, is voorgestel. Die resultaat van hierdie debat was die ontwikkeling van die vertrouensteorie. Die basis van hierdie benadering is dat wat ookal 'n mens se werklike bedoeling mag gewees het, hy so opgetree het dat die ander party, redelikerwys, oortuig was dat die eerste party toegestem het tot die kontrak soos voorgestelof verstaan deur die tweede party die eerste party dan gebonde is aan die indruk wat hy geskep het. Die beginsel is duidelik gestel deur Blackburn R in Smith v Hughes (1871) LR 6 OB 597. Dit moet benadruk word dat die Blackburn benadering nie vreemd aan Europa was nie, waar die geleidelike en natuurlike ontwikkeling van die gemene reg deur kodifikasie kortgeknip is. Die Franse Kodifikasie het die suiwer wilsteorie behou. Die sogenaamde wils-vertrouens stelsel, soortgelyk aan die Blackburnbenadering, het onder die Nederlandse Kode ontwikkel, maar in Duitsland is die De Groot-benadering gevolg: die party wat homself vergis het, is toegelaat om uit die 'kontrak' terug te tree, maar onder die verpligting om die 'onskuldige' party se negatiewe interesse te vergoed. In Suid-Afrika is die basiese vertrekpunt die wilsteorie, maar aangevul deur die vertrouensteorie. Dit word moontlik gemaak deur ons prosesreg, waar twee remedies, die Justus error-benadering en die wilsooreenstemmings-benadering beskikbaar is. Aangesien beide hierdie remedies dieselfde mikpunt het, naamlik om die regmatige belange van die misleide party te beskerm, verg hulle dieselfde materiële regsvereistes. Die vertrouensteorie is so diep in die Suid-Afrikaanse, Europese en Engelse reg ingebed dat dit nou deur sommige mense erken word as die sleutel, nie alleen tot die oplossing van die dissensus probleem nie, maar ook in gevalle van uitleg, aanvulling en derogasie. Die kombinasie van wil en vertroue is die hoekstene van kontraktuele aanspreeklikheid. Hierdie twee begrippe het ontwikkel (en ontwikkel nog steeds) uit die gemeenskap se voor-positiewe, morele, etiese, staatkundige, ekonomiese, godsdiens- en ander waardes, wat in die regstelselopgeneem en beliggaam is en word. Hierdie ontwikkelingsproses berus op die norme en reëls betreffende openbare beleid, openbare belang, die boni mores en goeie trou en word erken en toegepas in die regstelsels van die VSA, Engeland en Europa. Dit maak deel uit van ons reg, maar ongelukkig is ons howe aartskonserwatief in die erkenning en toepassing daarvan. As ons maatskaplike en kontraktuele geregtigheid wil bekom en volhou, moet groter gewig aan hierdie waardes vergun word.

Le contrat constitue l’un des facteurs clés qui permet aux parties qui y expriment leur volonté d’obtenir chacune un gain dans l’échange. Considéré comme l’un des principaux mécanismes juridiques d’organisation de la vie économique, le contrat contribue effectivement au développement économique d’un pays. Les échanges économiques, qu’il s’agisse de marchandises ou de services, dépassent largement aujourd’hui les frontières des Etats. Ce phénomène nécessite incontestablement la connaissance réciproque des droits nationaux respectifs par les cocontractants de nationalités différentes. L’étude comparative des droits français et vietnamien se limite à l’exécution en nature du contrat, au besoin, sous la contrainte judiciaire. Plusieurs problématiques émergent autour cette sanction de l’inexécution du contrat : Existe-il un principe général d’exécution en nature du contrat, au besoin, sous la contrainte judiciaire ? Le juge est-il obligé d’ordonner une exécution en nature lorsque cette dernière est sollicitée par la partie envers laquelle l’engagement n’a pas été exécuté ? Quelle décision prendra le juge lorsque le créancier – victime d’une obligation inexécutée –, à sa requête, désire obtenir soit une exécution en nature soit une résolution du contrat ? Quelle décision prendra le juge lorsque l’exécution en nature du contrat est devenue impossible ou interdite par la loi ? Les réponses à ces questions permettent de parvenir à résoudre le problème de l’articulation entre l’exécution en nature et d’autres remèdes à l’inexécution du contrat. Apparaissent également d’autres questions notamment de savoir quelles sont les solutions permettant de renforcer l’exécution en nature du contrat, comment est mise en œuvre l’exécution en nature du contrat, quels sont les moyens de défense que les droits français et vietnamien mettent à la disposition des parties contractantes lors de la mise en œuvre de l’exécution en nature du contrat, bien d’autres encore au-dessus desquelles il faudra toujours se demander lequel, des systèmes français et vietnamien, répond le mieux à ces interrogations.C’est donc à tous ces questionnements que cette étude « Exécution en nature du contrat – étude comparative du droit français et du droit vietnamien » va tenter d’apporter des réponses. Ils seront repris dans chaque système juridique afin de faire ressortir les points de convergence, de divergence et dégager ainsi les perspectives pour les droits français et vietnamien en la matière. Plus largement, l’étude des droits français et vietnamien sur l’exécution en nature du contrat, s’il forme la matière même de ce travail de recherche, ne seront pas les seuls à être envisagés. Dans le vaste mouvement mondial d’intégration économique, la référence à d’autres systèmes juridiques peut également apporter des expériences, des réflexions et des enrichissements législatifs et juriprudentiels au profit des droits français et vietnamien relatifs à l’exécution en nature du contrat<br>Economic exchange, whether it is goods or services, goes far beyond today’s borders. This phenomenon undoubtedly requires mutual understanding of respective national laws by the co-contractor parties of various nationalities. The comparative study of French and Vietnamese Law is limited to specific performance and legal measures of constraint. Therefore, several issues emerge around the sanction applied for a breach of contract: - Is there a general principle of specific performance? And, if needed, can legal measures of constraint be imposed? - Is the judge obliged to order specific performance when the party for whose benefit an undertaking has not been performed requests it?- What decisions will the judge take about the creditor’s request, party that is victim of the breach, who is seeking either for a specific performance or to have the contract rescinded?- What decisions will the judge take when specific performance has become impossible or prohibited by the law?The answers to these questions will help solve the problem of relationship between specific performance and other remedies for breach of contract. Other issues are also raised regarding the solutions to enhance and implement specific performance, the defences that French and Vietnamese Law provide to the contracting party to implement specific performance… In order to answer those questions, and many others, we should ask ourselves which of French and Vietnamese Law best applies. Therefore, this study entitled “Specific performance – a comparative study of French and Vietnamese Law” will attempt to provide answers to these questions. These matters will be taken up in each legal system in order to bring out the points of convergence, divergence and thus identify opportunities for French and Vietnamese Law on the subject. This comparative study shows that French and Vietnamese law face a number of points in which solutions converge. At first, we can notice that these two legal systems favor specific performance to other sanctions for breach of contract, namely the price reduction, contract termination or damages. In order to protect the creditor, French and Vietnamese contract law allow to combine specific performance with other sanctions provided they are compatible, which is notably the case for damages. In the name of contractual freedom, specific performance and its combination with other sanctions can also be appointed by mutual agreement of the parties.More broadly, the study of French and Vietnamese Law on specific performance, which is the very substance of this research, will not only be the ones to be considered. In the vast movement of global economic integration, referring to other legal systems can also provide better insights on contract law and, thus, will permit to update legislation and judicial interpretation in favor of French and Vietnamese Law related to specific performance

Le droit international privé français des contrats est très avancé, la richesse de la jurisprudence et la doctrine font une bonne preuve de l’évolution du droit français en la matière. Ses conceptions sont répandues et admises par d’autres États, européens en premier lieu, puis dans le monde entier. Le système de droit français et celui de droit communautaire sont complémentaires l’un et l’autre. Pour cette raison l’étude de droit international privé français ne peut plus être restreinte uniquement dans le cadre de droit international commun. Dès lors le droit international privé communautaire devrait aussi faire l’objet de cette étude. Quant au droit international privé des contrats thaïlandais, il est en cours de développement et a besoin de grande réformation urgent pour la coopération juridique dans l’ASEAN. L’étude comparative en cette matière permettrait donc de trouver la bonne solution et d’apprendre l’application de règles conflictuelles ainsi que d’autres mécanismes du droit international privé pour régler les problèmes dans l’ordre juridique thaï. Donc les questions de la loi applicable et le règlement des différends font l’objet principal de cette étude<br>The French system of Private International Law of Contract is highly developed, evidenced by a rich jurisprudence and doctrinal system. One of the leaders in the field, many of their legal concepts were widely accepted and adopted by other legal systems, first by European countries and then worldwide. However, because of their complementary and intertwined nature for each other, the French legal system cannot be studied apart from the European system. For this reason, this study covers not only an in depth examination of French Private International Law but also a general look at European Private International Law. The Thai system of Private International Law of Contracts, in comparison, is developing and needs significant legal reform, as soon as possible, in order to cooperate with other contracting States in ASEAN. Thus, this comparative study responds to the needs, and shows how to correctly apply the conflict of laws’ rules, including their exceptions, which could solve many problems occurring in the Thai legal system. Therefore questions on the applicable laws of contract and the settlement of disputes which derive from international contract law are objects of this study

This thesis argues that the popularity of the clandestine marriage plot in English and Spanish drama following the Reformation corresponds closely to developments and emerging conflicts in European matrimonial law. My title, ‘casos de honra,' or ‘honour cases', unites law and drama in a way that captures this argument. Taken from the Spanish playwright Lope de Vega's El arte nuevo (1609), a treatise on his dramatic practice, the phrase has been understood as a description of the honour plots so common in Spanish Golden Age drama, but ‘casos' [cases] has a further, and related, legal meaning. Casos de honra are cases touching honour, whether portrayed on stage or at law, a European rather than a strictly Spanish phenomenon, and clandestine marriages are one such example. I trace the genealogy of three casos de honra from their recognisable origins in Italian novelle, through Italian, French, Spanish, and English adaptations, until their final early modern manifestations on the English and Spanish stage. Their seeming differences, and often radical divergences in plot can be explained with reference to their distinct, but related, legal concerns.

In terms of the works contracts as a general rule the target prices between the parties are immutable. However, in the execution of the contracts for works might well emerge unforeseeable events, which would produce costs to the contractor. To these events, what actions the parties migth take? What kind of remedies does the Peruvian Civil Code offer?. In this article, the autor analizes these issues and proposes solutions to these unforeseeable risks, all on the basis of Peruvian Civil Code and a comparative study with Italian Civil Code.<br>En materia de los contratos de obra por regla general los precios fijados entre las partes son inalterables. Sin embargo, en las labores del contrato de obra podrían surgir sucesos imprevisibles, que producirían nuevos gastos para el contratista. Ante estos sucesos, ¿Qué acciones podrían realizar las partes? ¿Qué tipo de remedios ofrece el Código Civil peruano?.En este artículo, el autor analiza estos temas y propone soluciones ante estos riesgos imprevisibles, todo ello sobre la base del Código Civil peruano y un estudio comparado con el Código Civil italiano.

Legal systems around the world vary widely in how they deal with the assignment of receivables. This legal variety makes it difficult for financiers to conduct their international receivables financing business. This thesis suggests an International Registration System for the Assignment and Security Interest of Receivables (‘IRSAR’) and proposes a model international convention for the IRSAR (‘proposed IRSAR Convention’), which could help financiers to overcome the obstacles they currently encounter. Under the proposed IRSAR Convention, the international assignment of receivables would be regulated by a unified legal system with respect to priority and perfection. The IRSAR would facilitate international project financing. Furthermore, the IRSAR would enable companies to raise finance from greater ranges of investors around the world through international receivables financing and to dispose of non-performing loans more easily. The proposed IRSAR Convention would succeed the UN Convention on the Assignment of Receivables in International Trade in the attempt of establishing a registration system for international assignments of receivables. The proposed IRSAR Convention confines its scope of application by defining the assignor (or the security provider), inventing the concept of ‘Vehicle for the International Registration System’ (‘VIRS’). The proposed IRSAR Convention applies where the assignor or security provider is a VIRS. An assignment of a receivable where the assignor is a VIRS and a security interest in a receivable where the security provider is a VIRS could be registered in the IRSAR. Under the proposed IRSAR Convention, priority of assignments of and security interests in receivables is determined by the order of registration in the IRSAR. The proposed IRSAR Convention would be a receivables version of the Cape Town Convention. With respect to the contents and effect of registration, it would prescribe a notice-filing system along the lines of that adopted in the UCC Article 9. With respect to the operation of the registration, it would adopt an automatic online registration system operating 24 hours a day, 365 days a year like the International Registry under the Cape Town Convention.

Le droit international privé français des contrats est très avancé, la richesse de la jurisprudence et la doctrine font une bonne preuve de l'évolution du droit français en la matière. Ses conceptions sont répandues et admises par d'autres États, européens en premier lieu, puis dans le monde entier. Le système de droit français et celui de droit communautaire sont complémentaires l'un et l'autre. Pour cette raison l'étude de droit international privé français ne peut plus être restreinte uniquement dans le cadre de droit international commun. Dés lors le droit international privé communautaire devrait aussifaire l'objet de cette étude. Quant au droit international privé des contrats thaïlandais, il est en cours de développement et a besoin de grande réformation urgent pour la coopération juridique dans l'ASEAN. L'étude comparative en cette matière permettrait donc de trouver la bonne solution et d'apprendre l'application de règles conflictuelles ainsi que d'autres mécanismes du droit international privé pour régler les problèmes dans l'ordre juridique thaï. Donc les questions de la loi applicable et le règlement des différends font l'objet principal de cette étude.

The purpose of the thesis is to examine Shiah law, as an undeveloped systen-4 in order to identify if it could be applied to modem sale transactions. The focus is on remedies in which Shiah jurists have done a great deal of work. The subject is first examined under English law and the UN Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (as two developed systems) to identify the issues which have to be dealt with and then under Shiah law in depth. An extensive examination shows that current Shiah law suffers from substantive gaps and uncertainty. It is suggested that the current situation is due to lack of applying an efficient methodology. Instead of dealing with the legal rules in respect of concrete issues, Shiah jurists tend to deal with traditional as well as hypothetical cases to derive further detailed rules. To present a sensible picture of this system, it is suggested that the law should be analysed in the light of studying developed systems. Relying on this method, attempts are made to systematise the relevant rules and answer the various questions these two modem systems deal with. Shiah law is then compared with English law and the Convention to highlight the existing gaps in Shiah law and to assess how it could be applied to modem sales. Comparative assessment of the three systems shows that while in English law primacy is given to damages and specific performance is rarely awarded, the Convention gives significance to both. Similarly, English law seems to permit termination more easily than the Convention. But unlike the Convention, it does not recognise price reduction as a separate remedy. Overall, it is shown that Shiah law is closer to the Convention than to English law. It attaches significance to both damages and specific performance, and entitles the buyer to reduce the contract price, but permits termination more easily than the Convention and less easily than English law. It is concluded that because of substantive gaps and uncertainty in current Shiah law it is not an appropriate system to govern modem sale transactions, but if the suggested methodology is applied it could be developed and fill in the gaps.

<p>During the later half of the 20th century standard form contracts began to be used more frequently in contract situations. This trend has been consistent and in today’s world numerous commercial parties employ such contracts in their business transactions. The reasons for the extended use of standard form contracts are the benefits that can be obtained for the parties such as time efficiency, effectiveness and price advantages. Standardised contracts often regulate certain issues of the contract for example the way of delivery, remedies and complaints. The definition of such contracts is corresponding in Sweden and England as contracts containing in advance standardised terms with an aim to be used similarly in contract situations with most clients or customers.</p><p>As the usage of standard form contracts increased, the number of unfair contract terms also enhanced. Therefore, the legislative powers in Sweden and England realised that the rules concerning the freedom of contract had to be restricted and governed. As a result, the legislative powers introduced an open control device through statutory control. This was done in Sweden in 1976 with the enforcement of Section 36 of the Contracts Act, and in England the year after when UCTA came into force. The statutory control in both Sweden and England makes it possible to appraise the fairness of exemption clauses. The statutory control is not identical in the two states. UCTA only concerns exclusion clauses and limitation clauses regarding contract terms and non-contractual notices. In Sweden, on the other hand, there is a general doctrine of unfairness and Section 36 of the Contracts Act can set aside all kinds of agreements.</p><p>The statutory control is complemented by indirect means of controlling the content of a contract through non statutory methods. The non statutory methods are concerned with the incorporation, interpretation and construction of clauses in a contract. To be valid and for a party to be able to rely on a term it must have been incorporated into the contract. The rules concerning the interpretation of standard form contracts and exclusion clauses are also of great importance. In both states the approach held is that the statutory control should be used preferably over the indirect control means, though the indirect means still has a prominent role in England through common law. Both England and Sweden agree on that the weaker party in a contract situation is in a greater need of protection by the rules of law in unfair contract situations. However unfairness can only arise if the superior party has wrongfully used the exclusion clause.</p><p>Our study shows the differences between Swedish and English contract law that can result in difficulties in the harmonisation process. These differences concern the test of reasonableness of exemption clauses, the doctrine of good faith, the legal effects and to what extent the indirect means of control should be applied. The Swedish test of reasonableness may include all relevant circumstances irrespective of the time of their occurrence, before or after the entry of the contract. The courts in England are limited to circumstances that have occurred before the closure of the contract. Section 36 of the Swedish Contracts Act includes a general rule of unfairness applicable to all kinds of contract terms. The rule of unfairness in the UCTA on the other hand, is only applicable to exemption clauses and indemnity clauses and there is no general rule of unfairness in English contract law. Instead the courts rely on indirect means of control, which therefore is of greater importance in English contract law. Finally, adjustments of unfair exemption clauses has a significant role in Swedish contract law, in contrast to English contract law where any adjustment is regarded as an intrusion of the freedom of contract.</p><p>To endorse one of the most important aims of the EU; a well working inner market, discussions commenced in 2001. The discussions concerned the harmonisation of the contract law within the union. The questions that arose were whether or not it was possible at all to form a European common contract law and if so, what the effects would be. An action plan was developed by the Commission and today both the EU Parliament and the Council are positive in regard to the continuing work with a reference frame. The Commission aims to pass the reference frame in 2009. Since the EU member states are diverse and have different legal systems a harmonisation of the contract law could cause difficulties. There are differences concerning legal traditions and legal values, hence the legal expertise in Europe is divided in the harmonisation question.</p><p>The following study aims to analyse the existing rules of law in Sweden and England representing two diverse legal systems existing in Europe; civil law and common law. The focus of this study regards the control of exclusion clauses in standard form contracts in both legal systems. The comparison will then be used to analyse the fundamental question if the harmonisation of contract law in the EU is feasible. Specific areas within the contract law have already been harmonised, which shows a possibility to coordinate common law and civil law. Directive 93/13/EEC on Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts is one example of harmonised contract law in the EU and the principles in PECL is another example which shows that it is possible to coordinate common law and civil law. A harmonisation of the contract law will probably promote the commerce within the union and be the next step towards one of the most prominent goals of the EU, namely a well functioning common market. However, our study shows that the differences between national legislation and the differences between the legal traditions within the EU are not insignificant and a harmonisation will probably not be enforced without difficulties.</p>

Les acheteurs des droits sociaux sont plus vulnérables que les acheteurs des autres objets, dans la mesure où ils sont plus susceptibles à payer un prix plus élevé que la valeur réelle et que les vendeurs possèdent une aptitude à abuser les actifs immatériels de la société cible après l’achat, principalement par une concurrence avec ladite société cible. La vulnérabilité des acheteurs des droits sociaux doit et peut être résolue par le biais de recourir à des mécanismes conventionnels librement développés par les acheteurs des droits sociaux, avec l’aide de la part de leurs avocats. Cependant, en droit français, la liberté contractuelle nécessaire pour la mise en œuvre des mécanismes conventionnels est limitée par l’intervention légale omniprésente, qui se manifestent principalement de deux façons : d’une part, un acheteur des droits sociaux insatisfaisant est capable d’accéder à la protection de plein droit, et ce même sans aucune clause conventionnelle destinée à ce sujet ; d’autre part, ils sont prohibés ou restreints à stipuler certains types de clauses conventionnelles pour cet objectif. Ainsi, le cœur des discussions entre les auteurs français concernant l’achat des droits sociaux est comment contourner les restrictions légales de la liberté contractuelle et comment tirer pleinement partie de la protection légale de plein droit des acheteurs des droits sociaux. Une comparaison entre le droit français et le droit chinois sur l’achat des droits sociaux montrerait que la préoccupation du droit français sur l’intervention légale ne serait peut-être pas nécessaire sur ce sujet, dans le fait que l’intervention légale est intrinsèquement incompatible avec les caractéristiques des droits sociaux est de lega ferenda doit être supprimée. Au lieu de cela, sur le sujet d’achat des droits sociaux, ce qu’il fallait discuter sont les multiples techniques conventionnelles développées dans l’objectif de résoudre la vulnérabilité inhérente des acheteurs des droits sociaux. De ce fait, une comparaison entre les techniques conventionnelles des deux pays serait donc effectuée<br>Buyers of shares are more vulnerable than buyers of other objects to the extent that they are more prone to pay a price much higher than the “real” value; and that the sellers have an aptitude to usurp the intangible assets of the target company after the purchase, mainly through a competition with the said target company. The vulnerability of the buyers of shares should and is able to be solved by resorting to conventional mechanisms freely developed by the buyers and shares, with the help of their attorneys. However, under French law, the contractual liberty necessary for an effective implementation of the conventional mechanisms, is restricted by omnipresent legal interventions, mainly manifested in two ways: for one thing, an unsatisfactory buyer of shares is able to get protected de plein droit, even without any conventional clauses to this end. For another, they are prohibited or restricted to stipulate certain kinds of conventional clauses for the very purpose. Accordingly, the focus of French discussions when it comes to purchase of shares is on how to bypass the legal restrictions on the contractual liberty and how to make a full use of the legal protections of the buyers of shares de plein droit. A comparison of the French law with Chinese law concerning purchase of shares will show that the French concerns of the legal interventions when it comes to purchase of shares, might to some extent be unnecessary, in that the legal interventions are inherently incompatible with the originalities of shares and de lega ferenda should be abandoned. Instead, under the topic of purchase of shares, what should be discussed is the multiple conventional techniques developed aiming at solving the inherent vulnerability of the buyers of shares; and a comparison of the conventional techniques in the two countries will be accordingly conducted

This thesis is an assessment of the position of English, American, French and German law, UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (CISG), the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts and Principle of European Contract Law (PECL) regarding the problem of economic hardship in performance of contracts. As such, it has four aims: first, to establish a comprehensive concept of economic hardship; second, on the basis of the concept of economic hardship established, to examine this concept in the four main legal systems to determine the extent to which they recognise this problem and what kind of legal consequences they consider for it; third, by a comparative approach, to consider and explore the points of convergence and divergence between the legal systems under study; and, fourth, by examining some international and regional laws and models to find out how non-domestic laws and models have treated the issue. In relation to the first aim, after establishing that a general theory of hardship is needed, it is argued that economic hardship occurs when, as a result of unforeseen and unforeseeable supervening events for which none of the parties is responsible and could not have been avoided the consequences, the performance of the contract has become excessively onerous and the original equilibrium of the contract has been fundamentally altered. In relation to the second aim, different conclusions are reached in the four legal systems being studied: in English law, although the doctrine of frustration by its dominant test of ‘fundamental change’ is theoretically applicable to cases of economic hardship, in practice, English courts have rejected the notion that hardship can be regarded as a ground for excuse for non-performance of the contract. In American law, the modern doctrine of commercial impracticability has recognised the problem of economic hardship. However, in practice American courts have been unsuccessful in properly applying this doctrine to cases of economic changes in contracts. French law has only accepted economic changes as a ground for revision in administrative contracts under the doctrine of <i>imprévision. </i> The German doctrine of frustration has played a broader function compared to that of other legal systems; German law has recognised the problem of economic hardship as a ground for excuse of non-performance of the contract in its case law and also in its recently revised Civil Code. In relation to the third aim, it is submitted that CISG, an international convention for international sale of goods, has not adopted the concept of economic hardship, and impossibility is the only ground for the exemption rule under Article 79 of CISG. However, the two modern models UNIDROIT Principles and PECL have properly recognised the problem of economic hardship and anticipated appropriate solutions for it. Although the presence of a concept of economic hardship is needed as a general guidance in changed economic circumstances, it is concluded that the most peaceful way to deal with the problem of economic hardship is to provide express causes at the time of conclusion of the contract.

Le sujet nous amène tout d'abord à étudier le rôle principal et naturl du juge dans la détermination des obligations en confrontant deux approches, a priori distinctes, des systèmes de civil law prônant une interprétation subjective des volontés, et de common law où l’interprétation objective littérale est de mise. Or, l’influence croissante des éléments objectifs en civil law et la mutation que connaît l’interprétation des contrats en common law, nous invitent à reconsidérer ce rôle et à privilégier une interprétation globale des contrats qui met en évidence le rôle constructif du juge et révèle des points de convergence. Cette attitude concrète tend à reconsidérer la place de la bonne foi et de l’équité, critères à la grande subjectivité, dans l’interprétation des contrats lacunaires. En second lieu, l’étude comparative met au jour un rôle émergeant du juge dans la détermination des contrats eux-mêmes. En effet, par recours à de nouveaux instruments interprétatifs tendant à préserver l’engagement et l’équilibre minimums et favorisant l’efficacité contractuelle, le juge définit chaque contrat. Son rôle est alors constitutif<br>The subject, first of all, brings us to study the main and natural role of the judge in the determination of the obligations while confronting two approaches, a priori distinct, of systems of civil law extolling a subjective interpretation of will, and common law where the literal objective interpretation is the Rule. However, the increasing influence of the objective elements in civil law and the mutation that contracts construction knows in common law, invite us to reconsider this role and to privilege a global interpretation of the contracts that puts in evidence the constructive role of the judge and reveal points of convergence. This concrete attitude has the tendency to reconsider the place of Good Faith and Fairness, so subjective criteria, in the construction of the incomplete contracts. In a second time, the comparative survey puts on the day an emerging role of the judge in the determination of the contracts themselves. Indeed, by recourse to new interpretative instruments having the tendency to preserve minimum binding and balance, and encouraging the contractual efficacy, the judge defines each contract. His role is then constituent

Simulation is a complex legal operation in which the parties, with the aim of concealing their real intentions, have made two agreements: one apparent and the other one secret. Although simulation is dealt widely in Civil Law countries, the Civil Code of Peru shows some inconsistencies; especially, to employ a doctrinal classification, which describes different aspects of the fattispecie, as various fattispecie. Therefore, the author develops a critical and comparative analysis about simulation of contract in the Peruvian Civil Code.<br>La simulación es una operación jurídica compleja caracterizada por el acuerdo de las partes para fingir un negocio jurídico o contrato, o para disimularlo, detrás de un negocio jurídico o contrato aparente.A pesar de que la simulación ha sido objeto de amplia atención en distintos ordenamientos jurídicos, el Código civil peruano posee numerosas incongruencias; especialmente, por elevar al rango de fattispecie diversas algunas de las clasificaciones doctrinarias que describen las distintas facetas de una misma fattispecie, es decir, la fattispecie simulatoria. Por ello, la autora desarrolla un análisis crítico de la simulación en el Código civil peruano desde el enfoque del derecho comparado.

Traditionnellement, le droit des contrats de tradition romaniste a eu, pour l’essentiel, sa source dans la loi et notamment dans le Code civil. Ainsi les contractants ont disposé d’une grande liberté d’action juridique, car la plupart des lois régissant les contrats présentaient un caractère supplétif de la volonté individuelle. Cependant, cette primauté du législatif a été limitée par la promulgation des Constitutions d’après-guerre. En effet et incontestablement, les droits de l’homme sont à la mode, et cette vogue laisse son empreinte dans le droit des contrats. Désormais, il n’est plus possible au législateur de porter atteinte à certains principes ayant valeur constitutionnelle. De plus, ce système permet au juge constitutionnel contemporain d’annuler des dispositions législatives portant atteinte à des tels impératifs. De même, les gardiens des nouvelles constitutions s’octroient le pouvoir d’indiquer l’interprétation que les juges ordinaires doivent retenir des textes législatifs. De cette façon le juge constitutionnel devient un acteur important du droit des contrats dans la famille romaniste. Il émerge ainsi un évènement qui marque une nouvelle étape dans le développement du droit privé des contrats : sa constitutionnalisation. Or ce nouvel épisode donne lieu au débat sur une éventuelle remise en cause de l’ordre contractuel civiliste<br>Traditionally, the law of contracts of Romani tradition has basically had its source in the law and in particular in the Civil Code. Thus the contracting parties had a great deal of legal discretion, since most of the laws governing contracts had a residual character of the individual will. However, this primacy of the legislature has been limited by the promulgation of the post-war Constitutions. Indeed and incontestably, human rights are the fashion, and this vogue leaves its imprint in the law of contracts. From now on, it is no longer possible for the legislator to violate certain principles having constitutional value. Moreover, this system allows the contemporary constitutional judge to annul statutory provisions that violate such imperatives. Similarly, the guardians of the new constitutions give themselves the power to indicate the interpretation that ordinary judges must adopt of the legislative texts. In this way the constitutional judge becomes an important actor of contract law in the Romanist family. Thus, an event marks a new stage in the development of private contract law: its constitutionalization. This new episode gives rise to the debate on a possible questioning of the contractual civil order

This thesis deals with the concept of good faith and the failed negotiations. It is a comparative and analytical study which comprises of the analysis of the rules of three legal systems namely English law, American law and the U.J. Convention on International Sale of Goods. The notion of good faith is similar to the doctrine of cu2pa-icontra. bendo in civil law. This means that damages are recoverable against the party whose 'blameworthy conduct' during negotiations for a contract has caused it to be invalid or prevented its completion. It is a general phenomenon that there is no general duty to negotiate in good faith in English and American law. Relief for bad faith negotiations is available only after the negotiations have resulted in a contract, where a party's conduct during negotiations has caused it to be invalid. This situation provides adequate remedies under the established concepts e.g. fraud, misrepresentation, duress, undue influence and unequal bargaining power. However, this study deals only with the situation where the negotiations fail to result in a contract, because of the bad faith behaviour of either of the parties during the negotiations. The research suggests that in such a situation relief may also be available through the various notions of good faith applicable during the negotiating stage, i.e. equitable estoppels, proprietary estoppel, promissory estoppel, fraud and misrepresentation in the context of the law of tort, restitution and implied-in-fact contract. Under the American law it is comparatively easier to persue these goals because of the acceptability of the notions of contract to contract, contract to negotiate and the unified theory of estoppel, whereas English law is still unwilling to accept these ideas. Under the doctrine of equitable estoppel obligations may be created on the basis of detrimental reliance which may in certain cases be equal to the expectation interest and in the others to the out-ofpocket- expenses, depending upon the circumstances of the case. The rationale behind the doctrine of promissory estoppel is similar to that of proprietary estoppel. Both are equitable estoppels. Therefore, it has been argued that there is not any logical or practical reason why promissory estoppel should not also be capable of creating a cause of action. Such a unified concept of estoppel would not cause the demise of the bargain theory. Consideration will still remain an essential ingredient in a contract; but alongwith this a new unified theory of estoppel may be introduced to deal with those cases where bargain theory does not apply. Thus, the creation of a cause of action on the basis of promissory estoppel would merely be an addition to the existing bargain theory. This argument has been accepted by some American courts and the other common law countries e.g. Australia, Canada and India. English law, particularly in lower courts, has also tempted some advances in this direction. The U.L Convention does not generally obligates the parties to negotiate in good faith, Article 7(1) states that Nj the interpretation of this Convention regard is to be had to ... the observance of good faith .... However, Article 16(2) like the Restatement (Second) of the Contract incorporates the notion of promissory estoppel with a wider scope of its application. It seems that Article 16(2) may be a useful tool in the context of duty to negotiate in good faith. This study concludes that although English and American law provide some notions 1 of good faith, it is advisable for these systems to introduce either a unified theory of estoppel or a general principle of good faith negotiations (Culpa-ln-Contrabendo) which would achieve a higher standard of behaviour from the parties.

Construction claims are a fact of life on all projects across the world. In an attempt to safeguard themselves against the risk of claims, employers utilise time bar clauses in construction contracts to waive the contractor’s entitlement to any additional costs or time if a notice of claim is not served by the contractor within a specific period of time. The reality of whether such a time bar is enforceable depends on the law governing the contract. Therefore, it is incumbent upon professionals contracting across different regions of the world and using standard form construction contracts that were prepared under a different jurisdictional setting than their own to be aware and acquainted with the extent to which these time bar clauses are enforceable under the law governing the contract in question. This research provides an in-depth insight regarding the enforceability of time bar clauses in English law and the Civil Code jurisdiction of Egypt, using the time bar in sub-clause 20.1 of the FIDIC 1999 Red Book as the basis for comparison. The results of this research do not solely apply to the time bar clause in the FIDIC 1999 Red Book, but also to any time bar clause in a bespoke form of contract that acts as a condition precedent. The need for this research and its uniqueness stem from the fact that it aims to fill a critical gap in the construction law literature as, while there is an abundance of literature on the enforceability of time bar clauses under English law, there is scarcely any sizeable research dedicated to the same topic under the Egyptian Civil Code. The research utilises a comparative law methodology to compare the enforceability of the FIDIC time bar across the two jurisdictions utilising three key concepts as the basis for comparison, namely statutory limitation, good faith and the prevention principle. As part of this methodology, the research takes a step beyond the subject of the research and delves into the historical origin of the similarities and differences highlighted. In doing so, the research concludes with two key premises for the causes of the similarities and differences highlighted in the research, namely the principle of freedom of contract under English law and the effect of the French Civil Code on the formation of the Egyptian Civil Code. This, in turn, results in historical elaborations of both premises.

Thesis (LLM)--Stellenbosch University, 2004.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The problem of mistake and its impact on the formation of contract is a central issue in the law of contract of all legal systems. The thesis investigates this area by considering the manner in which it has been dealt with in Germany and South African law. Although both legal systems are of the civilian origin. The German law is a codified system, whereas South African law is an uncodified one in which in the absence of legislation, legal problems are resolved by decisions of the High Court operating under a strict doctrine of legal precedent. German law does not in a formal sense acknowledge that judges can make law, but the thesis demonstrates the considerable weight that is nevertheless attached to judicial decisions in practice. The impact of differences in legal methodology on substantive law is a principal theme of the investigation. It is addressed by means of a systematic comparison between the manner in which the two systems deal with concepts such as heiuristic act and declarations of will, the notion of contract and the relevance of offer and acceptance as its constituent elements. Thereafter the broad topic of mistake as a circumstance that vitiates agreement and other defects of will such as deceit, duress and undue influence are considered. Whereas German law as a codified system presents a comprehensive regulation of the issues, a case law system such as that of South Africa can only deal with matters brought before the courts by parties engaged in a dispute. Because judges also tend to frame decisions as narrowly as possible, such a system characterised by gaps in the law in relations to issues that have not been authoritatively determined. The resultant uncertainty is exacerbated by the fact that different courts might decide the same issue differently and that a considerable period of time might elapse before the issue is settled by the highest court in the judicial hierarchy. In regard to matters of substance, both systems proceed from a common conceptual framework, but often tend to emphasise different aspects in coming to solutions. German law places great store on the notion of the declaration of will, a concept which is analysed in considerable detail in relation to its treatment in South African law. Although South African law recognises the notion of a juristic act, there is no sign of the refined and systematic discussion of the concept along the lines of German law. In consequence, concepts such as offer and acceptance play a less important role in South African law. In relation to the treatment of mistake as well the greater emphasis of German law on the declarations of will is in marked contrast to the more subjective approach of South African law and its resort to a theory of reliance as a corrective liability in cases of disagreement. Both systems adopt an approach with subjective and objective elements. but with a different mix of these elements in each instance. An overriding conclusion is that both systems might have erred in placing too great an emphasis on objective elements in the determination of when contractual liability should be imposed. It is contended that renewed attention to the doctrine of culpa in contrahendo might enable both South African and German law to deal more satisfactorily with the problem of disagreement in contract.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die probleem van dwaling en die uitwerking daarvan op kontraksluiting is 'n sentrale vraagstuk van die kontraktereg van alle lande. Die proefskrif ondersoek hierdie problematiek deur die hantering daarvan in sowel die Duitse as die Suid-Afrikaanse reg te oorweeg. Alhoewel beide hierdie stelsels van romanisriese oorsprong is, is die Duitse 'n gekodifiseerde en die Suid-Afrikaanse 'n ongekodifiseerde stelsel. In die afwesigheid van wetgewing, word regsprobleme in Suid-Afrika aan die hand van die gemenereg deur middel van beslissings van die hoë hof opgelos ingevolge 'n strenge presedentestelsel. Alhoewel die Duitse reg nie formeel erken dat regterlike beslissings regskeppend kan werk nie, toon die proefskrif aan dat daar tog in die praktyk groot gewig aan regterlike uitsprake geheg word. Die uitwerking van hierdie metodologiese verskille is 'n hooftema van die ondersoek. Dit geskied by wyse van 'n sistemariese vergelyking van die hantering in die twee stelsels van begrippe soos die regshandeling en die wilsverklaring. die kontrak en die rol van aanbod en aanname as konstituterende elemente van 'n kontrak. Hierna kom die breë vraagstuk van dwaling aan die orde as 'n omstandigheid war wilsooreenstemming ondermyn, asook die samehangende kwessies van bedrog, dwang en onbehoorlike beïnvloeding. Alhoewel beide stelsels in substantiewe aangeleenthede uitgaan van 'n gemeenskaplike konseptueie raamwerk. word aangetoon dat by die bereik van oplossings, die klem dikwels heel verskillend geplaas word. Van sentrale belang is vir die Duitse reg is die wilsverklaringsbegrip, wat in vergelyking met die behandeling daarvan. In Suid-Afrika in groot besonderhede ontleed word. Alhoewel die Suid-Afrikaanse reg, soos die Duitse reg uitgaan van die begrip regshandeling, ontbreek die genuanseerde en sistemariese behandeling van die Duitse reg. As gevolg hiervan speel die begrippe aanbod en aanname 'n relatief mlnder belangrike rol in die Suid-Afrikaanse reg. Met betrekking tot die dwalingsproblematiek ook is die groter klem op die Duitse reg op die wilsverklaring van die partye opvallend en in skerp teenstelling, tot die meer subjektiewe benadering van die Suid- Afrikaanse reg en die aanwending van die vertrouensteorie as 'n korrektiewe aanspreeklikheid in gevalle van 'n gebrek aan wilsooreesntemming. Alhoewel albei stelsels erkenning gee aan subjektiewe en objektiewe elemente, is daar verskille vir sover dit die relatiewe klem op elkeen aangaan. Die oorkoepelende gevolgtrekking is dat albei stelsels miskien te veel gewig gee aan die objektiewe element by die bepaling van aanspreeklikheid. Die voorstel is dat daar weer met vrug na die leerstuk van culpa in contrahendo gekyk sou kon word.

The Insurance Law 1995 (PRC) is the first comprehensive insurance legislation since the foundation of the People's Republic of China in 1949. It consists of insurance contract law and insurance regulation. This study concerns only the insurance contract law, focusing on three fundamental principles, namely the principles of insurable interest, utmost good faith, and subrogation. The main theme of this study is that, through examination and analysis, and by comparative methodology, of the provisions relating to the three principles, problems in these provisions are to be found and recommendations on how to amend them are to be proposed. It is intended this study will also help us to understand other similar problems in the whole Chinese insurance contract law. Many concepts adopted in the Insurance Law (PRC) are English in origin. This research attempts to trace the origin and the evolution of these concepts in England and to seek their real meanings in order to find and solve problems of confusions, ambiguities, contradictions and unfairness in Chinese insurance law. The Australian Insurance Contracts Act 1984 codifies the common law and insurance practice in Australia and mitigates the common law for its harshness to consumers and is regarded as a model for insurance law reform. So many Australian approaches are suggested as suitable to follow in order to amend Chinese law. This thesis starts with a brief introduction stressing the purpose and methodology of this research. Then the background is laid down concerning China's politics, economic reform, legal system and the development of China's insurance industry, under which the Insurance Law has been shaped. This is followed by three chapters - the main part of this study dealing with the three fundamental principles of the insurance contract law by examining and comparing the Chinese approach with the English and Australian counterparts. By doing so, problems in the Insurance Law are identified and better solutions are figured out. This research concludes with an emphasis on the urgency for amendment of the Chinese insurance contact law by summarising the preceding examination and analysis of the three principles. It finally ends with a number of proposed amendments of relevant provisions of the Insurance Law which it is hoped will provide useful models for the improvement of the whole Chinese insurance law.

An insurance contract is a contract of utmost good faith. The nature of the insurance bargain makes the duty a commercial necessity. Duties of disclosure and representation, which were two fundamental components of the principle of utmost good faith, operate in different ways in England and China. The insured and insurer in these two countries bears distinctive good faith related obligations pre- and post-contractually. English insurance law exercise considerable influence in most common law countries and some civil law jurisdictions. The separation between utmost good faith and the duty of fair presentation, with the abolition of the avoidance remedy, under the Insurance Act 2015 could influence other jurisdictions to alter their remedies. This thesis examines the application of the civil law notion of good faith and the common law duty of utmost good faith. It covers the operation of insured’s pre-contractual duties of disclosure and representation in both countries. The thesis considers the insurer’s duties as well as the continuing duties and the effect of utmost good faith taking in account the recent legislative changes on fraudulent claims and late payment. The thesis further examines the legal status of brokers and their disclosure duty in China and England. Finally, it also provides special considerations on consumers and micro-businesses.

L’arbitrage commercial international est le mode alternatif de règlement de différends le plus utilisé dans le monde. Ce qui contribue notamment à en faire l’acteur principal de la diffusion des règles anationales telles que les principes généraux du droit, les usages du commerce international, ou encore la "lex mercatoria" qui sont souvent choisies par les arbitres en tant que droit applicable au fond du litige. Ce choix s’est étendu aux nouvelles règles élaborées par des institutions internationales privées telles que les Principes d’UNIDROIT relatifs aux contrats du commerce international. Une codification doctrinale conçue comme un instrument de "soft law" et qui trouve de plus en plus application dans la pratique arbitrale. Notre étude cependant montre que peu de sentences arbitrales rendues dans des affaires dont l’une des parties est arabe ont fait référence aux Principes Unidroit. L’explication n’est pas à rechercher dans une incompatibilité entre ceux-ci et le droit des contrats des pays arabes mais dans la méconnaissance de cette codification doctrinale par les juristes arabes. À cela s’ajoute un sentiment de méfiance à l’égard d’une manifestation de la soft law. Il convient dès lors de s’interroger sur les moyens qui permettraient aux Principes Unidroit de trouver leur place dans le droit et la pratique des pays arabes<br>International commercial arbitration is the Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) the most used in the world. Which contributes in particular to make the main actor of the diffusion of a-national rules as the general principles of law, usages of international trade, or the lex mercatoria, often chosen by the arbitrators as the law applicable to the substantive of the dispute. This choice was extended to the new rules developed by private international institutions such as the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts. A doctrinal codification conceived as a soft law instrument, which is increasingly applied in arbitration practice. Our study shows, however, that few awards rendered in cases in which one of the parties is Arabic made a reference to UNIDROIT Principles. The explanation is not to look for in an incompatibility between them and contract law in Arab countries but in the ignorance of this doctrinal codification by Arab jurists and lawyers. Added to this, a feeling of distrust a manifestation of soft law. It is therefore necessary to consider the ways in which the UNIDROIT Principles to find their place in the law and practice of the Arab countries

En droit des contrats, on distingue communément la volonté interne et la volonté déclarée. Le droit américain ferait prévaloir la volonté manifestée en adoptant une théorie objective du consentement, tandis que le droit français s'inscrirait dans une théorie subjective du consentement, puisque l'on s'intéresserait à la volonté interne plus qu'aux manifestations de volonté. Mais à regarder de plus près la jurisprudence, les solutions adoptées par les juges français et américains semblent très similaires. La thèse essaye de montrer qu'ils suivent tous deux intuitivement une théorie commune qui peut être élaborée en se fondant sur la phénoménologie husserlienne et dont la dénomination pourrait être "théorie de l'accord apparent des volontés". Les droits des contrats américain et français semblent pourtant bien respectivement objectif et subjectif. Il faut, pour constater une différence, déplacer l'interrogation vers les règles relatives à la validité et l'exécution du contrat. D'un côté le droit américain semble objectif en ce qu'il tend surtout à protéger l'intérêt économique qui ressort du contrat. D'un autre côté, le droit français apparaît subjectif dans la mesure où il vise principalement à protéger le respect de la parole donnée. Deux théories différentes du contrat - et non plus du consentement - peuvent alors être mises à l'évidence, qui s'articulent chacune sur un fondement (téléologique, déontologique), incarné dans un principe directeur ("considération", cause) qui rayonne sur l'intégralité des autres règles contractuelles. La thèse essaye alors de percevoir les mouvements de fond contemporains qui conduisent peut-être à un rapprochement de ces droits<br>In contract law, it is common to distinguish between the subjective intent of the parties and the external manifestations of their will. American contract law is considered to adopt an objective theory of assent since a party's mental assentis not necessary to form a contract, whereas french contractis viewed as being subjective as a contract requires the parties ' actual assents to the agreement. However a comparative case laws analysis sheds light on the fact that judges actually seem to adopt a very similar reasoning. The thesis aims at demontrating that judges intuitively follow a common theory which can be developed according to Husserlian phenomenology and can be called "an appearance theory of assent". But American and French contract law seem objective and subjective in a different way. Understanding this difference entails a shift in the questioning and a focus on rules pertaining to the validity and execution of contracts. On the one hand, American contract law appears to be objective since a contract is viewed as protecting an economic interest. On the other hand, French contract law seems to be subjective since its main goal is to protect the principle of keeping one's promise. Two contract theories - and not theories of assent anymore - can be highlighted and are both established on a founding principle (teleological, deontological), translated in positive law through a guiding principle (consideration, "cause") that spread to all other contract rules. The thesis then tries to examine the deeper movements of our laws which might lead them to draw closer to each other

Un mauvais arrangement vaut mieux qu’un bon procès, dit un adage. Ceci s’applique-t-il également au domaine de la propriété intellectuelle ? La médiation est une méthode de résolution des différends qui a le vent en poupe. Elle a fait l’objet d’une harmonisation en Europe par le biais de la directive 2008/52/CE du Parlement européen et du Conseil du 21 mai 2008 sur certains aspects de la médiation en matière civile et commerciale. Dans ce contexte, l’objectif de la thèse est d’analyser des fonctions exercées par la médiation ainsi que les limites de la médiation du point de vue du droit de la procédure civile, du droit des contrats et du droit de la propriété intellectuelle, et de présenter des propositions pour optimiser la médiation lorsqu'elle s’applique aux litiges concernant les droits de la propriété intellectuelle. L’étude porte sur de nombreux systèmes juridiques, institutions et prestataires de règlement des différends, en mettant l’accent sur l’Union européenne, la France et le Royaume-Uni<br>A bad compromise is better than a successful lawsuit, says an adage. Would this also applies to intellectual property disputes ? Mediation is a dispute resolution method, which is in vogue. It became subject to harmonisation in Europe under the Directive 2008/52/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2008 on certain aspects of mediation in civil and commercial matters. In this context, the objective of the thesis is to analyse the functions performed by mediation as well as the limitations to mediate from the viewpoint of civil procedure law, contract law and intellectual property law and to present some proposals to optimise mediation to intellectual property law. A number of legal systems, institutions and dispute resolution providers will be covered with the focus on the European Union, France and the UK

Although the laws of error and misrepresentation have a decisive impact on contract and contractual relationship, existing studies of Islamic jurisprudence, and the CISG have occasionally discussed or considered these fundamental topics. These legal systems do not assume the obvious approach found in comparison with their counterparts, English and Scottish contract laws, which form independent and comprehensive concepts in their legal research and argument. This thesis fills the gap in the literature by a comparative, critical analysis studying error and misrepresentation in Islamic contract law and the CISG, with the purpose of developing these concepts based on English and Scottish contract law in general and English law in particular as the main guidance, from which the organisational structure is derived for clear definitions of the categories of error and misrepresentation. This thesis investigates the linguistic and historic streams of the concept of error and misrepresentation in Islamic contract law “relying on the Qur’anic context”, thus creating entirely different approach to both concepts, and giving further guidance to other researchers to develop and improve their view of these significant concepts. Based on the existing studies and theories, this thesis analyses and criticises in particular the views of English and Scottish law with respect to the categories of error and misrepresentation. At the same time, this study builds a new approach to the concepts of error and misrepresentation by analysing and criticising relevant case law arguments, and by synthesising some types of error. This thesis offers a thorough comparison especially between Islamic and English contract law. These views are designed to introduce the legal systems cited in this thesis closer to each other and will establish an interactive approach, especially between Islamic and English contract law. Therefore, this thesis establishes a new Islamic-Anglo approach to misrepresentation as a result of actual interactivity between these legal systems. As a result, the author of this thesis offers an extensive critical analysis of the concepts of error and misrepresentation in the Palestinian Draft Civil Law, producing academic recommendations to be taken into consideration by its draftspersons. These recommendations can also be applied to Egyptian and Jordanian civil law.

En pratique, de nombreux obstacles peuvent empêcher le déroulement naturel du contrat. Lorsque ces obstacles n'ont qu'un caractère provisoire, le droit contemporain offre au contractant une solution temporaire : la suspension du contrat. Cependant, jusqu'à nos jours, cette solution du droit n'est pas soumise à un régime juridique unitaire. La suspension se dissimule dans diverses techniques juridiques, traditionnelles ou modernes. Le droit comparé français chinois à l'égard de la suspension permet d'identifier clairement l'ensemble de ces techniques, d'en envisager une nouvelle compréhension et de proposer une systématisation du phénomène complexe de suspension. Notre étude a révélé plusieurs constatations importantes. Pour un contractant, la suspension n'est pas uniquement une solution permettant de sanctionner l'inexécution temporaire de son cocontractant, elle peut également servir à justifier son inexécution légitime. En outre, la suspension peut être utilisée non seulement en cas d'inexécution du contrat, mais aussi en cas de risque d'inexécution. Enfin, l'objet visé par la suspension peut être non seulement la prestation contractuelle, mais aussi les travaux préparatoires à celle-ci<br>In practice several obstacles may prevent the natural progress of the contract. When those obstacles are not permanent in nature, modern law offers the contracting party a temporary solution : suspension of the contract. However, up until now, that legal solution has not been subject to a unitary legal system. Suspension is concealed by a range of traditional and modern legal techniques. Sino-French comparative law in relation to suspension makes it possible to clearly identify all these techniques, to envisage a new understanding and to offer a systematization of the complex phenomenon of suspension. Our study has revealed several important findings. For a contracting party, suspension is not merely a way to enable the sanctioning of temporary breach by the other contracting party; it can also be used to prove his legitimate breach. In addition, suspension can be used, not only in the event of breach of contract, but also in the event of the risk of breach. Lastly, the object affected by the suspension may not only be the contractual arrangement, but also the work leading up to it