Littérature scientifique sur le sujet « History of Haiti »

Thesis (M.A. in National Security Affairs) Naval Postgraduate School, June 2001.
Thesis advisor(s): Giraldo, Jeanne. "June 2001." Includes bibliographical references (p. 123-132). Also Available in print.

Cette thèse est consacrée à la problématique de l’histoire en Haïti contemporain. Basée sur un total de un an et demi de recherche de terrain dans la commune de Milot, au nord d’Haïti, ainsi que des investigations dans des archives en France, en Haïti et aux États-Unis, nous proposons une anthropologie de l’histoire ou, plus spécifiquement une anthropologie des connaissances, des pratiques et des représentations qui font du passé quelque chose de significatif
This thesis is an investigation about the problem of history in contemporary Haiti. Drawing from a total of one year and a half of fieldwork in the commune of Milot, Norther Haiti, as well as archival research in France, Haiti and the United States, I propose an anthropology of history or, more specifically, an anthropology of knowledge, practice and representations that assert different meanings to the past

Throughout the United States occupation of Haiti from 1915 to 1934, the U.S. government and its supporters were forced to defend the legitimacy of American action. In order to justify it to the American public, officials and journalists created a dichotomy of capacity between an inferior Haiti and a superior U.S., and they presented the occupation as a charitable civilizing mission. This vision of Haiti and Haitians was elaborated in a racialized discourse wherein Haitians were assigned various negative traits that rendered them incapable of self-government. In examining how the New York Times, the National Geographic Magazine, and the Crisis represented Haiti, I demonstrate how race was the primary signifier, and how these representations were used to either perpetuate or challenge the American racial social hierarchy.

This thesis examines the characteristics of the spirits Ezili, Legba, and Ogou, in order to determine which aspects of their manifestations incorporate themes of syncretism from Catholic tradition, and which aspects reflect visual tradition that emerged from distinctly Haitian tradition. Elements of Catholic and African traditions, discernable within Vodou iconography, act as a basis upon which the practice was further augmented. These adaptations reveal the mixing of cultures and continuation of tradition that is of central importance to the development of Vodou, as reflections of the process through which the religion overcame the social problems faced by the practitioners, as well as the culturally devastating consequences of Haitian colonial history. These diversifications from the Christianity and African traditions reflect the ingenuity and resourceful nature of Vodou, which through its fluid nature, can be transformed to accommodate the needs of the devotees.

Through a postcolonial methodology, this thesis demonstrates that through the syncretism of Catholic themes, the influence of the West African origins of the Vodou, and the unique experiences of the people in Haiti, the iconography of Vodou visual culture interacted of other religions as it evolved into a distinctly Haitian practice. By looking at the spirits Ezili, Legba, and Ogou, alongside their counterparts of the Virgin Mary, St. Peter, and St. George (or St. James) this essay will outline the syncretization of these spirits with Christian icons, while making parallels to the development of Christian iconography which borrowed from pagan imagery in an effort to place the importance of a figure within a pre-established lineage that placed importance on the image.

The purpose of this project was to address the lack of scholarship on mid-twentieth century Haitian history and illustrate its significance. It employs primary and secondary sources in shaping a Gramscian historical narrative. Ideas of "everyday resistance" and internal and external politics are also be of significance to this work. In mid-twentieth century Haiti, the black-nationalist rhetoric of noirisme became the dominant political ideology. Blackness was amorphous and its application to politics was dependent upon class. In proclaiming blackness the average Haitian was attacking the class schism that beleaguered the island. Yet for the elite noirismewas a conduit to modernity and a useful tool for muting the division between rich and poor. With the election of Dumarsais Estimé in 1946, dialogue between the U.S. government, the Haitian elite, and the masses, relative to definitions of modernity played out within the new political reality of noirisme.

This study examined technocracy in Haiti in the Cold War era. It showed how Haitian and non-Haitian technicians navigated United States imperialism, Soviet ideology, and postcolonial nationalism to implement bold utopian visions in a country oppressed by poverty and dynastic authoritarianism. Throughout the mid-to-late twentieth century, technicians lavished Haiti with plans to improve the countryside, the city, the workplace, and the home. This study analyzed those plans and investigated the motivations behind them. Based on new evidence discovered in the private correspondence between Haitian, American, and Western European specialists, it questioned the assumption that technocracy was captivated by high-modernist ideology and US hegemony. It exposed how many technicians were inspired by a utopian desire to create a just society—one based not only on technical knowledge but also on humanist principles, such as liberty and equality. Guided by the utopian impulse, technicians occasionally disobeyed policymakers who wished to promote modernization and the capitalist world-economy. In many cases, however, they also upset the Haitian people, who believed technocracy was too exclusive. This study concluded that technicians were empowered by expertise but unable to build the utopias they envisioned because they were constantly at odds with both policymakers at the top and the people whose lives they planned.

Increasing modernization in military technology and methodology occurred during the beginning of the twentieth century. These changes had a direct effect on how U.S. Marines practiced military intelligence during the occupation of Haiti from 1915- 1934. The use of military intelligence had an impact on the outcome on the occupation but was not the only factor that contributed to U.S. military victories. My thesis explains that the improvement of intelligence methods used by Marines in Haiti occurred as a result of outside influence, changing circumstance in Haiti, and individual agency. Major failures had occurred that allowed resistance to grow unchecked in the Haitian countryside. With the introduction of full-time military intelligence officers and improved data documentation, the intelligence collected became more useful to Marine Corps leadership. The staff officers that assumed the roles of intelligence personnel created new forms for recording intelligence reports and made past intelligence more accessible to military command. Individual ingenuity led to the assassination of Charlemagne Peralte, the central leader of the caco revolt. This thesis discusses the intelligence innovation that occurred during the occupation of Haiti from 1915 to 1935.

Cette dissertation a pour objectif la présentation et l'analyse du fonctionnement de l'Université de l'État de Haïti - unique université publique du pays - et de son passé de lutte, de confrontation et de résistance, qui continue profondément mal-connu de ses voisins latino-américains, y-compris du Brésil. Il est notoire de préciser que cette méconnaissance ne se limite pas à l'Université haïtienne en particulier, mais s'étend au pays dans son ensemble. Dont la compréhension plus complexe et profonde est limitée par une couverture médiatique essentiellement caractérisée par l'exacerbation du tropicalisme (de l'exotisme), de la pauvreté ou de la tragédie haïtienne. À cette réalité s'ajoute le fait que depuis le tremblement de terre de janvier 2010, Haïti a fait l'objet d'une série de discours ethnocentriques utilisés afin de justifier des politiques qui ne peuvent être qualifiées autrement que de colonialistes dans la mesure où se définissent comme le cheminement ou des instruments permettant de sauver le pays d'une supposée incapacité d'exiger par lui-même, voir de résoudre de manière autonome ses propres problèmes. Ce point du vue qui prévaut dans la majorité des discours internationaux, au delà de corroborer la thèse de la profonde précarité du pays en général ainsi que de son université publique en particulier, nous semble n'être que l'héritage de discours coloniaux qui légitiment l'exploitation d'un peuple par un autre. Il nous semble également que l'existence même d'une institution "d'élite", comme est perçue l'Université dans un milieu associé à la misère et à la privation est source d'inconfort, de perplexité et de confusion auprès de ceux qui se considèrent comme les créateurs légitimes de cette institution et gardiens de ses attributions et devoirs. Tout se passe comme si pays qui figure sur la liste des plus pauvres du monde, engagé dans la lutte contre la faim et les maladies, ne pouvait se "payer le luxe" d'avoir une Université et encore moins de revendiquer le droit d'avoir une Université distincte. Cette situation inconfortable de l'Université de l'état de Haïti a été détectée et analysée par diverses agences, ONGs, instituts internationaux de recherche et gouvernements étrangers impliqués en tant qu'auxiliaires de la reconstruction de Haïti et de son université. Ce point de vue, bien qu'ayant déjà été énoncé avant le tremblement de terre de 2010, a gagné du crédit après la tragédie. Tout se passe comme si la précarité de l'éducation haïtienne de l'après tremblement de terre devait inéluctablement rendre compte à des centaines d'organisations étrangères présentes dans le pays, justifiant leur existence, leur raison d'exister dans le pays. La réalité haïtienne perd chaque fois un peu plus de terrain pour laisser place à un scénario inventé, raconté, photographié et reproduit au point de rendre nécessaire la divulgation d'une autre analyse et d'autres regards sur Haïti. C'est donc l'objet de cette dissertation sur l'Université Publique du pays qui sera constituée de deux chapitres: le premier, sera dédié à la présentation et à la compréhension de Haïti à partir d'analyses réalisées par les Haïtiens eux-mêmes, contrebalancées par la littérature post-coloniale, incluant les épisodes emblématiques de l'histoire de Haïti et la lutte contre les stéréotypes les plus fréquents aux haïtiens. Ce chapitre servira de fondement à l'analyse complexe de l'université haïtienne, qui constituera le thème central du second chapitre de cette dissertation. Dans ce second chapitre nous tenterons de vérifier comment l'université interagit avec son entourage, contribuant au renforcement de la démocratisation du pays et à la reconstruction du pays après le tremblement de terre. Les principales sources utilisées dans ce chapitre sont haïtiennes. Enfin, nous réaliserons une analyse critique du contenu des rapports internationaux qui proposent de diagnostiquer "les maux" et de prescrire les "remèdes" à l'Université d'état, ignorant le fait que son propre mouvement étudiant allié à d'autres mouvements sociaux, ont déjà étudié la question et proposé leurs propres conclusions. Nous espérons que ces points de vues contenus ne peuvent continuer à être réduits au silence, c'est pourquoi nous revendiquons le droit au cri.
Esta dissertação dedica-se à apresentação e análise da Universidade de Estado do Haiti - única Universidade Pública do país – e sua história de luta, confronto e resistência, que permanece profundamente desconhecida por seus vizinhos latino-americanos, entre os quais se inclui o Brasil. Entendemos que esse desconhecimento não está restrito à Universidade haitiana, em particular, mas estende-se ao país, de forma geral, cuja compreensão mais complexa e densa vem sendo obstaculizada por uma cobertura midiática que geralmente é marcada pela exacerbação do exotismo, da pobreza ou da tragédia haitiana. Sucede que, desde o terremoto de janeiro de 2010, o Haiti vem sendo alvo de uma série de discursos etnocêntricos, empenhados em justificar práticas que só podem ser definidas como coloniais na medida em que se apresentam como caminho/instrumento de salvação do país de uma suposta “impossibilidade de existir por si próprio” ou de “resolver seus próprios problemas”. Esses discursos, que povoam relatórios internacionais de todos os gêneros, além de inspirar receituários para a superação da suposta inviabilidade do país, em geral, e da precariedade de sua Universidade Pública, em particular, nos parecem herdeiros dos discursos coloniais que legitimavam a exploração de um povo sobre outro. Parece-nos, ainda, que a existência de uma instituição “de elite”, como é entendida a Universidade, em um contexto absolutamente periférico, associado à miséria e à privação, causa incômodo, perplexidade e confusão naqueles que se consideram os legítimos criadores de tal instituição e definidores de seus contornos e rumos. Tudo se passa como se um país que figura na lista dos mais pobres do mundo, engajado em não perecer de fome e doença, não pudesse “dar-se ao luxo” de ter uma Universidade e menos ainda de reclamar uma Universidade distinta. É nesse sentido que, nos parece, vem sendo percebida e analisada a Universidade de Estado do Haiti por uma série de agências multilaterais, ONGs, Institutos internacionais de pesquisa e governos estrangeiros, empenhados em “auxiliar a reconstrução do Haiti” e de sua Universidade, por meio de uma série de diagnósticos e recomendações que apesar de já virem sendo produzidos desde antes do terremoto de 2010, ganham reforços após a tragédia. Tudo se passa como se a precariedade da educação haitiana pós-terremoto estivesse a fornecer uma inelutável “razão de ser” às centenas de organizações estrangeiras presentes no país, justificando sua permanência e conferindo-lhes o reconhecimento e a importância buscados. O Haiti real perde cada vez mais espaço nesse cenário inventado, discursado, fotografado e reproduzido hermeticamente, a ponto de tornar-se imperiosa a divulgação de outras versões, outras dimensões, outros olhares sobre o Haiti. Aí se inscreve essa narrativa sobre a Universidade Pública no país que está dividida em dois capítulos: o primeiro, destinado à compreensão do Haiti a partir de análises feitas pelos próprios haitianos, temperada pela análise pós-colonial, e que compreende os episódios mais emblemáticos de sua história e a desconstrução dos estereótipos mais comumente atribuídos ao seu povo. Esse capítulo será a antessala para a análise complexa da Universidade Haitiana, que constitui o tema do segundo capítulo do trabalho. Nele, nossa proposta é a de verificar como a Universidade tem-se relacionado com seu entorno, contribuído para o fortalecimento democrático do país e para sua reconstrução no período pós-terremoto. As principais fontes utilizadas também nesse capítulo são haitianas. Ao final, conduzimos uma análise crítica do conteúdo dos relatórios internacionais que se propõem a diagnosticar “as doenças” e indicar “remédios” à Universidade de Estado, ignorando que seu próprio movimento estudantil, aliado a outros movimentos sociais, já vem trabalhando nesse sentido e produzindo suas próprias conclusões. Imaginamos que a palavra contida não será capaz de enfrentar o silencio que as mantem desconhecidas, por isso reivindicamos a potência e o drama do grito.
This dissertation is dedicated to the presentation and analysis of the State University of Haiti - the only public university in the country - and its history of struggle, resistance and confrontation, which remain deeply unknown to their Latin American neighbors, among which includes Brazil . We understand that this ignorance is not restricted to the University of Haiti, in particular, but extends to the country in general, whose more complex and dense understanding has been hampered by a media coverage that is usually marked by the exacerbation of exoticism, poverty or the Haitian tragedy. It follows that, since the earthquake of January 2010, Haiti has been the target of a series of ethnocentric speeches, committed to justify practices that can only be defined as colonialists as they present themselves as path / instrument of salvation of the country, alleged "unable to exist on its own" or "solve it´s own problems." These speeches, found in all sorts of international reports, are inspiring prescriptions for overcoming the supposed impracticability of the country in general, and the precariousness of their Public University, in particular, seem to be heirs of colonialist discourses that legitimized the exploitation of one people over another. It seems, though, that the existence of an "elite" institution, as the university is understood, in a context quite peripheral, associated with poverty and deprivation, cause annoyance, perplexity and confusion in those who consider themselves the legitimate builders of such institution and the designers of its contours and directions. It is as if a country that is on the list of the world's poorest, engaged in not perish from hunger and disease, could not "afford the luxury" of having an university, let alone claim a distinct University. In that sense, it seems, has been perceived and analyzed the State University of Haiti through a series of multilateral agencies, NGOs, international research institutes and foreign governments, committed to "assist the reconstruction of Haiti" and its University, through a series of diagnoses and recommendations, which despite already being produced since before the 2010 earthquake, gain reinforcements after the tragedy. It is as if the precariousness of the Haitian education post-earthquake was to provide an ineluctable "raison d'être" of hundreds of foreign organizations in the country, justifying his stay and giving them the recognition and importance fetched. The real Haiti loses more and more space in this invented, spoken, photographed and played tightly scenario, to the point of becoming compelling the disclosure of other versions, other dimensions, other looks on Haiti. There inscribes this narrative about the Public University on Haiti, that is divided into two chapters: the first, for the understanding of Haiti from analyzes made by the Haitians themselves, tempered by postcolonial analysis, and comprising the most iconic episodes of its history and deconstruction of stereotypes commonly attributed to his people. This chapter will be the anteroom to the complex analysis of Haitian University, which is the theme of the second chapter of the work. In it, our proposal is to see how the University has been related to its surroundings, contributed to strengthening democracy in the country and its reconstruction in post-earthquake scenario. The main sources used in this chapter are also Haitian. Finally, we conduct a critical analysis of the content of international reports that purport to diagnose "diseases" and indicate "remedies" to the University of the State, ignoring that it´s own student movement, combined with other social movements, has already been working in this direction and producing their own conclusions. We imagine that the contained word will not be able to face the silence that keeps Haiti unknown, so, we claim the power and the drama of a scream.
Esta disertación está dedicada a la presentación y análisis de la Universidad de Estado de Haití - la única universidad pública del país - y su historia de lucha, confrontación y resistencia, que sigue siendo profundamente desconocida para sus vecinos latinoamericanos, entre los que se incluye a Brasil. Entendemos que esta ignorancia no se limita a la Universidad de Haití, en particular, sino que se extiende al país en general, cuya comprensión más compleja y densa se ha visto obstaculizada por una cobertura mediática que suele estar marcada por la exacerbación del exotismo, de la pobreza o de la tragedia haitiana. De ello se desprende que, desde el terremoto de enero de 2010, Haití ha sido objeto de una serie de discursos etnocéntricos, comprometidos para justificar prácticas que sólo pueden ser definidos como coloniales uma vez que se presentan como ruta / instrumento de la salvación del país para una supuesta "incapacidad para existir por sí mismo" o "resolver sus propios problemas". Estos discursos, que proponen recetas para salir de una supuesta inviabilidad del país en general, y la precariedad de su Universidad Pública, en particular, parecen herederos de los discursos coloniales que legitimaban la explotación de un pueblo sobre otro. Parece, sin embargo, que la existencia de una institución "elite" como se entiende la universidad, en un contexto periférico, asociado a la pobreza y la privación, causa perplejidad y confusión en aquellos que se consideran a sí mismos los criadores legítimos de dicha institución y responsables por la definición de sus contornos y dirección. Es como si un país que está en la lista de los más pobres del mundo, dedicado a no perecer de hambre y enfermedad, no se pueda "permitirse el lujo" de tener una universidad y mucho menos pretender una universidad distinta. En ese sentido, al parecer, la Universidad del Estado de Haití ha sido percibida y analizada a través de una serie de organismos multilaterales, organizaciones no gubernamentales, institutos de investigación internacionales y gobiernos extranjeros, comprometidos a "ayudar a la reconstrucción de Haití" y su Universidad, a través de una serie de diagnósticos y recomendaciones, que sólo aumentaron después de el terremoto de 2010. Es como si la precariedad de la educación post-terremoto de Haití estuviera a proporcionar una ineluctable "raison d'être" de los cientos de organizaciones extranjeras en el país, lo que justifica su permanencia y les garantiza el reconocimiento y la importancia deseados. El Haití real pierde cada vez más espacio en este escenario inventado, hablado, fotografiado y reproducido herméticamente, hasta el punto en que la revelación convincente de otras versiones, otras dimensiones, otras miradas sobre Haití se torna imprescindible. Allí se inscribe esta narrativa de la Universidad Pública en el país, que se divide en dos capítulos: el primero, dirige se a la comprensión de Haití a partir de los análisis realizados por los propios haitianos, templado por la literatura pos-colonial, que comprenden los episodios más emblemáticos de la historia de Haití y la confrontación de los estereotipos más fuertemente atribuidos a su gente. Este capítulo será la antesala del análisis complejo de la Universidad de Haití, que es el tema del segundo capítulo. En ello, nuestra propuesta es ver cómo la Universidad se ha relacionado con su entorno, ha contribuido a fortalecer la democracia en el país y su reconstrucción tras el terremoto. Las principales fuentes utilizadas en este capítulo son también haitianas. Por último, realizamos un análisis crítico del contenido de los informes internacionales que pretenden diagnosticar las "enfermedades" e indicar "soluciones" a la Universidad del Estado, ignorando que su propio movimiento estudiantil, junto con otros movimientos sociales, ha estado trabajando en esta dirección y produciendo sus propias conclusiones. Imaginamos que la palabra contenida no será capaz de hacer frente al silencio que mantiene el Haití un desconocido, por lo que reivindico al poder y al drama del grito.