Littérature scientifique sur le sujet « Property – Finland – History »

These days, if wolves roam close to human settlements, people often argue that there is something problematic and unnatural in it. This is the case especially in western Finland where wolf packs are being observed after a long period of absence. Not everyone living in western Finland has welcomed wolves as neighbours. Local people can argue that wolves should not live in western Finland because there are no wilderness areas there. Wolves have been connected to the wilderness in many countries and regions in the world. In some areas, the notion that the wolf belongs to the wilderness is old: For instance, historian Aleksander Pluskowski has argued that there was a persistent conceptual link between wolves and the wilderness in Britain and Scandinavia during the Middle Ages. In this chapter, I look into this notion and trace its history in the Finnish context by studying newspaper reports, magazine articles and contemporary literature. I argue that the idea that wolves belong to the wilderness is a relatively new and controversial notion connected to various social and environmental changes. Interestingly, at the same time as the idea that the wolf is a wilderness species strengthened, the Finnish environment underwent changes that meant that the areas that could be called wilderness became fewer.

This chapter explores Finland's history, highlighting the country before and after the declaration of independence. It evaluates patterns and trends in social and cultural norms, education, employment, science, technology, and engineering to find evidence of gender inequality, marginalization, and oppression towards Finnish women scholars. Data is collected, analyzed, and reported from a diverse group of peer-reviewed and economic published perspectives, including the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), Organization for Economic-Cooperation and Development (OECD), International Labor Organization (ILOSTAT), Panorama Education, World Economic Forum, Global Wage Report, University of British Columbia, National Science Foundation, World Intellectual Property Organization(WIPO), National Centre for Education, European Commission, and Statista Finland databases.

This chapter discusses the maintenance challenges of the Russo-Swedish War of 1741–1743, arguably one of the biggest military catastrophes in Swedish history. Hatakka shows that maintenance problems were one of the root causes for the catastrophe. The war was declared without proper preparations, and the decision makers in Stockholm realised only too late that Finland lacked grain storages, mills and bakeries. The crown’s hastily attempts to improve the situation by building new infrastructure and outsourcing bread-making to civilians were of little avail, thanks to scarce population, limited resources, and transportation difficulties. Thus, the Swedish army had to use the critical first months of the war for solving maintenance problems instead of fighting, a fact that contributed heavily to its loss.

The chapter describes the situation from several EU countries on cooperation among farmers, with a focus on the approach of the cooperative concept related to legislation and function. The study comprises 10 member states from different parts of Europe: east, south, and north. The objective was to identify the differences and the existence of an integrative model for cooperative or producer organizations in agriculture. The member states included in the study were France, Italy, Spain, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Poland, Ireland, The Netherlands, and Romania. In order to find common features, the history and previous developing of cooperation were analyzed. Focused on the bibliographic research and comprising an analysis of the history and legislation, the author tried to underline some aspects that could facilitate the setting-up of new agricultural cooperatives and at the same time, a proper operation of the existing ones. The information gathered was presented and interpreted, in order to capture the situation of agricultural co-operative structures, legal type, and economic operation.

<EM>ABSTRACT. </EM>The explosion of information on the distribution and impacts of whirling disease in the United States during the last decade has changed the way in which we view <em>Myxobolus cerebralis</em>. However, even a cursory review of whirling disease literature reveals that many of our concerns today have been expressed at some previous time in the history of our experience with this parasite. From the first description of <em>M. cerebralis </em>in Germany in 1893, it was recognized that whirling disease could severely affect the growing trout farming industry. During the first half of this century <em>M. cerebralis </em>was disseminated throughout Europe, especially following WWII when live rainbow trout <em>Oncorhynchus mykiss </em>were transferred freely. Between 1950 and 1970, the parasite began to appear at trout farms on other continents, and it was in the late 1950s that whirling disease first emerged in the United States. Nearly all reports of detection, both here and in Europe, were associated with artificial rearing facilities. Until the 1980s, the only references reporting infections in natural populations of salmonids are from Finland, Russia, and Michigan, and the reported infections were usually light. Clinical whirling disease was largely associated with culture of trout in earthen ponds, where the infective agent concentrated. In the period between 1970 and 1990, there were increasing reports of the parasite in hatcheries throughout Europe and the United States. In Europe, the perspective after many years of living with whirling disease was that eradication was not possible in most cases, but that we knew enough to reduce infection levels below the point where clinical disease occurs. In the United States, reports of whirling disease in hatcheries were often followed by destruction of any fish on the facility, but as it became apparent that proper management could reduce infection levels, and as there appeared to be no effects outside the bounds of the hatchery, these standards were relaxed. However, in the 1990s, clinical whirling disease was reported in free-ranging trout populations in Colorado and Montana, causing us, once again, to rethink how this disease can be controlled and managed.