Articoli di riviste: "Africana elephant"

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Pretorius, Yolanda, Marion E. Garaï e Lucy A. Bates. "The status of African elephant Loxodonta africana populations in South Africa". Oryx 53, n. 4 (15 aprile 2018): 757–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0030605317001454.

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AbstractWith an increase in poaching of elephants Loxodonta africana across Africa, it is vital to know exactly how many elephants remain and where they occur, to ensure that protection and management are planned appropriately. From a nationwide survey we provide current population and distribution data for elephants in South Africa. We consider the viability of elephant populations in the country, as well as some of the management techniques implemented and how effective these are in controlling elephant numbers. According to our surveys there were 28,168 elephants in South Africa as of December 2015, with 78% of these occurring in Kruger National Park and reserves bordering and open to the Park. Of the country's 78 discrete reserves that host elephants, 77% have populations of < 100 elephants, which could mean they are not genetically viable. We discuss our findings in terms of the conservation value of South Africa's elephant reserves, and the animal welfare implications. We recommend that the fragmentation of elephant habitat in the country be addressed through a national elephant management strategy that promotes wildlife corridors between existing, neighbouring elephant reserves.

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Shoshani, Jeheskel, Jerold M. Lowenstein, Daniel A. Walz e Morris Goodman. "Proboscidean origins of mastodon and woolly mammoth demonstrated immunologically". Paleobiology 11, n. 4 (1985): 429–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0094837300011714.

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Immunologically reactive protein substances were extracted from bone samples of an American mastodon (Mammut americanum), 10,200 yr old by radiocarbon dating, and from muscle samples of three woolly mammoths (Mammuthus primigenius), 10,000, 40,000 and 53,000 yr old, respectively. The mastodon samples contained significant quantities of the amino acids hydroxylysine and hydroxyproline, both of which are usually found in collagens and not in albumins. Using these products and other comparable extracts, as well as sera and purified collagens from modern elephants and other living mammals, as test antigens, immunological comparisons were carried out with the following antisera: rabbit anti-mastodon bone; chicken anti-mammoth muscle; chicken anti-elephant muscle; rabbit anti-elephant albumin and rabbit anti-elephant collagen, as well as with rabbit antisera to purified albumins and collagens of other mammals. For the first time, mastodon bone was found to have elephant-like proteins, which elicited antibodies that reacted strongly with collagen and serum proteins of extant elephants. Mammoth muscle strongly reacted with anti-elephant collagen and anti-elephant albumin, but the concentrations of the recoverable mammoth collagen and albumin decreased with increasing chronological age of the mammoth specimens. Nevertheless, in the immunological comparisons, the mammoth was closer to Asian (Elephas maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants than to the mastodon; in turn, the mastodon was closer to these elephantid species than to mammals outside the order Proboscidea.

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Ehlers, Bernhard, Güzin Dural, Manfred Marschall, Vera Schregel, Michael Goltz e Jochen Hentschke. "Endotheliotropic elephant herpesvirus, the first betaherpesvirus with a thymidine kinase gene". Journal of General Virology 87, n. 10 (1 ottobre 2006): 2781–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/vir.0.81977-0.

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Endotheliotropic elephant herpesvirus (elephantid herpesvirus 1; ElHV-1) is apathogenic for African elephants (Loxodonta africana), but causes fatal haemorrhagic disease in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). This is thought to occur through transmission from African elephants in places where both species are housed, such as zoological gardens. The virus has caused considerable losses in North American and European zoological gardens and thus severely impedes breeding of the endangered Asian elephant. Previously, the ultrastructural and genetic characterization of ElHV-1 from a male Asian elephant that died from the disease at the Berlin zoological gardens in 1998 have been reported. Here, a partial characterization of the ElHV-1 genome is presented. A 60 kbp locus, spanning 34 open reading frames, was analysed. Most of the detected genes were found to be conserved among the herpesviruses and showed an overall arrangement most similar to that of betaherpesviruses, in particular Human herpesvirus 6 and Human herpesvirus 7. Most importantly, in addition to a protein kinase gene that is homologous to the human cytomegalovirus UL97 gene, a thymidine kinase (TK) gene was found, which is generally missing in betaherpesvirus genomes. Thus, ElHV-1 is the only known betaherpesvirus to encode a TK gene. This peculiarity might contribute to the fulminant pathogenicity of ElHV-1, but also provide a crucial enzymic activity for developing an efficient antiviral therapy with currently available nucleoside analogues.

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Kitamura, Shumpei, Takakazu Yumoto, Pilai Poonswad e Prawat Wohandee. "Frugivory and seed dispersal by Asian elephants, Elephas maximus, in a moist evergreen forest of Thailand". Journal of Tropical Ecology 23, n. 3 (24 aprile 2007): 373–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467407004026.

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The Asian elephant Elephas maximus is the only living species of the genus Elephas (Elephantidae) that evolved in Africa c. 5–6 million y ago and migrated into Eurasia (Sukumar 2003). The Asian elephant is one of the few remaining extant megafauna (Owen-Smith 1988) and has disappeared from c. 95% of its historical range (Sukumar 2006). Asian elephants eat fruit when it is available, defecating intact seeds, of which some later germinate in the dung (Lekagul & McNeely 1977, Ridley 1930). However, to date there has been no detailed study of frugivory and seed dispersal by Asian elephants (Corlett 1998). The only common feature of the fruit reported to be eaten by Asian elephants is their relatively large size, but there is no evidence that they are exclusive dispersers of any plant species (Corlett 1998), in contrast to the more frugivorous African forest elephants, Loxodonta africana cyclotis (Babweteera et al. 2007, Chapman et al. 1992, Cochrane 2003, Feer 1995).

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Chase, Michael J., Scott Schlossberg, Curtice R. Griffin, Philippe J. C. Bouché, Sintayehu W. Djene, Paul W. Elkan, Sam Ferreira et al. "Continent-wide survey reveals massive decline in African savannah elephants". PeerJ 4 (31 agosto 2016): e2354. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2354.

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African elephants (Loxodonta africana) are imperiled by poaching and habitat loss. Despite global attention to the plight of elephants, their population sizes and trends are uncertain or unknown over much of Africa. To conserve this iconic species, conservationists need timely, accurate data on elephant populations. Here, we report the results of the Great Elephant Census (GEC), the first continent-wide, standardized survey of African savannah elephants. We also provide the first quantitative model of elephant population trends across Africa. We estimated a population of 352,271 savannah elephants on study sites in 18 countries, representing approximately 93% of all savannah elephants in those countries. Elephant populations in survey areas with historical data decreased by an estimated 144,000 from 2007 to 2014, and populations are currently shrinking by 8% per year continent-wide, primarily due to poaching. Though 84% of elephants occurred in protected areas, many protected areas had carcass ratios that indicated high levels of elephant mortality. Results of the GEC show the necessity of action to end the African elephants’ downward trajectory by preventing poaching and protecting habitat.

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Ndlovu, Mduduzi, Antón Pérez-Rodríguez, Emma Devereux, Miranda Thomas, Alfredo Colina e Linford Molaba. "Water for African elephants ( Loxodonta africana ): faecal microbial loads affect use of artificial waterholes". Biology Letters 14, n. 8 (agosto 2018): 20180360. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2018.0360.

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In semi-arid protected areas, artificial waterholes ensure that water is locally available to animals for extended periods. However, artificial waterholes may limit animal movement, which contributes towards habitat deterioration. Challenges of artificial water provisioning worsen in the presence of ecosystem engineers like African elephants Loxodonta africana , capable of transforming environments. Camera traps were used to monitor elephant visitation at 21 artificial waterholes in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. We also assessed if water quality parameters influenced elephant preference for certain waterholes. There were no significant correlations between elephant abundance and water physicochemical properties. However, there was a strong negative correlation between elephant abundance and levels of Escherichia coli in water. Our findings suggest that elephants avoid drinking water with high levels of faecal microbial loads. Whereas most studies addressing animal management in protected areas consider waterholes as homogeneous units, we posit that water quality could also determine local landscape use and movement patterns of key species like elephants, a finding with relevant implications in reserve management practices.

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Cerreta, Anthony J., Richard J. McMullen Jr, Heather E. Scott, Jennifer D. Ringenberg, Julie E. Hempstead, Ryan S. DeVoe, Michael R. Loomis e Larry J. Minter. "Bilateral Phacoemulsification in an African Elephant (Loxodonta africana)". Case Reports in Veterinary Medicine 2019 (10 luglio 2019): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2019/2506263.

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A 37-year-old bull African elephant (Loxodonta africana) at the North Carolina Zoo (NCZ) was diagnosed with bilateral cataracts leading to behavioral changes and significant weight loss secondary to functional blindness. On initial examination, a weight loss of 234 kg, a mature cataract in the right eye, and a focal cataract in the left eye were diagnosed. Ultrasound and electroretinography (ERG) indicated normal retinal attachment and both eyes were viable candidates for surgery. After careful planning and behavioral training, the left cataract was surgically removed via phacoemulsification and irrigation/aspiration. The right eye subsequently developed a ventral lens subluxation, and phacoemulsification and irrigation/aspiration were performed six months after the first procedure. Four years after surgery, menace response, palpebral reflex, dazzle reflex, and pupillary light reflexes were present in both eyes. Body weight was 5,515 kg, 88kg more than at the time of the second surgery. This is the first published report of an African bull elephant undergoing bilateral cataract removal using phacoemulsification and irrigation/aspiration. The lack of significant postoperative inflammation and uneventful recovery of the elephant suggests that this surgical procedure along with proper preoperative planning and postoperative medical management can be a safe and effective treatment option for elephants with cataracts.

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Brugière, David, Iacouba Badjinca, Cristina Silva, Abubacar Serra e Mamadou Barry. "On the road to extinction? The status of elephant Loxodonta africana in Guinea Bissau and western Guinea, West Africa". Oryx 40, n. 4 (ottobre 2006): 442–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0030605306001177.

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We carried out a nationwide survey of elephant Loxodonta africana in Guinea Bissau, a small West African country for which records of elephant are limited. We also investigated parts of western Guinea along the border with Guinea Bissau likely to harbour a transboundary elephant population. Standardized interviews with hunters were held in 110 villages in Guinea Bissau and 60 villages in Guinea, and field surveys were carried out to validate interviewee responses. Results suggest that elephants are mainly restricted to an area between the Corubal River (Guinea Bissau) and the Kogon River (Guinea) and that elephants occur only seasonally in Guinea. Based on the number, geographical localization and interpretation of observed tracks, our estimate of the minimum number of elephants in Guinea Bissau is 4–10 animals. We did not observe any signs of young elephants. The most immediate threat to elephants is a road scheme between Guinea Bissau and Guinea that cuts through elephant range. The future of elephants in this region depends on the capacity of the two countries to manage their common elephant population jointly. In particular, the creation of a transboundary park is urgently needed.

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Mortimer, Beth, James A. Walker, David S. Lolchuragi, Michael Reinwald e David Daballen. "Noise matters: elephants show risk-avoidance behaviour in response to human-generated seismic cues". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 288, n. 1953 (30 giugno 2021): 20210774. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2021.0774.

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African elephants ( Loxodonta africana ) use many sensory modes to gather information about their environment, including the detection of seismic, or ground-based, vibrations. Seismic information is known to include elephant-generated signals, but also potentially encompasses biotic cues that are commonly referred to as ‘noise’. To investigate seismic information transfer in elephants beyond communication, here we tested the hypothesis that wild elephants detect and discriminate between seismic vibrations that differ in their noise types, whether elephant- or human-generated. We played three types of seismic vibrations to elephants: seismic recordings of elephants (elephant-generated), white noise (human-generated) and a combined track (elephant- and human-generated). We found evidence of both detection of seismic noise and discrimination between the two treatments containing human-generated noise. In particular, we found evidence of retreat behaviour, where seismic tracks with human-generated noise caused elephants to move further away from the trial location. We conclude that seismic noise are cues that contain biologically relevant information for elephants that they can associate with risk. This expands our understanding of how elephants use seismic information, with implications for elephant sensory ecology and conservation management.

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Viljoen, J. J., H. C. Reynecke, M. D. Panagos, W. R. Langbauer e A. Ganswindt. "Seasonal Selection Preferences for Woody Plants by Breeding Herds of African Elephants (Loxodonta africana) in a Woodland Savanna". International Journal of Ecology 2013 (2013): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/769587.

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To evaluate dynamics of elephant herbivory, we assessed seasonal preferences for woody plants by African elephant breeding herds in the southeastern part of Kruger National Park (KNP) between 2002 and 2005. Breeding herds had access to a variety of woody plants, and, of the 98 woody plant species that were recorded in the elephant's feeding areas, 63 species were utilized by observed animals. Data were recorded at 948 circular feeding sites (radius 5 m) during wet and dry seasons. Seasonal preference was measured by comparing selection of woody species in proportion to their estimated availability and then ranked according to the Manly alpha (α) index of preference. Animals demonstrated a selection preference in feeding on woody vegetation, andGrewia hexamita, Grewia bicolor, Grewia flavescens, andGrewia monticolawere selected consistently more over all seasons. In addition, our results indicate that elephant herds have a low preference for at least some of the woody species prone to extirpation and that feeding preferences for woody plants do not account for the association of elephants and riparian fringe habitat.

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Nyirenda, Vincent, Bimo Nkhata, Oscar Tembo e Susan Siamundele. "Elephant Crop Damage: Subsistence Farmers’ Social Vulnerability, Livelihood Sustainability and Elephant Conservation". Sustainability 10, n. 10 (7 ottobre 2018): 3572. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su10103572.

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African elephants (Loxodonta africana) induce considerable crop damage risks, shocks and stresses on subsistence farmers at the wildlife-agriculture interface. In this study, we explored the social dimensions of human-elephant interactions in the wildlife-agrarian landscape. The study aimed at unraveling the associated hazardous conditions and nature of the subsistence farmers’ social vulnerability and practices with respect to elephant crop damage, subsistence farmers’ livelihoods, and elephant conservation. Applying qualitative thematic content analysis, the sustainable livelihood framework (SLF) and additive generalized linear models (GLMs), this study revealed that the status of relational social capital influences human-elephant conflict (HEC) management and subsistence farmers’ responses, regardless of the farmers’ social learning and environmental values about the social-ecological system. The strengthening of multiple local stakeholder participation, institutional governance and access to livelihoods assets are needed for human food security and elephant conservation. Adoption of more effective nuanced crop protection counter-measures against elephants at farm level is urgently needed.

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Hautier, Lionel, Fiona J. Stansfield, W. R. Twink Allen e Robert J. Asher. "Skeletal development in the African elephant and ossification timing in placental mammals". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 279, n. 1736 (febbraio 2012): 2188–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2011.2481.

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We provide here unique data on elephant skeletal ontogeny. We focus on the sequence of cranial and post-cranial ossification events during growth in the African elephant ( Loxodonta africana ). Previous analyses on ossification sequences in mammals have focused on monotremes, marsupials, boreoeutherian and xenarthran placentals. Here, we add data on ossification sequences in an afrotherian. We use two different methods to quantify sequence heterochrony: the sequence method and event-paring/Parsimov. Compared with other placentals, elephants show late ossifications of the basicranium, manual and pedal phalanges, and early ossifications of the ischium and metacarpals. Moreover, ossification in elephants starts very early and progresses rapidly. Specifically, the elephant exhibits the same percentage of bones showing an ossification centre at the end of the first third of its gestation period as the mouse and hamster have close to birth. Elephants show a number of features of their ossification patterns that differ from those of other placental mammals. The pattern of the initiation of the ossification evident in the African elephant underscores a possible correlation between the timing of ossification onset and gestation time throughout mammals.

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Madden, M., M. Karidozo, W. Langbauer, F. Osborn, A. Presotto e R. Parry. "GEOSPATIAL ASSESSMENT OF HUMAN-WILDLIFE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS FOR SPATIAL DECISION SUPPORT". International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences XLIII-B4-2021 (30 giugno 2021): 281–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-xliii-b4-2021-281-2021.

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Abstract. Human-Elephant Conflict (HEC) is a global concern that requires geospatial data collection, analysis and geovisualization for decision support and mitigation. Bull African elephants, (Loxodonata africana), are often responsible for breaking fences, raiding crops and causing economic hardship in local communities in Botswana, Zimbabwe and Zambia. Methods for monitoring and understanding elephant movements are needed to mitigate conflict, find ways for coexistence and secure the future of Africa’s elephant populations. Researchers from academia and conservation organizations are partnering with decision makers and scientists of the Zimbabwe Department of National Park and Wild Life Management (PWMA) to track the movement of 15 bull elephants in the general area of Victoria Falls to analyse spatio-temporal patterns of elephant behaviour related to climatic factors, habitat conditions and changing land uses. Spatial decision support for local famers, resource managers and planners will assist in avoiding agricultural expansion and urban development that coincides with elephant corridors and access to water resources.

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Pearson, Virginia R., Jens B. Bosse, Orkide O. Koyuncu, Julian Scherer, Cristhian Toruno, Rosann Robinson, Lisa M. Abegglen, Joshua D. Schiffman, Lynn W. Enquist e Glenn F. Rall. "Identification of African Elephant Polyomavirus in wild elephants and the creation of a vector expressing its viral tumor antigens to transform elephant primary cells". PLOS ONE 16, n. 2 (5 febbraio 2021): e0244334. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0244334.

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Wild elephant populations are declining rapidly due to rampant killing for ivory and body parts, range fragmentation, and human-elephant conflict. Wild and captive elephants are further impacted by viruses, including highly pathogenic elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses. Moreover, while the rich genetic diversity of the ancient elephant lineage is disappearing, elephants, with their low incidence of cancer, have emerged as a surprising resource in human cancer research for understanding the intrinsic cellular response to DNA damage. However, studies on cellular resistance to transformation and herpesvirus reproduction have been severely limited, in part due to the lack of established elephant cell lines to enable in vitro experiments. This report describes creation of a recombinant plasmid, pAelPyV-1-Tag, derived from a wild isolate of African Elephant Polyomavirus (AelPyV-1), that can be used to create immortalized lines of elephant cells. This isolate was extracted from a trunk nodule biopsy isolated from a wild African elephant, Loxodonta africana, in Botswana. The AelPyV-1 genome contains open-reading frames encoding the canonical large (LTag) and small (STag) tumor antigens. We cloned the entire early region spanning the LTag and overlapping STag genes from this isolate into a high-copy vector to construct a recombinant plasmid, pAelPyV-1-Tag, which effectively transformed primary elephant endothelial cells. We expect that the potential of this reagent to transform elephant primary cells will, at a minimum, facilitate study of elephant-specific herpesviruses.

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Stansfield, F. J., J. O. Nöthling, J. T. Soley e W. R. Allen. "Development of the germinal ridge and ovary in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana)". REPRODUCTION 144, n. 5 (novembre 2012): 583–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/rep-12-0303.

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The follicular reserve and its ontogeny in the elephant are of interest because elephants have the longest reproductive life of all land-based mammals. They also have the longest recorded pregnancy, which allows a protracted view of the series of significant events involved in the development of the embryonic and fetal gonads. The large elephant population of Zimbabwe provided the opportunity to collect conceptuses from elephants culled for management reasons and hunted professionally. Five embryos aged 76–96 days and the ovaries of four fetuses aged 4.8–11.2 months were fixed in 4% buffered formalin and studied by conventional histological sectioning and a stereological protocol to calculate the follicle reserve of each fetus. These observations enabled the conclusion that the migration of primordial germ cells into the indifferent gonad terminates at around 76 days of gestation while entry of oogonia into meiosis along with first follicle formation starts at around 5 months. Peak numbers of follicles are present by mid-gestation towards the end of the 6-month mitotic–meiotic transition period. It appears that the cortex of the elephant fetal ovary at mid-gestation (11 months) has already reached a developmental stage exhibited by the ovaries of many other mammals at full term.

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Wierucka, Kaja, Michelle D. Henley e Hannah S. Mumby. "Acoustic cues to individuality in wild male adult African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana)". PeerJ 9 (22 gennaio 2021): e10736. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.10736.

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The ability to recognize conspecifics plays a pivotal role in animal communication systems. It is especially important for establishing and maintaining associations among individuals of social, long-lived species, such as elephants. While research on female elephant sociality and communication is prevalent, until recently male elephants have been considered far less social than females. This resulted in a dearth of information about their communication and recognition abilities. With new knowledge about the intricacies of the male elephant social structure come questions regarding the communication basis that allows for social bonds to be established and maintained. By analyzing the acoustic parameters of social rumbles recorded over 1.5 years from wild, mature, male African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) we expand current knowledge about the information encoded within these vocalizations and their potential to facilitate individual recognition. We showed that social rumbles are individually distinct and stable over time and therefore provide an acoustic basis for individual recognition. Furthermore, our results revealed that different frequency parameters contribute to individual differences of these vocalizations.

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Schulte, Bruce, Thomas Goodwin, Anna Whitehouse e Helen Loizi. "Sexual dimorphism in the performance of chemosensory investigatory behaviours by African elephants (Loxodonta africana)". Behaviour 146, n. 3 (2009): 373–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853909x410964.

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AbstractSexual dimorphism in morphology can be accompanied by behavioural differences between the sexes. We examined if investigatory behaviour involving the trunk of African elephants showed sexual dimorphism. Males compete and search for females, but they have a lengthy period of development before they are socially viable mates. Receptive females are relatively rare. We hypothesized that males would display higher rates of chemosensory behaviour following puberty than females. Because males disperse, they were hypothesized to be more likely to contact elephants outside their kinship group. We observed the trunk tip, chemosensory behaviours of African elephants at Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa. For 208 elephants, we found no significant differences in state behaviours around waterholes by age or sex. Yet, older elephants were more likely to investigate the environment and elephant excrement than younger animals. Males were more likely to investigate urine and faeces than females. Only post-puberty animals contacted non-family with males investigating both sexes, while investigations by and to females only involved post-puberty males. Overall, the probability of performing chemosensory behaviours depended on age and sex. Male elephants appear more reliant than females on signals in urine and faeces with ensuing inspections of individuals through trunk tip contacts.

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Arzi, Boaz, Vincent P. Willard, Daniel J. Huey, Frank J. M. Verstraete, Natalia Vapniarsky-Arzi e Kyriacos A. Athanasiou. "The temporomandibular joint disc of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) and African elephant (Loxodonta africana)". European Journal of Wildlife Research 58, n. 2 (23 novembre 2011): 451–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10344-011-0595-x.

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Foley, Charles A. H., e Lisa J. Faust. "Rapid population growth in an elephant Loxodonta africana population recovering from poaching in Tarangire National Park, Tanzania". Oryx 44, n. 2 (12 gennaio 2010): 205–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0030605309990706.

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AbstractWe studied the demography of a subpopulation of African elephants Loxodonta africana in Tarangire National Park, Tanzania, from 1993 to 2005. The Tarangire elephants had been affected by heavy poaching prior to 1993. We monitored 668 individually known elephants in 27 family groups. The population increased from 226 to 498 individuals, with mean group size increasing from 8.4 to 18.3. The average annual growth rate was 7.1% (range 2.0–16.9%). This approaches the maximal growth rate for African elephants, with corresponding minimal values for demographic parameters. The mean interbirth interval was 3.3 years, mean age of first reproduction 11.1 years, average annual mortality of elephants younger than 8 years 3%, and average annual mortality of adult females 1%. Probability of conceiving was positively correlated with annual rainfall. No significant density-dependent effects were recorded. Rapid growth was aided by high rainfall, low population density and release from the stresses of poaching. These results demonstrate that elephant populations are capable of rapid population increases for extended periods of time given the right ecological and social conditions. This has consequences for elephant conservation and management.

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LEE, P. C., e M. D. GRAHAM. "African elephants Loxodonta africana and human-elephant interactions: implications for conservation". International Zoo Yearbook 40, n. 1 (luglio 2006): 9–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1090.2006.00009.x.

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Todd, Nancy E. "Qualitative Comparison of the Cranio-Dental Osteology of the Extant Elephants, Elephas Maximus (Asian Elephant) and Loxodonta africana (African Elephant)". Anatomical Record: Advances in Integrative Anatomy and Evolutionary Biology 293, n. 1 (20 novembre 2009): 62–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ar.21011.

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Stansfield, F. J., e W. R. Allen. "Luteal maintenance of pregnancy in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana)". REPRODUCTION 143, n. 6 (giugno 2012): 845–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/rep-12-0032.

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The ovaries of eight African elephant foetuses and their mothers between 2 and 22 months of gestation, and those of two cycling and two lactating elephants, were examined grossly, histologically and immunocytochemically, with emphasis on the development and regression of accessory corpora lutea (CL) of pregnancy and the steroidogenic capacities of the accessory CL and the foetal ovaries. The results supported recent findings that the accessory CL form as a result of luteinisation, with and without ovulation, of medium-sized follicles during the 3-week inter-luteal period of the oestrous cycle. They enlarge significantly and become steroidogenically active around 5 weeks of gestation, probably in response to the placental lactogen which is secreted by the implanting trophoblast of the conceptus. The large luteal cells stained strongly for 3β hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3βHSD) activity throughout the 22-month gestation period although they showed vacuolation and other degenerative changes in the final months of gestation coincident with hypertrophy and hyperplasia of 3βHSD-positive interstitial cells in the foetal gonads. It is proposed that the progestagens secreted by the enlarged gonads of the elephant foetus may function both to assist the maternal ovaries in supporting the pregnancy state and to induce torpor and intrauterine immobility of the rapidly growing foetus.

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Chamaillé-Jammes, Simon, Hervé Fritz e Ricardo M. Holdo. "Spatial relationship between elephant and sodium concentration of water disappears as density increases in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe". Journal of Tropical Ecology 23, n. 6 (29 ottobre 2007): 725–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467407004531.

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African elephants Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach) may profoundly affect vegetation and associated animal bio-diversity in savannas (Conybeare 2004, Skarpe et al. 2004). Understanding the patterns of habitat use by elephants is crucial to predict their impacts on ecosystems (Ben-Shahar 1993, Nelleman et al. 2002), particularly now that many populations are recovering from past culling events or poaching outbreaks (Blanc et al. 2007). Surface water is one of the major constraints on elephant distribution (Chamaillé-Jammes et al. 2007, Stokke & du Toit 2002), and accordingly, elephant impacts are higher in the vicinity of water (Ben-Shahar 1993, de Beer et al. 2006). However, waterhole selection by elephant remains poorly understood. Weir (1972) showed in Hwange National Park (hereafter Hwange NP), Zimbabwe, that elephant numbers at waterholes over 24 h increased with the sodium concentration of water on nutrient-poor Kalahari sands. His work has become widely cited in elephant studies as it remains the only one, to the best of our knowledge, to have studied elephant use of waterholes in relation to the mineral concentration of water. Weir's work, however, took place when elephant densities in Hwange NP were low, likely below 0.5 elephants km−2 as estimated by aerial censuses (Williamson 1975). Since then, the elephant population has increased dramatically, particularly since the halt to culling operations in 1986 (Chamaillé-Jammes 2006, Cumming 1981). The present elephant density is much higher, estimated to be over 2 elephants km−2 (Chamaillé-Jammes et al. 2007, in press), and is one of the highest in the world (Blanc et al. 2007). Increased density may modify ecological constraints and affect the hierarchy of habitat selection processes (Morris 2003), and the extent to which water-nutrient selection still constrains elephant distribution at high population density – when their impact on savanna vegetation is the highest – remains unknown.

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Songhurst, Anna, Graham McCulloch e Tim Coulson. "Finding pathways to human–elephant coexistence: a risky business". Oryx 50, n. 4 (5 agosto 2015): 713–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0030605315000344.

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AbstractFinding ways for people and wildlife to coexist requires affording both parties access to critical resources and space, but also a behavioural change by both to avoid conflict. We investigated pathway use in a population of free-ranging African elephants Loxodonta africana in the Okavango Panhandle, Botswana that share their range with humans in a multi-use, heterogeneous landscape. We used detailed ground surveys to identify and map elephant movement pathways, and mixed-effect models to explore factors influencing elephant numbers and movement behaviour on and around these pathways. We found deviation in pathway use among the elephant population, suggesting behavioural adaptations to avoid human-associated risk: avoiding pathways near settlements, particularly near larger settlements; avoiding pathways close to cultivated land; and adopting a safety-in-numbers strategy when moving through areas of human use. Our findings suggest there is opportunity to capitalize on risk avoidance by elephant populations, to minimize resource-use overlap and reduce conflict between humans and elephants. We discuss a strategy that involves ensuring appropriate protection of elephant pathways in land-use planning, using development-free buffer zones, combined with mitigation techniques along the interface with agricultural lands to increase risk levels and reinforce human–elephant interface boundaries. We recommend further examination of the use of landscape-level mitigation techniques that encourage elephants to use pathways away from human activity and help define spatial boundaries for management of human–elephant conflict in multi-use landscapes.

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McComb, Karen, Lucy Baker e Cynthia Moss. "African elephants show high levels of interest in the skulls and ivory of their own species". Biology Letters 2, n. 1 (25 ottobre 2005): 26–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2005.0400.

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An important area of biology involves investigating the origins in animals of traits that are thought of as uniquely human. One way that humans appear unique is in the importance they attach to the dead bodies of other humans, particularly those of their close kin, and the rituals that they have developed for burying them. In contrast, most animals appear to show only limited interest in the carcasses or associated remains of dead individuals of their own species. African elephants ( Loxodonta africana ) are unusual in that they not only give dramatic reactions to the dead bodies of other elephants, but are also reported to systematically investigate elephant bones and tusks that they encounter, and it has sometimes been suggested that they visit the bones of relatives. Here, we use systematic presentations of object arrays to demonstrate that African elephants show higher levels of interest in elephant skulls and ivory than in natural objects or the skulls of other large terrestrial mammals. However, they do not appear to specifically select the skulls of their own relatives for investigation so that visits to dead relatives probably result from a more general attraction to elephant remains.

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Della Rocca, F. "How tall is an elephant? Two methods for estimating elephant height". Web Ecology 7, n. 1 (14 febbraio 2007): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/we-7-1-2007.

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Abstract. Shoulder height is a reliable indicator of age for African elephants (Loxodonta africana), and is therefore an important parameter to be recorded in field studies of population ecology of these pachyderms. However, it can be somewhat difficult to estimate with precision the shoulder height of free-ranging elephants because of several reasons, including the presence of drops and vegetation cover and the potential dangerousness of approaching them in the wild. Here I test two alternative models for estimating shoulder height of elephants. In both models, the equipment needed to generate the height estimates is minimal, and include a telemeter and a digital photo-camera furnished with an ×16 zoom. The models are based respectively on a linear regression approach and on a geometric formula approach, and put into a relationship the linear distance between the observer and the animal, the number of pixels of an elephant silhouette as taken from digital photos, and the absolute height of the animal. Both methods proved to have a very small measurement error, and were thus reliable for field estimates of elephant shoulder heights. The model based on a geometric formula was used to estimate the shoulder height distribution of an elephant population in a savannah region of West Africa (Zakouma National Park, Chad). I demonstrated that Zakouma elephants were among the tallest populations in Africa, with growth rates being highest throughout the first five years of life.

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Fischer, Martin S., e Uschi Trautmann. "Fetuses of African Elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Photographs". Elephant 2, n. 3 (20 dicembre 1987): 40–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.22237/elephant/1521732098.

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Luther, Ilse, Liana Maree, Antoinette Kotze, Thomas Hildebrandt, Frank Göritz, Robert Hermes e Gerhard van der Horst. "Sperm motility, kinematics, morphometry and morphology over two seasons in free-ranging African elephants (Loxodonta africana)". Reproduction, Fertility and Development 32, n. 4 (2020): 425. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/rd19182.

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This study aimed to address the lack of information on quantitative semen and sperm characteristics of free-ranging African elephants. Nineteen ejaculates were collected from 12 elephant bulls by means of electroejaculation in spring (Season 1, end of dry season, n=7) and in autumn (Season 2, end of rainy season, n=12). While most elephant cows are in oestrus in the rainy season, it is not evident whether sperm quality also improves during this period. Semen samples were assessed using computer-aided sperm analysis (CASA), brightfield microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Seasonal differences and individual variation in sperm quality of bulls were apparent, with ejaculates collected during Season 2 revealing higher percentages for total motility, progressive motility, rapid-swimming spermatozoa and kinematic parameters compared with Season 1 (P<0.05). Although normal sperm morphology percentage was similar over the two seasons, more sperm tail defects were found in Season 2 (P<0.05). The baseline reference data and multivariate sperm parameter associations reported in this study can be used to predict elephant bull sperm quality and potential to fertilise. It is clear that CASA can detect subtle differences in sperm quality of African elephant ejaculates and should be the approach for future investigations.

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Parker, D. M., R. T. F. Bernard e J. Adendorff. "Do elephants influence the organisation and function of a South African grassland?" Rangeland Journal 31, n. 4 (2009): 395. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/rj08039.

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The impact of elephants (Loxodonta africana) on woody plants is well known. Elephants can be regarded as drivers of ecosystem functioning by, for example, decreasing woody plant litter accumulation through defoliation. However, their influence within grassland landscapes is, by comparison, very poorly understood. We assessed the influence of elephants on grassland functionality at three separate sites (1, high elephant density, long occupation time; 2, low elephant density, short occupation time; 3, no elephants) in the Addo Elephant National Park, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Using landscape function analysis (LFA) we described the landscape organisation of each site, and, using visual surrogates, calculated indices of landscape stability, infiltration and nutrient cycling. The number of vegetation patches/10 m of transects surveyed was higher at sites where elephant density was high (3 elephants/km2) and where elephants had been present for a long time (>70 years). However, patch size was significantly smaller when elephant density/time of occupation increased, and the proportion of bare soil was higher where elephant density and occupation time were highest. In addition, stability, infiltration and nutrient cycling indices at a site scale were significantly lower where elephants were present at high densities and after a long occupation time. However, bare soil stability was not greatly affected by elephant grazing pressure, implying that a ‘threshold of potential concern’ has not yet arisen. We conclude that the functioning of this grassland landscape is significantly altered when elephants are present. These conclusions highlight the importance of management factors such as containment and the provision of artificial water points which may be compromising the functionality of these landscapes. We recommend ongoing assessments to inform future management decisions.

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Stansfield, F. J., J. O. Nöthling e W. R. Allen. "The progression of small-follicle reserves in the ovaries of wild African elephants (Loxodonta africana) from puberty to reproductive senescence". Reproduction, Fertility and Development 25, n. 8 (2013): 1165. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/rd12296.

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This study aimed to determine whether the follicle reserve in the ovary of the African elephant declines progressively after puberty and whether its depletion constrains the fertility of older females. Elephant ovaries were fixed in 4% neutral buffered formalin and small-follicle counts made using stereological protocols. Excepting a slight rise in small-follicle numbers between 16 and 25 years of age, there was a trend for follicle numbers to fall from puberty to 70 years. Reproductive status did not impact significantly on small-follicle numbers (P = 0.31). The number of early primary follicles, initially higher in number than true primary follicles, fell from post-puberty to nil at 45 years of age. Six of the seven oldest animals in the study showed signs of recent ovarian activity in the form of antral follicles, corpora lutea or large corpora nigra. The four oldest elephants (mean age 69 years) had a median small-follicle count of 11 113. In summary, it appears that the elephant ovary is capable of supplying oocytes for ovulation right up to the time of death at the age of maximum life expectancy, although the follicle reserve becomes depleted in some older elephants.

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Stoeger, Angela S., e Anton Baotic. "Operant control and call usage learning in African elephants". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 376, n. 1836 (6 settembre 2021): 20200254. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2020.0254.

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Elephants exhibit remarkable vocal plasticity, and case studies reveal that individuals of African savannah ( Loxodonta africana ) and Asian ( Elephas maximus ) elephants are capable of vocal production learning. Surprisingly, however, little is known about contextual learning (usage and comprehension learning) in elephant communication. Usage learning can be demonstrated by training animals to vocalize in an arbitrary (cue-triggered) context. Here we show that adult African savannah elephants ( n = 13) can vocalize in response to verbal cues, reliably producing social call types such as the low-frequency rumble, trumpets and snorts as well as atypical sounds using various mechanisms, thus displaying compound vocal control. We further show that rumbles emitted upon trainer cues differ significantly in structure from rumbles triggered by social contexts of the same individuals ( n = 6). Every form of social learning increases the complexity of a communication system. In elephants, we only poorly understand their vocal learning abilities and the underlying cognitive mechanisms. Among other research, this calls for controlled learning experiments in which the prerequisite is operant/volitional control of vocalizations. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Vocal learning in animals and humans’.

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Houck, M. L., A. T. Kumamoto, D. S. Gallagher Jr e K. Benirschke. "Comparative cytogenetics of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) and Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus)". Cytogenetic and Genome Research 93, n. 3-4 (2001): 249–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000056992.

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Gough, Katie F., e Graham I. H. Kerley. "Demography and population dynamics in the elephants Loxodonta africana of Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa: is there evidence of density dependent regulation?" Oryx 40, n. 4 (ottobre 2006): 434–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0030605306001189.

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Density dependence of the Addo Elephant National Park (South Africa) elephants Loxodonta africana was assessed using a long-term data set. Estimated carrying capacity is 0.1–0.5 elephants km−2 but stocking rates have been up to 4 elephants km−2. Population growth rate was found to be positively correlated with increasing density. There was no relationship between birth rate, the age of first calving or calf sex ratio and elephant density but there was a positive relationship between birth rate and rainfall during conception year. Mortality rates, particularly for juveniles, were low, and mean inter-calf interval was 3.3 years. There is no evidence of density dependent regulation in this population, despite the population being consistently above the estimated sustainable carrying capacity and a loss of phytomass and biodiversity. This is interpreted in light of the characteristics of the aseasonal habitat, succulent thicket vegetation and the ability of elephants to utilize accumulated vegetation biomass. These findings indicate that density dependence should not be considered as an option in the control of elephant numbers in this Park, or where elephant resources are not seasonally limited.

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ROBERTSON-BULLOCK, W. "THE WEIGHT OF THE AFRICAN ELEPHANT LOXODONTA AFRICANA". Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 138, n. 1 (20 agosto 2009): 133–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1962.tb05691.x.

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Hanks, J., e J. E. A. McIntosh. "Population dynamics of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana)". Journal of Zoology 169, n. 1 (20 agosto 2009): 29–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1973.tb04651.x.

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Stegmann, GF, D. Grobler e J. Zuba. "Field anaesthesia of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana)". Southern African Journal of Anaesthesia and Analgesia 20, n. 1 (gennaio 2014): 95–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/22201173.2014.10844576.

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Wyatt, Jeff, e Louis DiVincenti. "Eradication of Elephant Ear Mites (Loxoanoetus bassoni) in Two African Elephants (Loxodonta africana)". Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 43, n. 1 (marzo 2012): 141–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1638/2011-0185.1.

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Midgley, Jeremy J., Kirsten Gallaher e Laurence M. Kruger. "The role of the elephant (Loxodonta africana) and the tree squirrel (Paraxerus cepapi) in marula (Sclerocarya birrea) seed predation, dispersal and germination". Journal of Tropical Ecology 28, n. 2 (13 febbraio 2012): 227–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467411000654.

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The marula (Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst., Anacardiaceae) has a strongly lignified endocarp or stone which contains several seeds, each of which is within its own locule that is sealed by an individual operculum (Figure 1). The strong casing prevents germination, not by preventing the passage of water to the seeds, but by preventing oxygen from reaching the seeds (von Teichman et al. 1985). It is well known that marula fruits taken from the dung of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach) have more rapid germination than those that have not been eaten by elephants (Dudley 2000, Lewis 1987). This positive impact of elephants on marula germination continues to be considered to be through acid treatment in the digestion system of the elephant (Helm et al. 2011). We hypothesize that the primary mechanism which favours germination is mastication by elephants which physically loosens the opercula, rather than digestive dissolution of the stone. If true, the relevance of this is that only elephants would be the legitimate dispersers of marula seeds, because none of the many other species that are attracted to marula fruits would have jaws powerful enough to loosen the opercula.

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Smit, Josephine, Rocío A. Pozo, Jeremy J. Cusack, Katarzyna Nowak e Trevor Jones. "Using camera traps to study the age–sex structure and behaviour of crop-using elephants Loxodonta africana in Udzungwa Mountains National Park, Tanzania". Oryx 53, n. 2 (28 giugno 2017): 368–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0030605317000345.

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AbstractCrop losses to foraging elephants are one of the primary obstacles to the coexistence of elephants and people. Understanding whether some individuals in a population are more likely to forage on crops, and the temporal patterns of elephant visits to farms, is key to mitigating the negative impacts of elephants on farmers’ livelihoods. We used camera traps to study the crop foraging behaviour of African elephants Loxodonta africana in farmland adjacent to the Udzungwa Mountains National Park in southern Tanzania during October 2010–August 2014. Camera traps placed on elephant trails into farmland detected elephants on 336 occasions during the study period. We identified individual elephants for 126 camera-trap detections. All were independent males, and we identified 48 unique bulls aged 10–29 years. Two-thirds of the bulls identified were detected only once by camera traps during the study period. Our findings are consistent with previous studies that found that adult males are more likely to adopt high-risk feeding behaviours such as crop foraging, although young males dispersing from maternal family units also consume crops in Udzungwa. We found a large number of occasional crop-users (32 of the 48 bulls identified) and a smaller number of repeat crop-users (16 of 48), suggesting that lethal control of crop-using elephants is unlikely to be an effective long-term strategy for reducing crop losses to elephants.

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Szott, Isabelle D., Yolanda Pretorius, Andre Ganswindt e Nicola F. Koyama. "Physiological stress response of African elephants to wildlife tourism in Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa". Wildlife Research 47, n. 1 (2020): 34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr19045.

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Abstract ContextWildlife tourism has been shown to increase stress in a variety of species and can negatively affect survival, reproduction, welfare, and behaviour of individuals. In African elephants, Loxodonta africana, increased physiological stress has been linked to use of refugia, rapid movement through corridors, and heightened aggression towards humans. However, we are unaware of any studies assessing the impact of tourism pressure (tourist numbers) on physiological stress in elephants. AimsWe used faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) concentrations to investigate whether tourist numbers in Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa, were related to changes in physiological stress in elephants. MethodsWe repeatedly collected dung samples (n=43) from 13 individually identified elephants over 15 months. Using a generalised linear mixed model and a Kenward–Roger approximation, we assessed the impact of monthly tourist numbers, season, age, and sex on elephant fGCM concentrations. Key resultsHigh tourist numbers were significantly related to elevated fGCM concentrations. Overall, fGCM concentrations increased by 112% (from 0.26 to 0.55µgg−1 dry weight) in the months with the highest tourist pressure, compared to months with the lowest tourist pressure. ConclusionsManagers of fenced reserves should consider providing potential alleviation measures for elephants during high tourist pressure, for example, by ensuring that refuge areas are available. This may be of even higher importance if elephant populations have had traumatic experiences with humans in the past, such as poaching or translocation. Such management action will improve elephant welfare and increase tourist safety. ImplicationsAlthough tourism can generate substantial revenue to support conservation action, careful monitoring of its impact on wildlife is required to manage potential negative effects.

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Archie, E. A., C. J. Moss e S. C. Alberts. "Characterization of tetranucleotide microsatellite loci in the African Savannah Elephant (Loxodonta africana africana)". Molecular Ecology Notes 3, n. 2 (giugno 2003): 244–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1471-8286.2003.00412.x.

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Heard, Darryl J., George V. Kollias, A. M. Merritt e Elliott R. Jacobson. "Idiopathic Chronic Diarrhea and Malabsorption in a Juvenile African Elephant (Loxodonta africana africana)". Journal of Zoo Animal Medicine 19, n. 3 (1988): 132. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/20094870.

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Bonar, Christopher J., Albert H. Lewandowski, Baha Arafah e Charles C. Capen. "PHEOCHROMOCYTOMA IN AN AGED FEMALE AFRICAN ELEPHANT (LOXODONTA AFRICANA)". Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 36, n. 4 (dicembre 2005): 719–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1638/03-111.1.

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Sweet, Julia, Dean A. Hendrickson, Mark Stetter e Donald L. Neiffer. "EXPLORATORY RIGID LAPAROSCOPY IN AN AFRICAN ELEPHANT (LOXODONTA AFRICANA)". Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 45, n. 4 (dicembre 2014): 941–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1638/2013-0299.1.

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Okewole, P., I. Oyetunde, E. Irokanulo, J. Chima, N. Nwankpa, Y. Laleye e C. Bot. "Anthrax and cowdriosis in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana)". Veterinary Record 133, n. 7 (14 agosto 1993): 168. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/vr.133.7.168.

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Rees, P. S. "Synchronization of defaecation in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana)". Journal of Zoology 201, n. 4 (20 agosto 2009): 581–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1983.tb05083.x.

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Seaman, J. T., e E. P. Finnie. "Acute Myocarditis in a Captive African Elephant (Loxodonta africana)". Journal of Wildlife Diseases 23, n. 1 (gennaio 1987): 170–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-23.1.170.

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48

Jacobs, Bob, Jessica Lubs, Markus Hannan, Kaeley Anderson, Camilla Butti, Chet C. Sherwood, Patrick R. Hof e Paul R. Manger. "Neuronal morphology in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) neocortex". Brain Structure and Function 215, n. 3-4 (16 novembre 2010): 273–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00429-010-0288-3.

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Bronson, Ellen, Michael McClure, Jennifer Sohl, Ellen Wiedner, Sherry Cox, Erin M. Latimer, Virginia R. Pearson, Gary S. Hayward, Angela Fuery e Paul D. Ling. "EPIDEMIOLOGIC EVALUATION OF ELEPHANT ENDOTHELIOTROPIC HERPESVIRUS 3B INFECTION IN AN AFRICAN ELEPHANT (LOXODONTA AFRICANA)". Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 48, n. 2 (giugno 2017): 335–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1638/2016-0063r.1.

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Eggert, L. S., U. Ramakrishnan, N. I. Mundy e D. S. Woodruff. "Polymorphic microsatellite DNA markers in the African elephant (Loxondonta africana) and their use in the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)". Molecular Ecology 9, n. 12 (dicembre 2000): 2222–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.105336.x.

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