Tesi sul tema "Cosmic-ray transport"

The bulk of Cosmic Rays (CRs) reaching our planet is likely of Galactic origin and is thought to be accelerated in sources located in the Galactic disk (mainly Supernova remnants (SNRs)). The energy density of Galactic CRs, ∼ 1 eV/cm3, can be accounted for if one assumes that 3-10% of the mechanical energy injected by SNe in the Galaxy is channeled into accelerated particles. The observed large residence time of CRs in the Galaxy (compared to the time required for ballistic propagation of relativistic particles on Galactic distances) suggests that Galactic CRs are well coupled to the interstellar medium (ISM) and are likely to undergo diffusive motion, due to scattering off magnetic turbulence in the ISM. Most of current models of CR propagation treat the CR transport properties (such as the diffusion coefficient and the size of the propagation region) as fitting parameters and do not take into account the possible active role of CRs in determining them. In fact, the escape of CRs from the Galaxy leads to a gradient in the CR distribution function which can cause the excitation of Alfvén waves, due to CR streaming instability, that in turn determine the scattering properties of CRs, namely their diffusive transport. In addition, the CR pressure gradient can act as a force on the background plasma, directed away from the Galactic disk. If this force is large enough to win against gravity (due to Dark Matter, gas and stars), a wind can be launched, which affects the CR convective transport. The dynamics of CR-driven winds in the presence of self-generated turbulence is intrinsically non-linear. In fact, the CR density gradient determines the wind properties (velocity, pressure, magnetic field) and the excitation of the plasma waves which cause CR diffusion. On the other hand, Galactic winds could have a sizable effect on the CR distribution function, by advecting CRs out of the Galaxy, by influencing their spectral features, by affecting their radial distribution in the Galactic disk but also, possibly, by reaccelerating them at the wind termination shock (see Zirakashvili & Voelk (2006)). In addition, in such a scenario the CR diffusion coefficient, convection velocity and the size of the propagation region are not pre assigned, but rather they are derived self-consistently with the CR distribution function. The importance of Galactic winds is not only restricted to CR physics. In fact, galactic outflows have been observed in many galaxies and constitute an important ingredient in the galactic evolution. For instance, galactic winds affect the amount of gas available and pollute the galactic halos with hot plasma and metals, thus influencing the properties of the ISM and the star formation rate. As for the Milky Way, observations have not yet provided a clear answer as to the existence of such outflows, although the detection of absorption lines in the X-ray band (Oxygen OV II and OV III lines) show the presence of a hot dilute gas in the Galactic halo and the recent observation of the so called Fermi Bubbles in the Galactic Center region are likely to be connected with Galactic winds. Galactic winds may be powered by several mechanisms, for instance by thermal and radiation pressure gradients. However those mechanisms are unlikely to occur in the Milky Way, with the only possible exception of the Galactic Center region, since thermal and radiation pressure gradients are expected to be too small. Nevertheless, the CR pressure gradient may provide the force necessary to launch winds, making CR-driving an appealing mechanism for wind formation in our Galaxy. In this thesis we solve the coupled system of the hydrodynamic equations for CR-driven winds and for the CR transport in such winds. In our approach the CR transport is due to diffusion on self-generated Alfvén waves and to advection with these waves and with the wind. We then apply our solution method to the Milky Way and we investigate: 1) how the wind launching depends on the properties of the ISM (gas density and temperature, Galactic magnetic field), on the CR pressure and on the Galactic gravitational potential (including the Dark Matter halo); 2) the implications of CR-driven winds on the observed CR proton spectrum; 3) the effect of non-linear CR propagation in the presence of self-generated diffusion, both with and without CR-driven winds, on the CR distribution function in the Galaxy as a function of the Galactocentric distance, and we compare our predictions with the observed radial CR density and spectral slope, as inferred from observations of γ-rays.

In this thesis, we aim at studying some of the open questions regarding the origin of the "Cosmic Rays" (CRs), as well as their transport properties. The exceptional quality of the experimentally measured cosmic-ray observables, especially at the recently-achieved energies in the range ~O(100 GeV - 1 TeV), started to question the standard picture, based on a "Supernova Remnant"-(SNR)-only origin of the CRs and a diffusive propagation inspired by the "Quasi-Linear Theory" (QLT) of pitch-angle interaction against alfvénic turbulence. First, we reproduce the most relevant cosmic-ray observables to tune the propagation setup, numerically solving the transport equation with the DRAGON code. On top of this, to account for the rising of the e^+ above ~10 GeV, we fit a primary population of positrons originating in Pulsar Wind Nebulae, in a model-independent setup that considers the uncertainties in the pulsar injections mechanism. Since the all-lepton spectrum is still not reproduced above ~50 GeV --- and in particular the ~TeV break --- we consider the contribution from a nearby source of e^-, and conclude that an old t_{age} ~ 10^5 yr SNR, located between ~600 pc and ~1 kpc, is probably missing from the Catalogues. Within the hypothesis of such old remnant in its radiative phase contributing to the e^+ + e^-, we search for its signature in the proton flux as well. To do this, we consider a phenomenological propagation setup that reproduces the hadronic spectral hardening at ~200 GeV as a diffusive feature D(E) ~ E^delta(E), and adopt it consistently for the large-scale background and for the nearby source. Within this framework, we account for the all-lepton spectrum, the proton spectrum and the cosmic-ray dipole anisotropy with the same old (t_{age} = 2*10^5 yr), nearby (d = 300 pc) remnant. We highlight that the progressively hardening diffusion coefficient is a crucial ingredient, since, in a single-power-law diffusion scenario, the dipole anisotropy data would be overshot by, at least, one order of magnitude. Finally, we explore the phenomenological implications of a change of paradigm in the standard cosmic-ray diffusion --- based on wave-particle interaction with Alfvén fluctuations --- considering a non-linear extension of the QLT that enhances the efficiency of CR-scattering with the other "Magneto-Hydro-Dynamic" (MHD) modes. Indeed, assuming the anisotropy of the alfvénic cascade, its scattering rate at all energies below ~100 TeV is not able to confine charged cosmic rays, and the fast magnetosonic modes alone shape the diffusion coefficient that particles experience in the Galaxy. Within such picture, we implement the resulting D(E) in DRAGON2, where two independent zones differently affect the evolution of the MHD cascade: the Halo (L_{Halo} ~ 5-6 kpc) and the Warm Ionized Medium (L_{WIM} ~ 1 kpc). We find that, with a reasonable choice of selected quantities, representing the physics of the environments, we can reproduce the hadronic fluxes, as well as the boron-over-carbon ratio, from ~200 GeV above. We assign to the rising of the "streaming instabilities" the cosmic-ray transport below this energy.

Transport of low energy neutrons associated with the galactic cosmic ray cascade is analyzed in this dissertation. A benchmark quality analytical algorithm is demonstrated for use with B scRYNTRN, a computer program written by the High Energy Physics Division of N scASA Langley Research Center, which is used to design and analyze shielding against the radiation created by the cascade. B scRYNTRN uses numerical methods to solve the integral transport equations for baryons with the straight-ahead approximation, and numerical and empirical methods to generate the interaction probabilities. The straight-ahead approximation is adequate for charged particles, but not for neutrons. As N scASA Langley improves B scRYNTRN to include low energy neutrons, a benchmark quality solution is needed for comparison. The neutron transport algorithm demonstrated in this dissertation uses the closed-form Green's function solution to the galactic cosmic ray cascade transport equations to generate a source of neutrons. A basis function expansion for finite heterogeneous and semi-infinite homogeneous slabs with multiple energy groups and isotropic scattering is used to generate neutron fluxes resulting from the cascade. This method, called the F(N) method, is used to solve the neutral particle linear Boltzmann transport equation. As a demonstration of the algorithm coded in the programs M scGSLAB and M scGSEMI, neutron and ion fluxes are shown for a beam of fluorine ions at 1000 MeV per nucleon incident on semi-infinite and finite aluminum slabs. Also, to demonstrate that the shielding effectiveness against the radiation from the galactic cosmic ray cascade is not directly proportional to shield thickness, a graph of transmitted total neutron scalar flux versus slab thickness is shown. A simple model based on the nuclear liquid drop assumption is used to generate cross sections for the galactic cosmic ray cascade. The E scNDF/B V database is used to generate the total and scattering cross sections for neutrons in aluminum. As an external verification, the results from M scGSLAB and M scGSEMI were compared to A scNISN/P scC, a routinely used neutron transport code, showing excellent agreement. In an application to an aluminum shield, the F(N) method seems to generate reasonable results.

The cosmic ray neutron method was developed for intermediate-scale soil moisture detection, but may potentially be used for other hydrological applications. The neutron signal of different hydrogen pools is poorly understood and separating them is difficult based on neutron measurements alone. Including neutron transport modeling may accommodate this shortcoming. However, measured and modeled neutrons are not directly comparable. Neither the scale nor energy ranges are equivalent, and the exact neutron energy sensitivity of the detectors is unknown. Here a methodology to enable comparability of the measured and modeled neutrons is presented. The usual cosmic ray soil moisture detector measures moderated neutrons by means of a proportional counter surrounded by plastic, making it sensitive to epithermal neutrons. However, that configuration allows for some thermal neutrons to be measured. The thermal contribution can be removed by surrounding the plastic with a layer of cadmium, which absorbs neutrons with energies below 0.5 eV. Likewise, cadmium shielding of a bare detector allows for estimating the epithermal contribution. First, the cadmium difference method is used to determine the fraction of thermal and epithermal neutrons measured by the bare and plastic-shielded detectors, respectively. The cadmium difference method results in linear correction models for measurements by the two detectors, and has the greatest impact on the neutron intensity measured by the moderated detector at the ground surface. Next, conversion factors are obtained relating measured and modeled neutron intensities. Finally, the methodology is tested by modeling the neutron profiles at an agricultural field site and satisfactory agreement to measurements is found.

The Voyager 1 spacecraft is now about 25 AU beyond the heliospheric termination shock and soon it should encounter the outer boundary of the heliosphere, the heliopause. This is set to be at 120 AU in the modulation model used for this study. This implies that Voyager 1, and soon afterwards also Voyager 2, should be able to measure the heliopause spectrum, to be interpreted as the lowest possible local interstellar spectrum, for low energy galactic electrons (1 MeV to 120 MeV). This could give an answer to a long outstanding question about the spectral shape (energy dependence) of the galactic electron spectrum at these low energies. These in situ electron observations from Voyager 1, until the year 2010 when it was already beyond 112 AU, are used for a comparative study with a comprehensive three dimensional numerical model for the solar modulation of galactic electrons from the inner to the outer heliosphere. A locally developed steady state modulation model which numerically solves the relevant heliospheric transport equation is used to compute and study modulated electron spectra from Earth up to the heliopause. The issue of the spectral shape of the local interstellar spectrum at these low energies is specifically addressed, taking into account modulation in the inner heliosheath, up to the heliopause, including the effects of the transition of the solar wind speed from supersonic to subsonic in the heliosheath. Modulated electron spectra from the inner to the outer heliosphere are computed, together with radial and latitudinal profiles, focusing on 12 MeV electrons. This is compared to Voyager 1 observations for the energy range 6–14 MeV. A heliopause electron spectrum is computed and presented as a new plausible local interstellar spectrum from 30 GeV down to 10 MeV. The comparisons between model predictions and observations from Voyager 1 and at Earth (e.g. from the PAMELA mission and from balloon flights) and in the inner heliosphere (e.g. from the Ulysses mission) are made. This enables one to make conclusions about diffusion theory applicable to electrons in the heliosphere, in particular the rigidity dependence of diffusion perpendicular and parallel to the local background solar magnetic field. A general result is that the rigidity dependence of both parallel and perpendicular diffusion coefficients needs to be constant below P < 0.4 GV and only be allowed to increase above this rigidity to assure compatibility between the modeling and observations at Earth and especially in the outer heliosphere. A modification in the radial dependence of the diffusion coefficients in the inner heliosheath is required to compute realistic modulation in this region. With this study, estimates of the intensity of low energy galactic electrons at Earth can be made. A new local interstellar spectrum is computed for these low energies to improve understanding of the modulation galactic electrons as compared to previous results described in the literature.
Thesis (M.Sc. (Physics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

A time-dependent two-dimensional (2D) modulation model including drifts, the solar wind tennination shock (TS) with diffusive shock acceleration and a heliosheath based on the Parker (1965) transport equation is used to study the modulation of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) and the anomalous component of cosmic rays (ACRs) in the heliosphere. In particular, the latitude dependence of the TS compression ratio and injection efficiency of the ACRs (source strength) based on the hydrodynamic modeling results of Scherer et al. (2006) is used for the first time in a modulation model. The subsequent effects on differential intensities for both GCRs and ACRs are illustrated, comparing them to the values without a latitude dependence for these parameters. It is found that the latitude dependence of these parameters is important and that it enables an improved description of the modulation of ACRs beyond the TS. With this modeling approach (without fitting observations) to the latitude dependence of the two parameters, it is possible to obtain a TS spectrum for ACRs at a polar angle of B = 55" that qualitatively approximates the main features of the Voyager 1 observations. This positive result has to be investigated further. Additionally, it is shown that the enhancement of the cosmic ray intensity just below the cut-off energy found for the ACR at the TS in an A < 0 magnetic polarity cycle in the equatorial plane with the latitude independent scenario, disappears in this region when the latitude dependence of the compression ratio and injection efficiency is assumed. Subsequent effects of these scenarios are illustrated on the global anisotropy vector of both GCRs and ACRs as the main theme of this work. For this purpose the radial and latitudinal gradients for GCRs and ACRs were accurately computed. The radial and latitudinal anisotropy components were then computed as a function of energy, radial distance and polar angle. It is also the first time that the anisotropy vector is comprehensively calculated in such a global approach to cosmic ray modeling in the heliosphere, in particular for ACRs. It is shown that the anisotropy vector inside (up-stream) and outside (down-stream) the TS behaves in a complicated way, so care must be taken in interpreting it. It is found that the latitude dependence of the two mentioned parameters can alter the direction (sign) of the anisotropy vector. Its behaviour beyond the TS is markedly different from inside the TS, mainly because of the slower solar wind velocity, with less dependence on the magnetic polarity cycles.
Thesis (M.Sc. (Physics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

Dans cette thèse, nous étudions les propriétés du transport de particules chargées de haute énergie dans des champs électromagnétiques turbulents.Ces champs ont été générés en utilisant le code magnétohydrodynamique (MHD) RAMSES, résolvant les équations de la MHD idéales compressibles. Nous avons développé un module pour générer la turbulence MHD, en utilisant une technique de forçage à grande échelle. Les propriétés des équations de la MHD font cascader l'énergie des grandes échelles vers les petites, développant un spectre en énergie suivant une loi de puissance, appelée zone inertielle. Nous avons développé un module permettant de calculer les trajectoires de particule chargée une fois le spectre turbulent établi. En injectant les particules à une énergie telle que l'inverse du rayon de Larmor des particules corresponde à un mode du spectre de Fourier dans la zone inertielle, nous avons cherché à mettre en évidence un effet systématique lié à la loi de puissance du spectre. Cette méthode a montré que le libre parcours moyen est indépendant de l'énergie des particules jusqu'à des valeurs de rayon de Larmor proches de l'échelle de cohérence de la turbulence. La dépendance du libre parcours moyen avec le nombre de Mach alfvénique des simulations MHD a également produit une loi de puissance.Nous avons également développé une technique pour mesurer l'effet de l'anisotropie de la turbulence MHD sur les propriétés du transport des rayons cosmiques, au travers le calcul de champs magnétiques locaux. Cette étude nous a montré un effet sur coefficient de diffusion angulaire, accréditant l'hypothèse que les particules sont plus sensible aux variations de petites échelles
In this thesis, we study the transport properties of high energy charged particles in turbulent electromagnetic fields.These fields were generated by using the magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) code RAMSES, which solve the compressible ideal MHD equations. We have developed a module for generating the MHD turbulence, by using a large scale forcing technique. The MHD equations induce a cascading of the energy from large scales to small ones, developing an energy spectrum which follows a power law, called the inertial range.We have developed a module for computing the charged particle trajectories once the turbulent spectrum is established. By injecting the particles to energy such as the inverse of the particle Larmor radius corresponds to a mode in the inertial range of the Fourier spectrum, we have highlighted systematic effects related to the power law spectrum. This method showed that the mean free path is independent of the particules energy until the Larmor radius takes values close to the turbulence coherence scale. The dependence of the mean free path with the alfvénic Mach number produced a power law.We have also developed a technique to measure the anisotropy effect of the MHD turbulence in the cosmic rays transport properties through the calculation of local magnetic fields. This study has shown an effect on the pitch angle scattering coefficient, which confirmed the assumption that the particles are more sensitive to changes in small scales fluctuations

Cosmic-ray neutron intensity is inversely correlated to all hydrogen present in the upper decimeters of the subsurface and the first few hectometers of the atmosphere above the ground surface. This correlation forms the base of the cosmic-ray neutron soil moisture estimation method. The method is, however, complicated by the fact that several hydrogen pools other than soil moisture affect the neutron intensity. In order to improve the cosmic-ray neutron soil moisture estimation method and explore the potential for additional applications, knowledge about the environmental effect on cosmic-ray neutron intensity is essential (e.g., the effect of vegetation, litter layer and soil type). In this study the environmental effect is examined by performing a sensitivity analysis using neutron transport modeling. We use a neutron transport model with various representations of the forest and different parameters describing the subsurface to match measured height profiles and time series of thermal and epithermal neutron intensities at a field site in Denmark. Overall, modeled thermal and epithermal neutron intensities are in satisfactory agreement with measurements; however, the choice of forest canopy conceptualization is found to be significant. Modeling results show that the effect of canopy interception, soil chemistry and dry bulk density of litter and mineral soil on neutron intensity is small. On the other hand, the neutron intensity decreases significantly with added litter-layer thickness, especially for epithermal neutron energies. Forest biomass also has a significant influence on the neutron intensity height profiles at the examined field site, altering both the shape of the profiles and the ground-level thermal-to-epithermal neutron ratio. This ratio increases with increasing amounts of biomass, and was confirmed by measurements from three sites representing agricultural, heathland and forest land cover. A much smaller effect of canopy interception on the ground-level thermal-to-epithermal neutron ratio was modeled. Overall, the results suggest a potential to use ground-level thermal-to-epithermal neutron ratios to discriminate the effect of different hydrogen contributions on the neutron signal.

Le rayonnement cosmique joue un rôle fondamental dans la dynamique de la galaxie. Les processus par lesquels ce rayonnement est injecté dans le milieu interstellaire et la manière dont il impacte son environnement représentent une branche active de la recherche en astrophysique. Bien que les restes de supernovae sont considérées comme les principaux accélérateurs du rayonnement cosmique, il n'existe pas de modèle d'injection qui permette efficacement d'expliquer la distribution spectrale du rayonnement cosmique telle qu'observée depuis la surface de la Terre, ni qui ne puisse être confirmé par les observations du ciel à haute énergie. De plus, les effets du rayonnement cosmique sur la dynamique turbulente du milieu interstellaire faiblement ionisé et en particulier leur impact sur le taux de formation d'étoile de la galaxie sont encore méconnus.Dans cette thèse, j'ai développé un modèle d'injection et de transport du rayonnement cosmique d'énergie 1 GeV à 100 TeV s'échappant des restes de supernovae de type Ia et se propageant dans le milieu interstellaire faiblement ionisé à travers un nouveau code 1D de transport du rayonnement cosmique : CR SPECTRA. En s'échappant du reste, le rayonnement cosmique génère de la turbulence magnétique aux échelles du rayon de gyration des particules qui contribuent à confiner le rayonnement cosmique proche du choc du reste. Les nuages moléculaires dans l'environnement du reste représentent une signature observationnelle de cet effet de confinement.Un second travail a permis de modéliser l'interaction du rayonnement cosmique avec une phase thermiquement bi-stable faiblement ionisée du milieu interstellaire grâce au code 3D MHD RAMSES. Les propriétés de transport du rayonnement cosmique sont intimement liées aux propriétés de la turbulence magnétique dans le milieu. En particulier j'ai montré que sous certaines conditions, le rayonnement cosmique empêche la formation de structures denses et contribue potentiellement à la réduction du taux de formations d'étoiles dans la galaxie
Cosmic rays play a fundamental role in the dynamics of the galaxy. The way it is injected into the interstellar medium and the processes it can impact over is an active research branch of Astrophysics. Although supernova remnants are thought to be the main cosmic ray accelerators there is no actual model for their injection that can efficiently explain their spectral distribution as observed on Earth and that can be validated by observations at high energy. Moreover, the effects of cosmic rays on the turbulent dynamic of the weakly ionized interstellar medium and in particular the galactic star formation rate stay unknown.In this thesis I have developed an injection and transport model for cosmic rays in the energy range 1 GeV to 100 TeV. The particles escape from Ia type supernovae remnants and propagate in the weakly ionized interstellar medium. This process is studied using a new 1D transport code called : CR SPECTRA. Having escaped from the remnant, cosmic rays drive magnetic turbulence at scales corresponding to their gyration radius which contribute to confine the particles close to the accelerator. Molecular clouds in the environment of the source represent preferential targets to probe the cosmic ray content using gamma-ray telescopes.In a second work, I have modeled the interactions of cosmic rays with a weakly ionized, thermally bi-stable interstellar medium using the 3D MHD code RAMSES. Cosmic rays transport properties are intimately linked with those of magnetic turbulence. In particular, I showed that under certain conditions, cosmic rays can prevent dense structures formations and can potentially contribute to reduce the star formation rate in the galaxy

Since six decades the understanding of interplanetary propagation of solar flare accelerated, energetic charged particles in the inner heliosphere has not yet achieved sufficient closure. The essential mechanisms acting on these charged particles, which perform helical orbits along the large-scale magnetic field lines as probes, have already been identified. However, in particular the impact of the three-dimensional, small-scale magnetic fluctuations on the particles' trajectories has not yet been fully understood. These superimposed disturbances are expected to interact with the charges via resonance principle – leading to both field-aligned scattering and diffusive cross-field displacements of the particles' guiding center. Since numerical solutions and known theoretical formulations have failed to verify the measurements so far, Ruffolo's equation – which is a special formulation of the Fokker-Planck equation – is applied to take account of the current knowledge about field-parallel transport; The partial differential equation is extended to a two-dimensional model within the ecliptic plane by a spatial diffusion term perpendicular to the field. We assume an idealized Archimedean field neither with polarity changes nor large-scale disturbances such as traveling magneto-hydrodynamic shock waves or magnetic clouds. The transport equation is solved numerically by finite differences. For typical ratios of perpendicular to parallel diffusion coefficient as deduced from theory, various fits have been found in good agreement with multi-spacecraft measurements. Some events and the occurrence of observed sudden flux drop-outs suggest that scattering on magnetic field irregularities significantly varies from one flux tube to another. In addition to the already existing, but sparse set of particle observations at different positions, once the current solar minimum has passed by, a new set will be available from the recently launched STEREO satellites.

The purpose of this study was to determine how well the Monte Carlo transport code FLUKA can simulate a tissue-equivalent proportional counter (TEPC) and produce the expected delta ray events when exposed to high energy heavy ions (HZE) like in the galactic cosmic ray (GCR) environment. Accurate transport codes are desirable because of the high cost of beam time, the inability to measure the mixed field GCR on the ground and the flexibility they offer in the engineering and design process. A spherical TEPC simulating a 1 um site size was constructed in FLUKA and its response was compared to experimental data for an 56Fe beam at 360 MeV/nucleon. The response of several narrow beams at different impact parameters were used to explain the features of the response of the same detector exposed to a uniform field of radiation. Additionally, an investigation was made into the effect of the wall thickness on the response of the TEPC and the range of delta rays in the tissue-equivalent (TE) wall material. A full impact parameter test (from IP = 0 to IP = detector radius) was performed to show that FLUKA produces the expected wall effect. That is, energy deposition in the gas volume can occur even when the primary beam does not pass through the gas volume. A final comparison to experimental data was made for the simulated TEPC exposed to various broad beams in the energy range of 200 - 1000 MeV/nucleon. FLUKA overestimated energy deposition in the gas volume in all cases. The FLUKA results differed from the experimental data by an average of 25.2 % for yF and 12.4 % for yD. It is suggested that this difference can be reduced by adjusting the FLUKA default ionization potential and density correction factors.