Articoli di riviste: "Horses virus diseases molecular genetics"

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Burgueño, Analía, Lorena Spinsanti, Luis Adrián Díaz, María Elisa Rivarola, Juan Arbiza, Marta Contigiani e Adriana Delfraro. "Seroprevalence of St. Louis Encephalitis Virus and West Nile Virus (Flavivirus,Flaviviridae) in Horses, Uruguay". BioMed Research International 2013 (2013): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/582957.

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St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) and West Nile virus (WNV) belong to the Japanese encephalitis antigenic complex (Flavivirusgenus,Flaviviridaefamily). They show antigenic close relationships and share many similarities in their ecology. Both are responsible for serious human diseases. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of neutralizing antibodies to these viruses in horses from Uruguay. To do this, 425 horse sera were collected in 2007 and analyzed by plaque reduction neutralization tests. As a result, 205 sera (48.2%) were found positive for SLEV, with titers ranging between 10 and 80. Two sera remained inconclusive, since they showed low titers to WNV and SLEV (10 and 20), not allowing us to demonstrate activity of WNV in our territory. This is the first report of circulation of SLEV in horses in Uruguay.

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Beck, Cécile, Philippe Desprès, Sylvie Paulous, Jessica Vanhomwegen, Steeve Lowenski, Norbert Nowotny, Benoit Durand et al. "A High-Performance Multiplex Immunoassay for Serodiagnosis of Flavivirus-Associated Neurological Diseases in Horses". BioMed Research International 2015 (2015): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/678084.

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West Nile virus (WNV), Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), and tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) are flaviviruses responsible for severe neuroinvasive infections in humans and horses. The confirmation of flavivirus infections is mostly based on rapid serological tests such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). These tests suffer from poor specificity, mainly due to antigenic cross-reactivity among flavivirus members. Robust diagnosis therefore needs to be validated through virus neutralisation tests (VNTs) which are time-consuming and require BSL3 facilities. The flavivirus envelope (E) glycoprotein ectodomain is composed of three domains (D) named DI, DII, and DIII, with EDIII containing virus-specific epitopes. In order to improve the serological differentiation of flavivirus infections, the recombinant soluble ectodomain of WNV E (WNV.sE) and EDIIIs (rEDIIIs) of WNV, JEV, and TBEV were synthesised using theDrosophilaS2 expression system. Purified antigens were covalently bonded to fluorescent beads. The microspheres coupled to WNV.sE or rEDIIIs were assayed with about 300 equine immune sera from natural and experimental flavivirus infections and 172 nonimmune equine sera as negative controls. rEDIII-coupled microspheres captured specific antibodies against WNV, TBEV, or JEV in positive horse sera. This innovative multiplex immunoassay is a powerful alternative to ELISAs and VNTs for veterinary diagnosis of flavivirus-related diseases.

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Oymans, Judith, Paul J. Wichgers Schreur, Sophie van Oort, Rianka Vloet, Marietjie Venter, Gorben P. Pijlman, Monique M. van Oers e Jeroen Kortekaas. "Reverse Genetics System for Shuni Virus, an Emerging Orthobunyavirus with Zoonotic Potential". Viruses 12, n. 4 (17 aprile 2020): 455. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v12040455.

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The genus Orthobunyavirus (family Peribunyaviridae, order Bunyavirales) comprises over 170 named mosquito- and midge-borne viruses, several of which cause severe disease in animals or humans. Their three-segmented genomes enable reassortment with related viruses, which may result in novel viruses with altered host or tissue tropism and virulence. One such reassortant, Schmallenberg virus (SBV), emerged in north-western Europe in 2011. Shuni virus (SHUV) is an orthobunyavirus related to SBV that is associated with neurological disease in horses in southern Africa and recently caused an outbreak manifesting with neurological disease and birth defects among ruminants in Israel. The zoonotic potential of SHUV was recently underscored by its association with neurological disease in humans. We here report a reverse genetics system for SHUV and provide first evidence that the non-structural (NSs) protein of SHUV functions as an antagonist of host innate immune responses. We furthermore report the rescue of a reassortant containing the L and S segments of SBV and the M segment of SHUV. This novel reverse genetics system can now be used to study SHUV virulence and tropism, and to elucidate the molecular mechanisms that drive reassortment events.

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Liu, Guodong, Wenguang Cao, Abdjeleel Salawudeen, Wenjun Zhu, Karla Emeterio, David Safronetz e Logan Banadyga. "Vesicular Stomatitis Virus: From Agricultural Pathogen to Vaccine Vector". Pathogens 10, n. 9 (27 agosto 2021): 1092. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10091092.

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Vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), which belongs to the Vesiculovirus genus of the family Rhabdoviridae, is a well studied livestock pathogen and prototypic non-segmented, negative-sense RNA virus. Although VSV is responsible for causing economically significant outbreaks of vesicular stomatitis in cattle, horses, and swine, the virus also represents a valuable research tool for molecular biologists and virologists. Indeed, the establishment of a reverse genetics system for the recovery of infectious VSV from cDNA transformed the utility of this virus and paved the way for its use as a vaccine vector. A highly effective VSV-based vaccine against Ebola virus recently received clinical approval, and many other VSV-based vaccines have been developed, particularly for high-consequence viruses. This review seeks to provide a holistic but concise overview of VSV, covering the virus’s ascension from perennial agricultural scourge to promising medical countermeasure, with a particular focus on vaccines.

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Stasiak, Karol, Magdalena Dunowska, Steven Trewick e Jerzy Rola. "Genetic Variation in the Glycoprotein B Sequence of Equid Herpesvirus 5 among Horses of Various Breeds at Polish National Studs". Pathogens 10, n. 3 (9 marzo 2021): 322. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10030322.

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Equid herpesvirus 5 (EHV-5) is one of two γ-herpesviruses that commonly infect horses worldwide. The objective of the study was to estimate the genetic variability within EHV-5 viruses circulating among horses in Poland. Partial glycoprotein B (gB) sequences from 92 Polish horses from 13 studs throughout Poland were compared to each other and to three EHV-5 sequences from other countries. Despite the overall high level of conservation, considerable variability was observed around the putative furin cleavage site. Based on phylogenetic analysis, the viruses clustered within two major lineages (A and B), with further sub-clustering within group A. The clustering of EHV-5 sequences was independent of age or geographical origin of the sampled horses. Recombination was identified as one of the factors contributing to the genomic heterogeneity. Viruses from unweaned foals were more similar to viruses from other foals at the same stud than to viruses form their dams, suggesting the horizontal transfer and/or evolution of EHV-5 within individual hosts. Our data indicate that the gB sequence is not suitable for tracking the source of EHV-5 infection. Further research is needed to elucidate the importance of the sequence variability around the EHV-5 gB furin cleavage site on the biology of the virus.

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Drolet, Barbara S., Will K. Reeves, Kristine E. Bennett, Steven J. Pauszek, Miranda R. Bertram e Luis L. Rodriguez. "Identical Viral Genetic Sequence Found in Black Flies (Simulium bivittatum) and the Equine Index Case of the 2006 U.S. Vesicular Stomatitis Outbreak". Pathogens 10, n. 8 (23 luglio 2021): 929. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10080929.

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In 2006, vesicular stomatitis New Jersey virus (VSNJV) caused outbreaks in Wyoming (WY) horses and cattle after overwintering in 2004 and 2005. Within two weeks of the outbreak onset, 12,203 biting flies and 194 grasshoppers were collected near three equine-positive premises in Natrona County, WY. Insects were identified to the species level and tested by RT-qPCR for VSNJV polymerase (L) and phosphoprotein (P) gene RNA. Collected dipterans known to be competent for VSV transmission included Simulium black flies and Culicoides biting midges. VSNJV L and P RNA was detected in two pools of female Simulium bivittatum and subjected to partial genome sequencing. Phylogenetic analysis based on the hypervariable region of the P gene from black flies showed 100% identity to the isolate obtained from the index horse case on the same premises. This is the first report of VSNJV in S. bivittatum in WY and the first field evidence of possible VSV maintenance in black fly populations during an outbreak.

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Černe, Danijela, Peter Hostnik e Ivan Toplak. "The Successful Elimination of Sylvatic Rabies Using Oral Vaccination of Foxes in Slovenia". Viruses 13, n. 3 (4 marzo 2021): 405. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v13030405.

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Sylvatic rabies was present in Slovenia between 1973 and 2013, with the red fox as the main reservoir of the rabies virus. The first oral rabies vaccination (ORV) control program in foxes started in 1988, using the manual distribution of baits. Significant improvement of fox vaccination was achieved with the aerial distribution of baits, starting in 1995 and successfully finished with the final, fifty-ninth vaccination campaign in 2019. Between 1979 and 2019, a total of 86,471 samples were tested, and 10,975 (12.69%) rabies-positive animals were identified. Within the ORV, two different vaccines were used, containing modified live virus strain Street Alabama Dufferin (SAD) B19 and SAD Bern, while the last ORV campaigns were completed in 2019, with a vaccine containing a genetically modified strain of SPBN GASGAS. Molecular epidemiological studies of 95 rabies-positive samples, originating from red foxes, badgers, cattle, dogs, martens, cats, and horses, revealed a low genetic diversity of circulating strains and high similarity to strains from neighboring countries. During the elimination program, few vaccine-induced rabies cases were detected: three in red foxes and one case in a marten, with no epidemiological relevance. Slovenia has been officially declared a country free of rabies since 2016.

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Abbadi, Islam, Mustapha Lkhider, Bouchra Kitab, Khalid Jabboua, Imane Zaidane, Asmaa Haddaji, Sabrine Nacer et al. "Non-primate hepacivirus transmission and prevalence: Novel findings of virus circulation in horses and dogs in Morocco". Infection, Genetics and Evolution 93 (settembre 2021): 104975. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2021.104975.

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Socha, Wojciech, Magdalena Larska e Jerzy Rola. "Molecular investigation of allelic variants of EqCXCL16 gene in equine arteritis virus infected stallions of selected horse breeds in Poland". Infection, Genetics and Evolution 85 (novembre 2020): 104455. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2020.104455.

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Faber, Erika, Selaelo Ivy Tshilwane, Mirinda Van Kleef e Alri Pretorius. "Virulent African horse sickness virus serotype 4 interferes with the innate immune response in horse peripheral blood mononuclear cells in vitro". Infection, Genetics and Evolution 91 (luglio 2021): 104836. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2021.104836.

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Conze, Theresa Maria, Zoltán Bagó, Sandra Revilla-Fernández, Jürgen Schlegel, Lutz S. Goehring e Kaspar Matiasek. "Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus (TBEV) Infection in Two Horses". Viruses 13, n. 9 (6 settembre 2021): 1775. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v13091775.

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A final diagnosis in a horse with clinical signs of encephalopathy can be challenging despite the use of extensive diagnostics. Clinical signs are often not pathognomonic and need to be interpreted in combination with (specific) laboratory results and epidemiological data of the geographical region of the origin of the case(s). Here we describe the diagnostic pathway of tick-borne encephalitis virus infection in two horses using established molecular diagnostic methods and a novel in situ hybridization technique to differentiate between regionally important/emerging diseases for central Europe: (i) hepatoencephalopathy, (ii) Borna disease virus, and (iii) West Nile virus infections.

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Blanco-Lobo, Pilar, Laura Rodriguez, Stephanie Reedy, Fatai S. Oladunni, Aitor Nogales, Pablo R. Murcia, Thomas M. Chambers e Luis Martinez-Sobrido. "A Bivalent Live-Attenuated Vaccine for the Prevention of Equine Influenza Virus". Viruses 11, n. 10 (11 ottobre 2019): 933. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v11100933.

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Vaccination remains the most effective approach for preventing and controlling equine influenza virus (EIV) in horses. However, the ongoing evolution of EIV has increased the genetic and antigenic differences between currently available vaccines and circulating strains, resulting in suboptimal vaccine efficacy. As recommended by the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), the inclusion of representative strains from clade 1 and clade 2 Florida sublineages of EIV in vaccines may maximize the protection against presently circulating viral strains. In this study, we used reverse genetics technologies to generate a bivalent EIV live-attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV). We combined our previously described clade 1 EIV LAIV A/equine/Ohio/2003 H3N8 (Ohio/03 LAIV) with a newly generated clade 2 EIV LAIV that contains the six internal genes of Ohio/03 LAIV and the HA and NA of A/equine/Richmond/1/2007 H3N8 (Rich/07 LAIV). The safety profile, immunogenicity, and protection efficacy of this bivalent EIV LAIV was tested in the natural host, horses. Vaccination of horses with the bivalent EIV LAIV, following a prime-boost regimen, was safe and able to confer protection against challenge with clade 1 (A/equine/Kentucky/2014 H3N8) and clade 2 (A/equine/Richmond/2007) wild-type (WT) EIVs, as evidenced by a reduction of clinical signs, fever, and virus excretion. This is the first description of a bivalent LAIV for the prevention of EIV in horses that follows OIE recommendations. In addition, since our bivalent EIV LAIV is based on the use of reverse genetics approaches, our results demonstrate the feasibility of using the backbone of clade 1 Ohio/03 LAIV as a master donor virus (MDV) for the production and rapid update of LAIVs for the control and protection against other EIV strains of epidemiological relevance to horses.

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Patel, J. R., e J. G. M. Heldens. "Immunoprophylaxis against important virus diseases of horses, farm animals and birds". Vaccine 27, n. 12 (marzo 2009): 1797–810. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.12.063.

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Costa, Érica Azevedo, Marta Giovanetti, Lilian Silva Catenacci, Vagner Fonseca, Flávia Figueira Aburjaile, Flávia L. L. Chalhoub, Joilson Xavier et al. "West Nile Virus in Brazil". Pathogens 10, n. 7 (15 luglio 2021): 896. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10070896.

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Background: West Nile virus (WNV) was first sequenced in Brazil in 2019, when it was isolated from a horse in the Espírito Santo state. Despite multiple studies reporting serological evidence suggestive of past circulation since 2004, WNV remains a low priority for surveillance and public health, such that much is still unknown about its genomic diversity, evolution, and transmission in the country. Methods: A combination of diagnostic assays, nanopore sequencing, phylogenetic inference, and epidemiological modeling are here used to provide a holistic overview of what is known about WNV in Brazil. Results: We report new genetic evidence of WNV circulation in southern (Minas Gerais, São Paulo) and northeastern (Piauí) states isolated from equine red blood cells. A novel, climate-informed theoretical perspective of the potential transmission of WNV across the country highlights the state of Piauí as particularly relevant for WNV epidemiology in Brazil, although it does not reject possible circulation in other states. Conclusion: Our output demonstrates the scarceness of existing data, and that although there is sufficient evidence for the circulation and persistence of the virus, much is still unknown on its local evolution, epidemiology, and activity. We advocate for a shift to active surveillance, to ensure adequate preparedness for future epidemics with spill-over potential to humans.

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Biava, Janaina S., Mariane Angélica Finger, Leila Ullmann, Alexander Biondo, Christian Leutenegger e Ivan Barros Filho. "PSVII-37 First molecular detection of Equine Herpesvirus type 2 (EHV-2) and type 5 (EHV-5) in upper respiratory liquids of healthy training horses from southern Brazil". Journal of Animal Science 97, Supplement_3 (dicembre 2019): 314–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jas/skz258.636.

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Abstract Multiple pathogens may cause and sustain respiratory infection in horses, either alone or as co-infection, leading to disruption and interruption of training, racing and other competitions. Molecular approaches have successfully provided opportunity for pathogen involvement and characterization, particularly from samples of horse upper respiratory tract. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to molecularly assess bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) samples from 10 healthy training horses at the Jockey Club of Parana State, southern Brazil. Virus-specific real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assays were applied as panel for concomitant detection of Equine Adenovirus, Equine Influenza Virus, Equine Herpesvirus Type 1 (EHV-1), Type 2 (EHV-2), Type 4 (EHV-4), and Type 5 (EHV-5), Equine Rhinitis A Virus, Equine Rhinitis B Virus, and Streptococcus equi subsp. equi. Amplicons from positive samples were amplified and sequenced to confirm the virus identification. Results have confirmed the first molecular detection of EHV-2 and EHV-5 in healthy training horses of Brazil, with an overall 3/10 (30%) EHV positivity. Two horses were positive for at least one EHV, and one was positive for both EHV-2 and EHV-5. No horse presented clinical signs of respiratory disease at the time or following samplings. These findings may provide new insights on the epidemiological situation of EHV-2 and EHV-5 in Brazil, highlighting the importance of molecular detection and active surveillance in clinically healthy horses, which may act as spreading infection source for younger equines.

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Yuen, Ka Y., e Helle Bielefeldt-Ohmann. "Ross River Virus Infection: A Cross-Disciplinary Review with a Veterinary Perspective". Pathogens 10, n. 3 (17 marzo 2021): 357. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10030357.

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Ross River virus (RRV) has recently been suggested to be a potential emerging infectious disease worldwide. RRV infection remains the most common human arboviral disease in Australia, with a yearly estimated economic cost of $4.3 billion. Infection in humans and horses can cause chronic, long-term debilitating arthritogenic illnesses. However, current knowledge of immunopathogenesis remains to be elucidated and is mainly inferred from a murine model that only partially resembles clinical signs and pathology in human and horses. The epidemiology of RRV transmission is complex and multifactorial and is further complicated by climate change, making predictive models difficult to design. Establishing an equine model for RRV may allow better characterization of RRV disease pathogenesis and immunology in humans and horses, and could potentially be used for other infectious diseases. While there are no approved therapeutics or registered vaccines to treat or prevent RRV infection, clinical trials of various potential drugs and vaccines are currently underway. In the future, the RRV disease dynamic is likely to shift into temperate areas of Australia with longer active months of infection. Here, we (1) review the current knowledge of RRV infection, epidemiology, diagnostics, and therapeutics in both humans and horses; (2) identify and discuss major research gaps that warrant further research.

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Rebollo, Belén, Javier Sarraseca, Sylvie Lecollinet, Nabil Abouchoaib, Javier Alonso, Ignacio García-Bocanegra, Antonio J. Sanz, Ángel Venteo e Miguel A. Jiménez-Clavero. "Monitoring Anti-NS1 Antibodies in West Nile Virus-Infected and Vaccinated Horses". BioMed Research International 2018 (25 settembre 2018): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/8309816.

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West Nile virus (WNV) is a zoonotic arboviral pathogen affecting humans, birds, and horses. Vaccines are available for veterinary use, which efficiently prevent the infection in horses. Most common diagnostic tools rely on the identification of the agent (RT-PCR, virus isolation), or on the detection of antibodies (IgM and IgG) recognizing structural proteins of the virus or neutralizing virus infection in cell cultures (virus-neutralization tests). The recent emergence of WNV in different parts of the world has resulted in an increase in the vaccination of horses in many countries. Methods for differentiation between infected and vaccinated animals (“DIVA” assays) would be useful for surveillance and control purposes but are still not available. A usual approach in this regard is the use of antibodies to nonstructural proteins as markers of nonvaccinated, infected animals, and the nonstructural NS1 protein of WNV has been proposed as a candidate for such a marker. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that NS1 can be a useful antigen in DIVA assays for differentiating WNV vaccinated and infected horses in field conditions. For that, we examined serum samples from either vaccinated and infected horses both from experimental infections/vaccinations (under controlled conditions) and from the field, exposed to natural infection or vaccinated in response to a risk of infection. The overall conclusion of the study is that NS1 antigen can effectively differentiate WNV infected from vaccinated horses in experimental (controlled) conditions, but this differentiation might be difficult depending on the conditions prevailing in the field.

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Clements, J. E., e M. C. Zink. "Molecular biology and pathogenesis of animal lentivirus infections." Clinical Microbiology Reviews 9, n. 1 (gennaio 1996): 100–117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/cmr.9.1.100.

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Lentiviruses are a subfamily of retroviruses that are characterized by long incubation periods between infection of the host and the manifestation of clinical disease. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1, the causative agent of AIDS, is the most widely studied lentivirus. However, the lentiviruses that infect sheep, goats, and horses were identified and studied prior to the emergence of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. These and other animal lentiviruses provide important systems in which to investigate the molecular pathogenesis of this family of viruses. This review will focus on two animal lentivirus models: the ovine lentivirus visna virus; and the simian lentivirus, simian immunodeficiency virus. These animal lentiviruses have been used to examine, in particular, the pathogenesis of lentivirus-induced central nervous system disease as models for humans with AIDS as well as other chronic diseases.

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Bażanów, Barbara, Agnieszka Frącka, Natalia Jackulak, Ewa Romuk, Tomasz Gębarowski, Aleksander Owczarek e Dominika Stygar. "Viral, Serological, and Antioxidant Investigations of Equine Rhinitis A Virus in Serum and Nasal Swabs of Commercially Used Horses in Poland". BioMed Research International 2018 (2018): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/8719281.

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Background. Equine rhinitis A virus (ERAV) is considered to be an important pathogen in horses, but relatively few studies are available.Aims. The purpose of this study was to verify ERAV seroprevalence in selected horses in Poland, in addition to correlation between ERAV and age and sex of analysed animals and the antioxidant status.Methods. The material collected from clinically healthy horses was tested using the VNT (353 serum samples) and virus isolation method (44 nasal swabs). 27 serum samples with antibody titers between 0 and ≥1 : 2048 were chosen for further analysis. The study was conducted in group 1 (ERAV titer ≤ 64) and group 2 (ERAV titer > 64).Results. Seroneutralisation tests showed positive results in 72% of serum samples. No significant correlation between ERAV seropositive results and selected biochemical indicators was observed. Group 2 had statistically higher concentrations of SOD and CuZnSOD than the analysed group 1.Conclusions. ERAV was not detected in the nasal swab samples. Antioxidant parameters did not significantly vary between horses of different breed, sex, or age. The ERAV virus had an impact on plasma total SOD and Cu/Zn SOD activity in horses in early stages of convalescence.

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Malossi, Camila Dantas, Eduardo Gorzoni Fioratti, Jedson Ferreira Cardoso, Angelo Jose Magro, Erna Geessien Kroon, Daniel Moura de Aguiar, Alice Mamede Costa Marque Borges, Marcia Furlan Nogueira, Leila Sabrina Ullmann e João Pessoa Araujo. "High Genomic Variability in Equine Infectious Anemia Virus Obtained from Naturally Infected Horses in Pantanal, Brazil: An Endemic Region Case". Viruses 12, n. 2 (12 febbraio 2020): 207. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v12020207.

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Equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) is a persistent lentivirus that causes equine infectious anemia (EIA). In Brazil, EIAV is endemic in the Pantanal region, and euthanasia is not mandatory in this area. All of the complete genomic sequences from field viruses are from North America, Asia, and Europe, and only proviral genomic sequences are available. Sequences from Brazilian EIAV are currently available only for gag and LTR regions. Thus, the present study aimed for the first time to sequence the entire EIAV genomic RNA in naturally infected horses from an endemic area in Brazil. RNA in plasma from naturally infected horses was used for next-generation sequencing (NGS), and gaps were filled using Sanger sequencing methodology. Complete viral genomes of EIAV from two horses were obtained and annotated (Access Number: MN560970 and MN560971). Putative genes were analyzed and compared with previously described genes, showing conservation in gag and pol genes and high variations in LTR and env sequences. Amino acid changes were identified in the p26 protein, one of the most common targets used for diagnosis, and p26 molecular modelling showed surface amino acid alterations in some epitopes. Brazilian genome sequences presented 88.6% nucleotide identity with one another and 75.8 to 77.3% with main field strains, such as EIAV Liaoning, Wyoming, Ireland, and Italy isolates. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis suggested that this Brazilian strain comprises a separate monophyletic group. These results may help to better characterize EIAV and to overcome the challenges of diagnosing and controlling EIA in endemic regions.

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Pavulraj, Selvaraj, Kathrin Eschke, Jana Theisen, Stephanie Westhoff, Gitta Reimers, Sandro Andreotti, Nikolaus Osterrieder e Walid Azab. "Equine Herpesvirus Type 4 (EHV-4) Outbreak in Germany: Virological, Serological, and Molecular Investigations". Pathogens 10, n. 7 (25 giugno 2021): 810. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10070810.

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Equine herpesvirus type 4 (EHV-4) is enzootic in equine populations throughout the world. A large outbreak of EHV-4 respiratory infection occurred at a Standardbred horse-breeding farm in northern Germany in 2017. Respiratory illness was observed in a group of in-housed foals and mares, which subsequently resulted in disease outbreak. Out of 84 horses in the stud, 76 were tested and 41 horses were affected, including 20 foals, 10 stallions, and 11 mares. Virological investigations revealed the involvement of EHV-4 in all cases of respiratory illness, as confirmed by virus isolation, qPCR, and/or serological follow-up using virus neutralization test and peptide-specific ELISA. Among infected mares, 73% (8 out of 11) and their corresponding foals shed the virus at the same time. EHV-4 was successfully isolated from four animals (including one stallion and three foals), and molecular studies revealed a different restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) profile in all four isolates. We determined the complete 144 kbp genome sequence of EHV-4 isolated from infected horses by next-generation sequencing and de novo assembly. Hence, EHV-4 is genetically stable in nature, different RFLP profiles, and genome sequences of the isolates, suggesting the involvement of more than one animal as a source of infection due to either true infection or reactivation from a latent state. In addition, epidemiological investigation revealed that stress caused by seasonal changes, management practices, routine equestrian activities, and exercises contributed as a multifactorial causation for disease outbreak. This study shows the importance of implementing stress alleviating measures and management practices in breeding farms in order to avoid immunosuppression and occurrence of disease.

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Flotte, Terence R. "Adeno-Associated Virus-Mediated Gene Transfer for Lung Diseases". Human Gene Therapy 16, n. 6 (giugno 2005): 643–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/hum.2005.16.643.

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Diagne, Moussa, Marie Ndione, Nicholas Di Paola, Gamou Fall, André Bedekelabou, Pape Sembène, Ousmane Faye, Paolo Zanotto e Amadou Sall. "Usutu Virus Isolated from Rodents in Senegal". Viruses 11, n. 2 (21 febbraio 2019): 181. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v11020181.

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Abstract (sommario):

Usutu virus (USUV) is a Culex-associated mosquito-borne flavivirus of the Flaviviridae family. Since its discovery in 1959, the virus has been isolated from birds, arthropods and humans in Europe and Africa. An increasing number of Usutu virus infections in humans with neurological presentations have been reported. Recently, the virus has been detected in bats and horses, which deviates from the currently proposed enzootic cycle of USUV involving several different avian and mosquito species. Despite this increasing number of viral detections in different mammalian hosts, the existence of a non-avian reservoir remains unresolved. In Kedougou, a tropical region in the southeast corner of Senegal, Usutu virus was detected, isolated and sequenced from five asymptomatic small mammals: Two different rodent species and a single species of shrew. Additional molecular characterization and in vivo growth dynamics showed that these rodents/shrew-derived viruses are closely related to the reference strain (accession number: AF013412) and are as pathogenic as other characterized strains associated with neurological invasions in human. This is the first evidence of Usutu virus isolation from rodents or shrews. Our findings emphasize the need to consider a closer monitoring of terrestrial small mammals in future active surveillance, public health, and epidemiological efforts in response to USUV in both Africa and Europe.

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Pautienius, Arnoldas, Austeja Armonaite, Evelina Simkute, Ruta Zagrabskaite, Jurate Buitkuviene, Russell Alpizar-Jara, Juozas Grigas et al. "Cross-Sectional Study on the Prevalence and Factors Influencing Occurrence of Tick-Borne Encephalitis in Horses in Lithuania". Pathogens 10, n. 2 (31 gennaio 2021): 140. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10020140.

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Abstract (sommario):

Various animal species have been evaluated in depth for their potential as Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) sentinel species, although evidence for equine capacity is incomplete. Therefore, a comprehensive cross-sectional stratified serosurvey and PCR analysis of selected horses (n = 301) were performed in TBEV endemic localities in Lithuania. Attached and moving ticks (n = 241) have been collected from aforementioned hosts to evaluate natural infectivity of TBEV vectors (Ixodes spp.) in the recreational environments surrounding equestrian centers. All samples were screened for TBEV IgG and positive samples were confirmed by virus neutralization test (VNT). 113 (37.5%) horses from all counties of Lithuania tested positive for TBEV IgG, revealing age and sex indifferent results of equine seroprevalence that were significantly dependent on pedigree: horses of mixed breed were more susceptible to infection possibly due to their management practices. TBEV prevalence in equine species corresponded to TBEV-confirmed human cases in the precedent year. As much as 3.9% of horses were viraemic with TBEV-RNA with subsequent confirmation of TBEV European subtype. 4/38 of tested tick pools were positive for TBEV-RNA (Minimal infectious rate 1.2%). Several unknown microfoci were revealed during the study indicating areas of extreme risk close to popular human entertainment sites. The study provides important evidence in favor of horses’ usage as sentinel species, as equines could provide more detailed epidemiological mapping of TBEV, as well as more efficient collection of ticks for surveillance studies.

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Petrovic, T., S. Lazic, Diana Lupulovic, Gospava Lazic, D. Bugarski, D. Vidanovic, Sandra Stefan-Mikic, Vesna Milosevic, Ivana Hrnjakovic-Cvetkovic e D. Petric. "Serological study on WNV presence in horses in Vojvodina after the human outbreak in Serbia in 2012". Archives of Biological Sciences 66, n. 2 (2014): 473–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/abs1402473p.

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Abstract (sommario):

To establish the presence of West Nile virus (WNV) infection in the animal population in Serbia after the human WNV outbreak, the presence of anti-WNV IgG antibodies was examined by commercial ELISA of blood sera samples of 130 horses collected in 2012 from 6 stables and 1 settlement in Vojvodina Province, northern Serbia. During the blood sampling, hibernating mosquitoes in the vicinity of the sampled horses were collected (31 pools from 4 locations) and tested for WNV presence by real-time RT-PCR. The presence of anti-WNV antibodies was observed in 49.23% (64/130) horses. Per stable, the percent of seropositive animals ranged from 35% to 64%. All 31 analyzed pools of hibernating mosquitoes tested negative for WNV RNA. The WNV-antibody prevalence of 49.23% obtained in horses during 2012 was much higher than the prevalence (12%) found in horses during 2009/2010. These results, including the confirmed seroconversion in eight horses that tested negative in 2010, indicated an intensive WNV circulation during 2012 in Serbia, and the necessity of implementing surveillance programs.

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Ciupe, Stanca M., e Elissa J. Schwartz. "Understanding virus–host dynamics following EIAV infection in SCID horses". Journal of Theoretical Biology 343 (febbraio 2014): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2013.11.003.

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27

Fine, Donald L., Brian A. Roberts, Max L. Teehee, Sara J. Terpening, Cindy L. H. Kelly, Janae L. Raetz, Dale C. Baker, Ann M. Powers e Richard A. Bowen. "Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus vaccine candidate (V3526) safety, immunogenicity and efficacy in horses". Vaccine 25, n. 10 (febbraio 2007): 1868–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.10.030.

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28

Paillot, R., J. H. Kydd, S. MacRae, J. M. Minke, D. Hannant e J. M. Daly. "New assays to measure equine influenza virus-specific Type 1 immunity in horses". Vaccine 25, n. 42 (ottobre 2007): 7385–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.08.033.

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29

Lunn, D. P., G. Soboll, B. R. Schram, J. Quass, M. W. McGregor, R. J. Drape, M. D. Macklin, D. E. McCabe, W. F. Swain e C. W. Olsen. "Antibody responses to DNA vaccination of horses using the influenza virus hemagglutinin gene". Vaccine 17, n. 18 (maggio 1999): 2245–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0264-410x(98)00496-4.

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30

Subbotina, E. L., e V. B. Loktev. "Molecular evolution of West Nile virus". Molecular Genetics, Microbiology and Virology 29, n. 1 (gennaio 2014): 34–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.3103/s0891416814010054.

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31

Niczyporuk, Jowita Samanta, Elżbieta Samorek-Salamonowicz, Sylvie Lecollinet, Sławomir Andrzej Pancewicz, Wojciech Kozdruń e Hanna Czekaj. "Occurrence of West Nile Virus Antibodies in Wild Birds, Horses, and Humans in Poland". BioMed Research International 2015 (2015): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/234181.

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Abstract (sommario):

Serum samples of 474 wild birds, 378 horses, and 42 humans with meningitis and lymphocytic meningitis were collected between 2010 and 2014 from different areas of Poland. West Nile virus (WNV) antibodies were detected using competition enzyme linked immunosorbent assays: ELISA-1 ID Screen West Nile Competition, IDvet, ELISA-2 ID Screen West Nile IgM Capture, and ELISA-3 Ingezim West Nile Compac. The antibodies were found in 63 (13.29%) out of 474 wild bird serum samples and in one (0.26%) out of 378 horse serum samples. Fourteen (33.33%) out of 42 sera from patients were positive against WNV antigen and one serum was doubtful. Positive samples obtained in birds were next retested with virus microneutralisation test to confirm positive results and cross-reactions with other antigens of the Japanese encephalitis complex. We suspect that positive serological results in humans, birds, and horses indicate that WNV can be somehow closely related with the ecosystem in Poland.

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32

Haas, Dionei J., Elaine M. S. Dorneles, Sharon J. Spier, Scott P. Carroll, Judy Edman, Vasco A. Azevedo, Marcos B. Heinemann e Andrey P. Lage. "Molecular epidemiology of Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis isolated from horses in California". Infection, Genetics and Evolution 49 (aprile 2017): 186–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2016.12.011.

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33

Fujiwara, Kei. "Special Issue “Structural Variations and Molecular Genetics of Hepatitis Virus and Related Viruses”". Viruses 13, n. 8 (27 luglio 2021): 1456. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v13081456.

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34

Easton, Andrew J., Joseph B. Domachowske e Helene F. Rosenberg. "Animal Pneumoviruses: Molecular Genetics and Pathogenesis". Clinical Microbiology Reviews 17, n. 2 (aprile 2004): 390–412. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/cmr.17.2.390-412.2004.

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SUMMARY Pneumoviruses are single-stranded, negative-sense, nonsegmented RNA viruses of the family Paramyxoviridae, subfamily Pneumovirinae, and include pathogens that infect humans (respiratory syncytial virus and human metapneumovirus), domestic mammals (bovine, ovine, and caprine respiratory syncytial viruses), rodents (pneumonia virus of mice), and birds (avian metapneumovirus). Among the topics considered in this review are recent studies focused on the roles of the individual virus-encoded components in promoting virus replication as well as in altering and evading innate antiviral host defenses. Advances in the molecular technology of pneumoviruses and the emergence of recombinant pneumoviruses that are leading to improved virus-based vaccine formulations are also discussed. Since pneumovirus infection in natural hosts is associated with a profound inflammatory response that persists despite adequate antiviral therapy, we also review the recent experimental treatment strategies that have focused on combined antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory approaches.

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Plata-Hipólito, Claudia B., Sibilina Cedillo-Rosales, Nelson Obregón-Macías, Carlos E. Hernández-Luna, Cristina Rodríguez-Padilla, Reyes S. Tamez-Guerra e Juan F. Contreras-Cordero. "Genetic and serologic surveillance of canine (CIV) and equine (EIV) influenza virus in Nuevo León State, México". PeerJ 7 (17 dicembre 2019): e8239. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.8239.

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Background Despite the uncontrolled distribution of the Influenza A virus through wild birds, the detection of canine influenza virus and equine influenza virus in Mexico was absent until now. Recently, outbreaks of equine and canine influenza have been reported around the world; the virus spreads quickly among animals and there is potential for zoonotic transmission. Methods Amplification of the Influenza A virus matrix gene from necropsies, nasal and conjunctival swabs from trash service horses and pets/stray dogs was performed through RT-PCR. The seroprevalence was carried out through Sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay system using the M1 recombinant protein and polyclonal antibodies anti-M1. Results The matrix gene was amplified from 13 (19.11%) nasal swabs, two (2.94%) conjunctival swabs and five (7.35%) lung necropsies, giving a total of 20 (29.41%) positive samples in a pet dog population. A total of six (75%) positive samples of equine nasal swab were amplified. Sequence analysis showed 96–99% identity with sequences of Influenza A virus matrix gene present in H1N1, H1N2 and H3N2 subtypes. The phylogenetic analysis of the sequences revealed higher identity with matrix gene sequences detected from zoonotic isolates of subtype H1N1/2009. The detection of anti-M1 antibodies in stray dogs showed a prevalence of 123 (100%) of the sampled population, whereas in horses, 114 (92.68%) positivity was obtained. Conclusion The results unveil the prevalence of Influenza A virus in the population of horses and dogs in the state of Nuevo Leon, which could indicate a possible outbreak of equine and Canine Influenza in Mexico. We suggest that the prevalence of Influenza virus in companion animals be monitored to investigate its epizootic and zoonotic potential, in addition to encouraging the regulation of vaccination in these animal species in order to improve their quality of life.

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Gil, Laura H. V. G., Tereza Magalhaes, Beatriz S. A. S. Santos, Livia V. Oliveira, Edmilson F. Oliveira-Filho, João L. R. Cunha, Ana L. S. Fraiha et al. "Active Circulation of Madariaga Virus, a Member of the Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus Complex, in Northeast Brazil". Pathogens 10, n. 8 (3 agosto 2021): 983. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10080983.

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Madariaga virus (MADV) is a member of the eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) complex that circulates in Central and South America. It is a zoonotic, mosquito-borne pathogen, belonging to the family Togaviridae. Disturbances in the natural transmission cycle of this virus result in outbreaks in equines and humans, leading to high case fatality in the former and acute febrile illness or neurological disease in the latter. Although a considerable amount of knowledge exists on the eco-epidemiology of North American EEEV strains, little is known about MADV. In Brazil, the most recent isolations of MADV occurred in 2009 in the States of Paraíba and Ceará, northeast Brazil. Because of that, health authorities have recommended vaccination of animals in these regions. However, in 2019 an equine encephalitis outbreak was reported in a municipality in Ceará. Here, we present the isolation of MADV from two horses that died in this outbreak. The full-length genome of these viruses was sequenced, and phylogenetic analyses performed. Pathological findings from postmortem examination are also discussed. We conclude that MADV is actively circulating in northeast Brazil despite vaccination programs, and call attention to this arbovirus that likely represents an emerging pathogen in Latin America.

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Barbosa Costa, Galileu, Paula Eillany Silva Marinho, Ana Paula Pessoa Vilela, Ana Teresa Saraiva-Silva, Ana Paula Correia Crispim, Iara Apolinário Borges, Ana Gabriella Stoffella Dutra et al. "Silent Circulation of the Saint Louis Encephalitis Virus among Humans and Equids, Southeast Brazil". Viruses 11, n. 11 (5 novembre 2019): 1029. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v11111029.

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Saint Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus that occurs throughout the Americas, and is considered a public health threat. In Brazil, SLEV has been detected from human cases associated with dengue-like disease, but no neurological symptoms were reported. Furthermore, the epidemiology of SLEV in human populations is still poorly explored in the country. We reported serological and molecular detection of SLEV in a healthy population of equids and humans from rural areas in Southeast Brazil. A plaque reduction neutralization test was applied, and neutralizing antibodies were detected in 11 individuals (4.6%) and 60 horses (21.5%). A qPCR targeting the 5′UTR region and reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) targeting the non-structural protein (NS5) gene were performed and three individuals tested positive in both assays. Subsequent phylogenetic analysis confirmed SLEV circulation and its findings suggest the occurrence of an asymptomatic or subclinical presence in human and animal cases, correlating with the risks for outbreaks and consequently burden of SLEV infections to public health. Preventive strategies should include improved surveillance in regions with a high probability of SLEV occurrence, improvement in diagnostic methods, and evaluation of exposure/risk factors that can favor SLEV emergence.

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Yan, Cen, Xiao-Jiang Quan e Ying-Mei Feng. "Nanomedicine for Gene Delivery for the Treatment of Cardiovascular Diseases". Current Gene Therapy 19, n. 1 (28 maggio 2019): 20–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1566523218666181003125308.

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Background: Myocardial infarction (MI) is the most severe ischemic heart disease and directly leads to heart failure till death. Target molecules have been identified in the event of MI including increasing angiogenesis, promoting cardiomyocyte survival, improving heart function and restraining inflammation and myocyte activation and subsequent fibrosis. All of which are substantial in cardiomyocyte protection and preservation of cardiac function. Methodology: To modulate target molecule expression, virus and non-virus-mediated gene transfer have been investigated. Despite successful in animal models of MI, virus-mediated gene transfer is hampered by poor targeting efficiency, low packaging capacity for large DNA sequences, immunogenicity induced by virus and random integration into the human genome. Discussion: Nanoparticles could be synthesized and equipped on purpose for large-scale production. They are relatively small in size and do not incorporate into the genome. They could carry DNA and drug within the same transfer. All of these properties make them an alternative strategy for gene transfer. In the review, we first introduce the pathological progression of MI. After concise discussion on the current status of virus-mediated gene therapy in treating MI, we overview the history and development of nanoparticle-based gene delivery system. We point out the limitations and future perspective in the field of nanoparticle vehicle. Conclusion: Ultimately, we hope that this review could help to better understand how far we are with nanoparticle-facilitated gene transfer strategy and what obstacles we need to solve for utilization of nanomedicine in the treatment of MI.

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Chancey, Caren, Andriyan Grinev, Evgeniya Volkova e Maria Rios. "The Global Ecology and Epidemiology of West Nile Virus". BioMed Research International 2015 (2015): 1–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/376230.

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Abstract (sommario):

Since its initial isolation in Uganda in 1937 through the present, West Nile virus (WNV) has become an important cause of human and animal disease worldwide. WNV, an enveloped virus of the genusFlavivirus, is naturally maintained in an enzootic cycle between birds and mosquitoes, with occasional epizootic spillover causing disease in humans and horses. The mosquito vectors for WNV are widely distributed worldwide, and the known geographic range of WNV transmission and disease has continued to increase over the past 77 years. While most human infections with WNV are asymptomatic, severe neurological disease may develop resulting in long-term sequelae or death. Surveillance and preventive measures are an ongoing need to reduce the public health impact of WNV in areas with the potential for transmission.

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40

Tomazatos, Alexandru, Stephanie Jansen, Stefan Pfister, Edina Török, Iulia Maranda, Cintia Horváth, Lujza Keresztes et al. "Ecology of West Nile Virus in the Danube Delta, Romania: Phylogeography, Xenosurveillance and Mosquito Host-Feeding Patterns". Viruses 11, n. 12 (14 dicembre 2019): 1159. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v11121159.

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Abstract (sommario):

The ecology of West Nile virus (WNV) in the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve (Romania) was investigated by combining studies on the virus genetics, phylogeography, xenosurveillance and host-feeding patterns of mosquitoes. Between 2014 and 2016, 655,667 unfed and 3842 engorged mosquito females were collected from four sampling sites. Blood-fed mosquitoes were negative for WNV-RNA, but two pools of unfed Culex pipiens s.l./torrentium collected in 2014 were tested positive. Our results suggest that Romania experienced at least two separate WNV lineage 2 introductions: from Africa into Danube Delta and from Greece into south-eastern Romania in the 1990s and early 2000s, respectively. The genetic diversity of WNV in Romania is primarily shaped by in situ evolution. WNV-specific antibodies were detected for 19 blood-meals from dogs and horses, but not from birds or humans. The hosts of mosquitoes were dominated by non-human mammals (19 species), followed by human and birds (23 species). Thereby, the catholic host-feeding pattern of Culex pipiens s.l./torrentium with a relatively high proportion of birds indicates the species’ importance as a potential bridge vector. The low virus prevalence in combination with WNV-specific antibodies indicate continuous, but low activity of WNV in the Danube Delta during the study period.

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41

Sokolova, T. M., I. A. Suetina, N. N. Nosik e V. F. Krylov. "Enzyme activity of the interferon system in virus diseases". Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine 111, n. 5 (maggio 1991): 669–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00841013.

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42

FAVORETTO, Silvana Regina, Maria Luiza CARRIERI, Elenice Maria S. CUNHA, Elizabeth A. C. AGUIAR, Luzia Helena Q. SILVA, Miriam M. SODRÉ, Maria Conceição A. M. SOUZA e Ivanete KOTAIT. "Antigenic typing of brazilian rabies virus samples isolated from animals and humans, 1989-2000". Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo 44, n. 2 (aprile 2002): 91–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0036-46652002000200007.

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Animal and human rabies samples isolated between 1989 and 2000 were typified by means of a monoclonal antibody panel against the viral nucleoprotein. The panel had been previously established to study the molecular epidemiology of rabies virus in the Americas. Samples were isolated in the Diagnostic Laboratory of the Pasteur Institute and in other rabies diagnostic centers in Brazil. In addition to the fixed virus samples CVS-31/96-IP, preserved in mouse brain, and PV-BHK/97, preserved in cell culture, a total of 330 rabies virus samples were isolated from dogs, cats, cattle, horses, bats, sheep, goat, swine, foxes, marmosets, coati and humans. Six antigenic variants that were compatible with the pre-established monoclonal antibodies panel were defined: numbers 2 (dog), 3 (Desmodus rotundus), 4 (Tadarida brasiliensis), 5 (vampire bat from Venezuela), 6 (Lasiurus cinereus) and Lab (reacted to all used antibodies). Six unknown profiles, not compatible with the panel, were also found. Samples isolated from insectivore bats showed the greatest variability and the most commonly isolated variant was variant-3 (Desmodus rotundus). These findings may be related to the existence of multiple independent transmission cycles, involving different bat species.

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43

Zhang, Liang, Yang Lei, Xia Liu, Xiao Wang, Zhao Liu, Dan Li, Peng Zheng, Lujun Zhang, Shigang Chen e Peng Xie. "Glutamate and Lipid Metabolic Perturbation in the Hippocampi of Asymptomatic Borna Disease Virus-Infected Horses". PLoS ONE 9, n. 6 (23 giugno 2014): e99752. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0099752.

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44

Dennis, Susan J., Ann E. Meyers, Inga I. Hitzeroth e Edward P. Rybicki. "African Horse Sickness: A Review of Current Understanding and Vaccine Development". Viruses 11, n. 9 (11 settembre 2019): 844. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v11090844.

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Abstract (sommario):

African horse sickness is a devastating disease that causes great suffering and many fatalities amongst horses in sub-Saharan Africa. It is caused by nine different serotypes of the orbivirus African horse sickness virus (AHSV) and it is spread by Culicoid midges. The disease has significant economic consequences for the equine industry both in southern Africa and increasingly further afield as the geographic distribution of the midge vector broadens with global warming and climate change. Live attenuated vaccines (LAV) have been used with relative success for many decades but carry the risk of reversion to virulence and/or genetic re-assortment between outbreak and vaccine strains. Furthermore, the vaccines lack DIVA capacity, the ability to distinguish between vaccine-induced immunity and that induced by natural infection. These concerns have motivated interest in the development of new, more favourable recombinant vaccines that utilize viral vectors or are based on reverse genetics or virus-like particle technologies. This review summarizes the current understanding of AHSV structure and the viral replication cycle and also evaluates existing and potential vaccine strategies that may be applied to prevent or control the disease.

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Ridgely, Sherritta L., Baoshan Zhang e Travis C. McGuire. "Response of ELA-A1 horses immunized with lipopeptide containing an equine infectious anemia virus ELA-A1-restricted CTL epitope to virus challenge". Vaccine 21, n. 5-6 (gennaio 2003): 491–506. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0264-410x(02)00474-7.

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46

Quinlivan, Michelle, Maura Nelly, Michael Prendergast, Cormac Breathnach, David Horohov, Sean Arkins, Yu-Wei Chiang, Hsien-Jue Chu, Terry Ng e Ann Cullinane. "Pro-inflammatory and antiviral cytokine expression in vaccinated and unvaccinated horses exposed to equine influenza virus". Vaccine 25, n. 41 (ottobre 2007): 7056–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.07.059.

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47

Singh, Rudra P. "Development of the molecular methods for potato virus and viroid detection and prevention". Genome 42, n. 4 (1 agosto 1999): 592–604. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/g99-047.

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Potato is the fourth most important food crop in the world and it forms the diet of a billion consumers in developing countries, where potato production is increasing rapidly. However, potato virus diseases in developing countries are one of the major causes of lower yields. Their control requires the development of appropriate virus-detection and seed-production technologies for the region. Recent progress in developing nucleic acid based virus detection methods are reviewed. Refinements of the protocols applicable to the laboratories located in seed producing areas are discussed. Nucleic acid spot hybridization (NASH) and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) methods are described for the detection of viruses and viroids in dormant seed tubers and insect vectors. Although the potato crop is susceptible to over 25 virus and viroid diseases, only universally economically important viruses have been dealt with here. The progress of pathogen-derived resistance for the control of potato virus diseases is elaborated, and the results of field tests indicate their feasibility in virus control.Key words: dot-blot, spot-hybridization, reverse transcription, polymerase chain reaction, transgenic plants.

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48

Bażanów, Barbara A., Elżbieta Chełmecka, Ewa Romuk e Dominika M. Stygar. "Basic Studies on the Oxidative Stress Markers in Two Types of Horse Breed: Semi-isolated Population of Huculs Is Different from Commercially Used Arabian Horses". BioMed Research International 2020 (14 luglio 2020): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2020/7542384.

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Hucul and Arabian horses differ in the physiological constitution and exposition to environmental conditions. Oxidative stress plays a pathogenic role in many diseases and enables further injuries. The objective of this study was to compare the levels of enzymatic and nonenzymatic oxidative stress markers in Hucul horses living in seminatural conditions and in commercially handled Arabian horses. We tested the serum samples for total superoxide dismutase (total SOD), Cu-Zn-superoxide dismutase (CuZnSOD), and Mn-dependent superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) activity; for lipofuscin (LPS), ceruloplasmin (CER) and malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration; and for total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and total oxidant status (TOS). Total SOD (p<0.001), MnSOD (p<0.001), and CuZnSOD (p<0.001) activities were significantly higher whereas LPS (p<0.05), TAC (p<0.001), TOS (p<0.001), and MDA (p<0.001) concentrations were significantly lower in the serum samples collected from Huculs vs. Arabian horses, regardless of the gender. Gender, regardless of the breed, had no significant impact on the antioxidants’ activity and concentration. Total SOD and MnSOD activities were significantly higher in Hucul’s mares when compared to Hucul’s stallions. Concentrations of TAC and TOS were significantly lower in Arabian stallions than in Arabian mares. Commercially handled horses expressed a higher level of oxidative stress markers in comparison to breeds living in seminatural conditions. We conclude that antioxidants are important biomarkers of animal health, whether they are under maintenance care or performing physical exercise.

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Enose-Akahata, Yoshimi, Shila Azodi, Bryan R. Smith, Bridgette Jeanne Billioux, Ashley Vellucci, Nyater Ngouth, Yuetsu Tanaka et al. "Immunophenotypic characterization of CSF B cells in virus-associated neuroinflammatory diseases". PLOS Pathogens 14, n. 4 (30 aprile 2018): e1007042. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1007042.

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50

Ghorbiani, Mohsen, Zahra Boroomand, Mansour Mayahi e Masoud Reza Seyfi Abad Shapouri. "Molecular identification of infectious bronchitis virus isolated from respiratory diseases in some Iranian broiler flocks". Molecular Biology Reports 47, n. 9 (settembre 2020): 7161–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11033-020-05788-7.

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