Letteratura scientifica selezionata sul tema "Leksikale standard"

Iako je Muhammed, s.a.v.s., najrječitiji Arap, prve generacije autoriteta arapskoga jezika su se, pri sakupljanju materijala koji bi bio osnova za normiranje ili potvrđivanje gramatike i leksike arapskoga jezika, ograničili na Kur'an i predislamsku poeziju kao osnov i izvor tog normiranja. Prve generacije arapskih lingvista nisu koristile hadis kao standard arapskoga jezika, iako jedan dio hadiskih zbirki spada u period koji se smatra prihvatljivim za korištenje jezičkog materijala za normiranje arapskoga jezika. Međutim, nakon istraživanja ustanovit će se da prve generacije nisu odbacivale hadis kao izvor, nego su Poslanikove, s.a.v.s., hadise koristili pod širim pojmom „arapskih književnih tekstova“. Oko pitanja prihvatljivosti hadisa kao izvora arapskoga jezika postoje tri različita stava koja smo podrobno iznijeli u radu. Akademija za arapski jezik u Kairu je nakon istraživanja donijela kriterije za prihvatanje hadisa kao standarda arapskoga jezik. Kriterije smo naveli na kraju ovoga rada.

<p> ABSTRAK <br />Dalam buku Tata Bahasa Baku Bahasa Indonesia dijelaskan bahwa interjeksi atau kata seru adalah kata tugas yang mengungkapkan rasa hati pembicara. Berbeda dengan kelas kata lain (yaitu verba, ajektiva, adverbial, dan nomina), kata tugas hanya memiliki makna gramatikal dan tidak memiliki arti leksikal. Dalam penelitian ini penulis membahas interjeksi dalam bahasa Indonesia dengan menggunakan analisis pragmatik. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah menemukan dan menjelaskan faktor utama pembentuk interjeksi dalam bahasa Indonesia. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa faktor untama pembentuk interjeksi dalam bahasa Indonesia adalah faktor makna kata/makna satuan bahasa dan situasi bicara. <br /> </p><p>Kata Kunci: interjeksi, kata tugas, arti gramatikal, arti leksikal, pragmatik, makna kata, situasi bicara. <br /> </p><p>ABSTRACT <br /> <br />In the Bahasa Indonesia standard book, i.e. Tata Bahasa Baku Bahasa Indonesia it is explained that interjections is a task word that expresses the speaker’s heart. Unlike other word classes (i.e. verbs, ajectives, adverbials, and nouns), the interjection has only grammatical meaning and has no lexical meaning. In this study, the author discusses interjection in the Bahasa Indonesia by using pragmatic analysis. The objective of the study was to find and explain the main factors of the interjection forming in Bahasa Indonesia. The results showed that the main factor forming interjection in Bahasa Indonesia is the meaning of the word (or the unit of language) and speech situation. <br /> </p><p>Key Words: interjection, task word, grammatical meaning, lexical meaning, pragmatic analysis, word meaning speech situation. </p>

Prevzemanje imenskih prvin iz latinsko-grškega sveta je bilo v slovenski pravopisni tradiciji obravnavano ekskluzivistično, pospremljeno s pogosto nasprotujočimi si napotili splošnim jezikovnim uporabnikom, ki so izhajali iz različnih oblik socialnega razlikovanja v družbi, medtem ko je bil občnoimenski fond razmeroma hitro fonetično podomačen. Izjemo predstavljajo posamezni izrazi, ki so v jezikovni skupnosti obravnavani kot prestižni, tj. izobraženski, in jih ohranjamo v citatnih oblikah. Sodobni knjižnojezikovni standard je prav zaradi omenjenih dejavnikov na področju kodifikacije latinsko-grške leksike in imen neenoten. V prispevku bodo predstavljena dosedanja načela slovenjenja ob izbrani skupini besedja ter izkušnje, ki nas bodo spremljale v prihodnje.

Jezikovna area korziščine med otoškostjo in usodnostjo mejnega govora. Študijaskuša obnoviti jezikoslovno zgodovino Korzike, pri čemer se posebej zadrži ob nekaterih vidikih: vpliv toskanščine kot odločilnega elementa za tvorbo narečne podobe otoka, leksikalni doprinos genoveškega narečja, zgodovinska pogojenost diglosije med italijanščino in korziščino, prenovitev jezikovnega stanja s priključenjem otoka Franciji, počasno opuščanje italijanščine kot jezika kulture, vzpon korziščine kot izraza regionalne posebnosti. Na tej zasnovi temelji zaključek J.B. Marcellesija o jezikovni 'polinomiji': jezikovno stvarnost otoka je mogoče razumeti kot zlitje različnih norm v eno, ki se razkriva v naravnosti govora otočanov. Tako gledanje je pomembno pri tehtanju inovacij v tistih jezikih, ki nimajo učvrščenega jezikovnnega standarda, in je še posebej utemeljeno pri presoji jezikovnih dejstev korziščine.

ملخص البحث: تسعى هذه الدّراسة إلى البحث عن أدوات الاتساق النصي في قصتين من المجموعة القصصية "دمشق الحرائق" للكاتب السوري زكريا تامر وهي: قصة "البستان" وقصة "الليل" نموذجاً، وقد انشغل الباحثون بدراسة الاتساق وأدواته في تحقيق ترابط النص وتماسكه بعضه ببعض في النصوص المختلفة مثل :القرآن الكريم، والحديث الشريف، والمؤلفات، والمقامات، والروايات. وفي هذه الدراسة ستقوم الباحثة بتحليل "دمشق الحرائق" التي صدرت عام (1973م) لزكريا تامر أحد كتّاب القصة المعروفين في تجديد تقنيات الكتابة القصصية التي تهتم بواقع العالم العربي ونقده. وتتبع الباحثة المنهجية التي وضعها هاليداي ورقية حسن لمعايير الاتساق، وتوصلت الدراسة إلى أن "تامر" يستخدم وسائل الاتساق النحوي مثل الإحالة، والاستبدال، والحذف، والوصل، والاتساق المعجمي مثل: التكرار والتضام. الكلمات المفتاحية: عناصر الاتساق-الإحالة-الوصل-التكرار-التضام. Abstract: This study was conducted to analyse the elements of text cohesion in the two short stories collection of "Damascus fire" by Zakaria Tameer who is a Syrian writer; “The orchard” and “The night” as samples. Based on the observations, the researchers have conducted a study on the elements of cohesion in order to verify the connection of texts with each other in various types of documents such as al-Quran, Hadith, books, maqamat, and novels. In this study, the researcher has analyzed the 1973 Damascus fire short stories collection by Zakaria Tameer, a writer who known as a modernist in short story writing and renowned for his call to witness and criticize the reality of the Arab world. The researcher has utilized the methodology performed by Halliday and Ruqayyah Hassan for the cohesion standards until the end of the study, whereby Tameer uses the elements of grammatical cohesion such as anaphora, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion such as synonym and recurrence. Keywords: Elements of Text Cohesion – Anaphora – Conjunction – Synonym - Recurrence. Abstrak Kajian ini dibuat untuk menganalisa unsur-unsur kesinambungan teks di dalam dua cerpen dalam antologi “Damsyiq terbakar” oleh Zakaria Tameer yang merupakan seorang penulis dari Syiria; iaitu cerpen “Kebun” dan “Malam” sebagai tumpuan kajian. Berdasarkan pemerhatian, para pengkaji telahpun menjalankan kajian terhadap unsur-unsur kesinambungan untuk mengesahkan hubungan teks dengan satu sama lain dalam teks-teks seperti Al-Quran, Hadis, maqamat dan juga novel-novel. Dalam kajian ini, para pengkaji telah menganalisa antologi 1973 Damsyiq terbakar oeh Zakaria Tameer, seorang penulis cerpen moden dan terkenal dengan seruan belian untuk menyaksi dan mengkritik realiti dunia Arab ketika itu. Kajian ini meggunakan method yang diperkenalkan oleh Halliday dan Ruqayyah Hasan untuk standard kesinambungan sehingga ke pengakhiran kajian. Tameer dilihat telah menggunakan unsur-unsur kesinambungan tatabahasa seperti anaphora, penggantian, ellipsis, kata penghubung, kesinambungan leksikal seperti kata seerti dan pengulangan. Kata kunci: Unsur-unsur Kesinambungan Teks, Anafora, Kata Penghubung, Kata seerti, pengulangan.

Kirjutises esitletakse Eesti perekonnanimede tüüpi, kus nime lõpuosiseks on -mees. Perekonnanimede panekul 1822–1835 on nimesid lõpuga -mees (-mes) pandud rohkem kui 140 mõisas. Paljud neist on hääbunud, samas on seda tüüpi perekonnanimesid pandud/võetud ka XX sajandil: 1921–1922 Petserimaal ja Narvatagusel ning 1935–1940 nimede eestistamisel. Kirjutises on ära toodud kõik 63 mees-lõpulist perekonnanime, mis esinesid rahvastikuregistris aastal 2017, nimekandjate hulk sel aastal, nimede päritolu ja tekkekoht, enamasti mõisa täpsusega. Nenditakse, et nimetüüp lõpuga -mees on laen saksa keelest (tõlgitud on saksa perekonnanimede formant -mann ’mees, inimene’), ehkki vastavaid eeskujuks olevaid liitsõnu esineb ka eesti keeles (näiteks aumees, jahimees, kälimees, maamees, põllumees, sannamees, talumees, nimepanemise ajal arvatavasti juba ka laenuline kaupmees). Saksa keelest on enamasti siiski laenatud nii perekonnanimede struktuuritüüp kui ka sageli nimeosade leksika (mugand, laen või otsetõlge eesti keelde). Vaid iga kümnenda nime puhul võiks väita, et aluseks on eestikeelne liitsõna. Huvitaval kombel järgib mees-lõpuline perekonnanimetüüp levikuala, mis on kindlaks tehtud paljude murdenähtuste puhul. Abstract. Marja Kallasmaa and Fred Puss: A borrowed name type: surnames ending with ‑mees ‘man’. In the Population Register in 2017, there were 63 surnames ending with -mees ‘man’. The article presents the etymology of all these names. The Estonian surname type ending -mees has mostly been borrowed from German surnames with the name formant -mann. Estonian peasants received their surnames in the 19th century (about 31,000 surnames in 1822–1835, of those around 100 ending with -mees). Among those, there were around 5,020 occasions of surnames (around 2,000 different names) ending with -man(n), mostly in North Estonia. In 1935–1940, the peak of the Estonianization of surnames took place and 22 names ending with -mees were added. 1. Most of surnames ending with -mees are translation loans as Jõemees (Bachmann), Majamees (Hausmann), Metsmees (Waldmann), Mäemees (Bergmann), Nõmmemees (Heidemann), etc. In one surname, a partial translation of the first part has been found: Piirimees (Altegrenzmann). 2. Surnames with adapted first part: Valdmees (Waldmann), Kunstimees (Kunstmann). 3. There are different first parts of surnames in the islands of Hiiumaa and Saaremaa: in Hiiumaa, the first parts are toponyms, in Saaremaa, mostly adjectives. 4. Some surnames present the dialectal form versus standard language form: Mõtsmees and Metsmees (dialectal mõts, standard mets ‘forest’), Tepomees and Teppomees (standard male name Tepo, in the coastal dialect Teppo, same in the old spelling), Sannamees (standard saunamees ‘smallholder’). The surname written in 1835 – Maelzemees – has given three different present-day spellings: Mäeltsemees, Mältsamees and Määltsemees. 5. German influence is both structural and lexical (translation, adaptation, word selection). 6. Only around one tenth of the names come from Estonian compound words.

Kajian dialek yang dulunya bersifat tradisional dengan mencari perbezaan fonologi, telah berkembang menjadi kajian geografi, sejarawi dan sumber data kajian teoritis. Hari ini kajian dialek telah melalui inovasi dengan mensinergikan teknologi dalam penghuraian isoglos dan memasukkan elemen bukan linguistik dalam memberi penjelasan kepada penyebaran dialek itu sendiri. Demi kelangsungan ilmu ini, usaha mengisi kelompangan penyorotan kajian dialek dengan mengkhususkan kepada dialek Terengganu telah dilakukan. Dialek ini pernah dihuraikan tiga dekad yang lalu dan pastinya memerlukan input baharu. Kajian ini bermatlamat menyelidiki semula ciri dialek Terengganu, menghasilkan garis isoglos yang memisahkan dialek Terengganu dan Kelantan serta membuktikan kedominanan dialek ini di sepanjang pantai timur. Kajian ini merupakan kajian lapangan yang melibatkan 500 orang penutur dengan 64 titik kampung. Ia melibatkan warga tua, dewasa dan remaja. Kesemua responden diminta membunyikan empat puluh leksikal terpilih berdasarkan senarai Swadesh di samping temu bual untuk mendapatkan bunyi yang tepat. Hasil kajian mendapati kesemua ciri fonologi kekal seperti tiga dekad dahulu cuma input fonetik dan rumus fonologi telah dikemaskan bagi menepati piawai linguistik. Keduanya, isoglos yang tepat yang membatasi dialek Terengganu dan Kelantan telah berjaya dipetakan beserta titik kampung yang tepat. Akhirnya memang wujudnya rantaian atau kontinum dialek Terengganu di sepanjang pantai timur dari Setiu Laut hingga ke Kota Tinggi di Johor. Ketersebaran dialek ini di sepanjang jalur kawasan pantai timur diperkuatkan lagi dengan faktor topografi, sejarah dan sosio-budaya. Kajian sorotan ini telah menambah baik deskripsi dialek Terengganu berasaskan perspektif geolinguistik dan sekali gus membuktikan pendekatan multidisiplin dapat menghuraikan dialek ini dengan lebih sistematik. Kata kunci: dialek Terengganu; geolinguistik; isoglos; sorotan dialek; rantaian dialek ABSTRACT The study of dialects, which used to be traditional through the search of phonological differences, has evolved into a geographical study, historical study, and theoretical data sources. Today dialect studies have undergone innovations by synergizing technology in isogloss descriptions and incorporating non-linguistic elements in explaining the spread of the dialect itself. For the sake of this knowledge's continuity, efforts to fill the void of the study of dialect by specializing in the Terengganu dialect have been made. This dialect was once described three decades ago and certainly needed new input. This study aims to re-investigate the Terengganu dialect features, produce isogloss lines that separate the Terengganu and Kelantan dialects and prove this dialect's dominance along the east coast. This study is a field study involving 500 speakers with 64 village points. It involves the elderly, adults and adolescents. All respondents were asked to pronounce forty selected lexicals based on the Swadesh list in addition to interviews to obtain accurate sounds. The study results found that all phonological features remained the same three decades ago; only phonetic inputs and phonological rules were refined to meet linguistic standards. Secondly, the exact isogloss limiting Terengganu and Kelantan's dialects have been successfully mapped along with the exact village points. Finally, there is a chain or continuum of the Terengganu dialect along the east coast from Setiu Laut to Kota Tinggi in Johor. Topographic, historical and socio-cultural factors further strengthen the spread of this dialect along the east coast area. This study has improved the Terengganu dialect description based on the geolinguistics perspective, proving that a multidisciplinary approach can systematically describe this dialect. Keywords: Terengganu dialect; geolinguistics; isogloss; dialect revisited; dialect continuum

The existence of Christians in this world cannot be separated from the community in which they are located. When someone is in the midst of a community with a different way of life, it is very possible for him to be similar to his surroundings. Whereas what God wants from the existence of Christians in the world is that they can become bright, not follow the flow around them. Paul once gave a special message to the Romans so that they would not be like this world but changed by renewal of mind. This study focuses on the study of the phrases ἀνακαινώσει τοῦ νοὸς (anakainosei tou noos) from Romans 12: 2, which literally means renewal of the mind. This study aims to find out what is meant by the renewal of the mind, why it is necessary to renew the mind, how the renewal of the mind occurs, and how it applies to the life of Christianity in the present. With the exegesis method, researchers try to find out the meaning of the phrase either through lexical studies or by paying attention to the background of letter writing. Having found the meaning and relation to the context of the phrase, its application is made for Christian life today. The conclusions of this research are as follows: First, the renewal of the mind in Romans 12: 2 is a renewal of one's awareness of the truth which builds understanding of the true meaning of life. Second, followers of Christ need to experience a renewal of the mind because the mind will play a role in determining its life, namely in creating or setting its standard of living. Third, renewal of the mind is a process that occurs continuously every day through the Word of God which is done by the Holy Spirit, so that by this process Christians will understand the will of God, that is what is good, that is pleasing to God and perfectAbstrakKeberadaan umat Kristen di dunia ini tidak dapat dipisahkan dari lingungan masyarakat di mana mereka berada. Ketika seseorang berada di tengah masyarakat dengan cara hidup yang berbeda, sangat mungkin baginya untuk menjadi serupa dengan sekitarnya. Padahal yang dikehendaki Tuhan dari keberadaan umat Kristen di dunia adalah agar mereka bisa menjadi terang, bukan mengikuti arus sekitarnya. Paulus pernah berpesan secara khusus kepada jemaat Roma agar mereka tidak menjadi serupa dengan dunia ini tetapi berubah oleh pembaharuan pikiran. Penelitian ini memusatkan kajian kada frasa ἀνακαινώσει τοῦ νοὸς (anakainosei tou noos) dari surat Roma 12:2, yang secara literal berarti pembaharuan pikiran. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui apa yang dimaksud dengan pembaharuan pikiran, mengapa perlu pembaharuan pikiran, bagaimana terjadinya pem­baharuan pikiran, serta bagaimana penerapannya bagi kehidupan kekristenan pada masa sekarang. Dengan metode eksegesis, peneliti mencoba menemukan makna dari frasa tersebut baik melalui studi leksikal maupun dengan memperhatikan latar belakang penulisan surat. Setelah ditemukan makna dan kaitannya dengan konteks dari frasa tersebut, dibuat penerapannya bagi kehidupan kekristen­an sekarang ini. Sebagai kesimpulan dari penelitian ini adalah sebagai berikut: Pertama, pembaharuan pikiran dalam Roma 12:2 adalah pembaharuan kesadaran sese­orang terhadap kebenaran sehingga terbangun pemahaman akan makna hidup yang benar. Kedua, pengikut Kristus perlu mengalami pembaharuan pikiran karena pikiran akan sangat berperan dalam menentukan kehidupan­nya, yaitu dalam mencipta­kan atau menetapkan standar hidupnya. Ketiga, pembaharuan pikiran adalah proses yang terjadi terus menerus setiap hari melalui Firman Tuhan yang dikerjakan oleh Roh Kudus, sehingga dengan proses ini orang Kristen akan mengerti kehendak Allah yaitu apa yang baik, yang berkenan kepada Allah dan sempurna.

Language contact is a universal phenomenon found in bilingual or multilingual societies. It is the basic and distinct quality of every culture. Language is the means by which people communicate, express their points of views, say what their feelings are and attach names to objects. As multicultural as South Africa is, it is almost impossible for one not to have an encounter with other people’s languages. This study therefore aims at investigating the influence of IsiNdebele on Sepedi learners at the primary schools around the Dennilton region in the Limpopo Province. Much has been said about language contact and its influence in urban areas but no study has yet been conducted in rural areas focusing on Sepedi and IsiNdebele speakers. In their works, researchers such as Malimabe (1990:12), Pettman (1993:3), Calteaux (1996:187) point out that urbanization has brought diverse cultures together in the townships and workplaces. To curb their language differences, lingua franca like Tsotsitaal, Iscamtho, Fanagalo and others inevitably emerged. The same happened in the Limpopo Province when the AmaNdebele came to the farms and mines seeking employment at the Marble Hall and Groblersdal areas, and some did find a place of refuge in these areas. As Pettman (1993:3) notes, various races, using different languages cannot occupy the same territory and live in daily contact without being mutually affected; each will acquire something from and in turn give something to the other. In Chapter One, the Constitutional requirement as well as the progress made in the teaching and learning of isiNdebele at the primary schools in the Dennilton region is explored. The findings in Chapter Two reveal that Amandebele children still speak isiNdebele at home but Sepedi at school. At some schools, the learners who take Sepedi first language and those who take isiNdebele first language are accommodated in one class and only separate during their first language instruction periods. This is done because of the shortage of classes but will obviously promote cross language influence, such as code-switching and code-mixing. The findings reveal that language influence is also perpetuated by multilingual families and educators. The isiNdebele speaking learners and teachers bring isiNdebele to the learning environment; hence the Sepedi speaking learners in these schools experience difficulties adjusting to the use of appropriate, standard Sepedi when they speak or write essays. The isiNdebele phonological sounds as in [z] mzala for Sepedi [ts] motswala ’cousin’, [dl] dlala for Sepedi [b] bapala ‘play’, [v] vula for Sepedi [β] bula etc. are observed to be infiltrating the Sepedi sound system and are outlined in Chapter Three. After examining the learners’ written work in Chapter Four, it is observed that there is the adaptation of phonemes on the morphological, semantic and the syntactical disciplines from isiNdebele into Sepedi lexical stock. Chapter Five recapitulates the whole study. Recommendations by the language teachers and the researcher to the Limpopo Education Department, the parents and all stakeholders involved in the teaching and learning of languages are stated in this concluding chapter. AFRIKAANS : Taalkontak is ’n universele fenomeen in tweetalige of veeltalige gemeenskappe. Dit is die basiese en onderskeidende kwaliteit van enige kultuur. Taal is die instrument waarmee mense kommunikeer, hul menings lug, hul gevoelens uitdruk en objekte benoem. Dit is byna onmoontlik om in ’n multikulturele Suid-Afrikaanse konteks nie kontak te hê met ande tale nie. Dié studie stel ondersoek in na die invloed van IsiNdebele op Sepedi leerders in laerskole rondom die Dennilton area in die Limpopo provinsie. Baie is al gesê oor taalkontak en die invloed daarvan in stedelike areas, maar geen studie is al onderneem in plattelandse gebiede wat fokus op Sepedi en IsiNdebele sprekers nie. In hul ondersoeke het navorsers soos Malimabe (1990:12), Pettman (1993:3), Calteaux (1996:187) daarop gewys dat verstedeliking diverse kulture saamgebring het in informele nedersettings en werkplekke. Om taalverskille te oorkom, het lingua francas soos Tsotsitaal, Iscamtho, Fanagalo en ander ontwikkel. Dieselfde het in die Limpopo provinsie gebeur toe die AmaNdebele na plase en myne in die Marble Hall en Groblersdal areas gekom het om werk te soek. Sommige het ’n tuiste in hierdie areas gevind. Pettman (1993:3) noem dat verskillende rasse wat verskillende tale gebruik nie dieselfde gebied kan bewoon sonder om ondeling beïnvloed te word nie; elk sal iets van die ander nodig hê en beurtelings iets aan die ander gee. In hoofstuk 1 word die konstitusionele vereiste en die vordering wat gemaak is met die onderrig en en leer van isiNdebele in laerskole in die Dennilton area ondersoek. Die bevindinge in hoofstuk 2 wys daarop dat Amandebele kinders steeds isiNdebele tuis gebruik, maar Sepedi in die skoolopset. By sommige skole word leerders wat Sepedi en isiNdebele onderskeidelik as ’n eerste taal neem in een klas geakkommodeer en word hul slegs geskei gedurende eerste taalonderrigperiodes. Dié word gedoen weens ’n tekort aan klasse, maar sal vanselfsprekend kruistaal beïnvloeding bevorder soos kodewisseling en kodevermenging. Die bevindinge dui daarop dat taalbeïnvloeding ook aangewakker word deur veeltalige families en opvoeders. Die IsiNdebele leerders en opvoeders bring isiNdebele na die leeromgewing; daarom ondervind die Sepedi leerders in hierdie skole probleme met die gebruik van aanvaarbare standaard Sepedi as hul praat of opstelle skryf. Die isiNdebele fonologiese klanke soos [z] vir Sepedi, [ts] motswala, [dl] dlala vir Sepedi, [b] bapala, [v] vir Sepedi [β] bula ens. is besig om die Sepedi klanksisteem te infiltreer en word in hoofstuk 3 aangedui. Nadat die leerders se geskrewe werk in hoofstuk 4 geëksamineer is, is bevind dat ’n aanpassing van foneme op die morfologiese, semantiese en die sintaktiese dissipline van die isiNdebele na Sepedi leksikale standard plaasvind. Hoofstuk 5 neem die algehele studie in oënskou. Voorstelle deur taalonderwysers en die navorser aan die Limpopo Onderwysdepartement, die ouers en alle rolspelers betrokke by die onderrig en leer van tale word in die slothoofstuk gestel Copyright
Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2013.
African Languages
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