Articoli di riviste sul tema "Meat quality indigenous sheep sa"

Twenty Beni-Guil-PGI female lambs were used to study the effects of rearing season on meat quality characteristics, fatty acids profile, and lipid content. The animals were reared according to the pastoral-transhumant system in the eastern region of Morocco. The treatments consisted of 10 female lambs reared in summer-autumn (SA) and slaughtered at winter season and 10 female lambs reared in winter-spring (WS) and slaughtered at spring season. After the slaughter, the longissimus lumborum was collected for each animal for meat quality analysis. Compared to lambs reared in SA, the meat from the WS group showed higher ( p < 0.01 ) pH, chroma, and lightness values (5.79 vs. 5.72, 23.97 vs. 18.46, and 47.03 vs. 41.04, respectively). On the other hand, the meat from WS presented higher ( p < 0.05 ) intramuscular fat content (5.14 % vs. 3.82%, respectively). However, the intramuscular fat of the lambs reared in SA was characterized by greater ( p < 0.01 ) PUFA percentage (16.82% vs. 12.40%, respectively), thrombogenic ( p < 0.001 ) and atherogenic index ( p < 0.001 ), and PUFA/SFA ratio ( p < 0.01 ; 0.42 vs. 0.25, respectively). Nevertheless, those reared in WS season have a higher ( p < 0.001 ) PUFA n − 3 (2.58% vs. 1.14%, respectively) content, and therefore favorable ( p < 0.001 ) n − 6/n − 3 ratio (3.78 vs. 12.98, respectively).

The identification of meat quality characteristics from selected breeds grazing in specific regions is particularly relevant to achieve a marketing advantage. Longisimus thoracis at lumborum (LTL) from the indigenous Western Balkan (WB) sheep - VlasickaPramenka (VP) sheep and lambs, and Pivska Pramenka (PP) sheep grazing in Bosnia & Herzegovina (B&H) and Montenegro (MN), respectively, was compared regarding carcass and meat qualities to the crossbred Norwegian white sheep (NWS) - sheep and lambs, grazing in wide Hardangervidda and Jotunheimen regions where the lamb meat is marketed as gourmet meat. The WB sheep had lower average carcass weights and antioxidant capacity, higher ultimate pH, intramuscular fat and n-6/n-3 ratio, but better tenderness and color stability compared to NWS. The WB lambs were lighter, had higher n-6/n-3 ratio, lower antioxidant capacity and became more easily rancid despite a higher fat ?-tocopherol content. The marketing advantage of WB meat is its tenderness properties while NO's NWS lambs displayed a better nutritional profile.

The research was conducted to study the effect of heat stress on carcass characteristics and meat quality in indigenous sheep. Nine sheep were divided into three groups which were almost similar in age, sex and weight. Three groups were divided as zero hour (T0), four hours (T4) and eight hours (T8) heat exposure to direct sunlight. During experimental period temperature–humidity index (THI) value was calculated as 27.09 which indicated T4 and T8 groups were subjected to heat stress condition for at least four hours and eight hours respectively every day. Slaughter weight, body length and heart girth had no significant difference among the treatment groups. Dry matter, ash and ether extract had no significant difference (p>0.05) among the treatment groups but crude protein were increased with the increase of heat stress from T0 to T8 group (p<0.05). Drip loss was increased (p<0.05) in non-exposure group than treated groups but there is no significant result (p>0.05) found in pH and cooking loss. Carcass weight and eye muscle area had no significant difference (p>0.05) among the treatment groups but dressing percentage was decreased with the increase of time in heat treated groups (p<0.01). Significant difference (p<0.05) were found in weight of heart, kidney, lung + trachea and pluck between control and heat treated groups. The significant difference (p>0.05) in empty gut was found in gut with content and gut fill in heat treated groups. It can be concluded that heat stress had significant changes on carcass characteristics and meat quality of indigenous sheep.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/bjas.v43i2.20717 Bang. J. Anim. Sci. 2014. 43 (2): 147-153

Lamb producers in the Less Favoured Areas (LFAs) of the European Community appear, for different reasons, to be constrained by the economic value of the indigenous small-sized sheep breeds. The trial reported here forms part of a collaborative project whose overall aim is to improve the quality and marketability of sheep meat produced in the LFAs. The objective of this trial was to assess the growth potential of nine small sized sheep breeds, across three centres, providing a basis for subsequent production work. The three collaborating centres in Greece (paper no. 112), Spain (paper no. 26) and Scotland used indigenous breeds appropriate to their LFAs. The three British breeds studied were Scottish Blackface (SB), Welsh Mountain (WM), and Shetland (SH).

Abstract. The study conducted a comparison of meat quality, fatty acid profile, and cholesterol amounts of longissimus dorsi (LD) and semitendinosus (ST) muscles of male lambs born to Turkish indigenous sheep breeds raised under intensive conditions. A total of 36 singleton male lambs were used as experimental animals of the Akkaraman (A), Morkaraman (M), Awassi (IW), Karayaka (KR), Kıvırcık (KV), and Middle Anatolian Merino (MAM) pure breeds. All lambs were fed the same diet until they reached a target weight of 40 kg weight. After the feeding period, all lambs were slaughtered and LD and ST muscle samples were collected to determine meat quality traits, fatty acid profile, and cholesterol amounts. Although there were no significant differences between lambs in terms of the fatty acid profile of LD and ST muscles, KR lambs had a higher cholesterol content in both muscles in comparison with the lambs born to other breeds (p<0.05). While water-holding capacity, dripping loss, pH, color, dry matter, ash, and intramuscular fat values of ST muscles showed differences among breeds (p<0.05), dripping loss, pH, cooking loss, color, dry matter, ash, protein, and intramuscular fat values of LD muscles differed between breeds (p<0.05). The data of the current study indicated that meat quality characteristics and cholesterol contents of Turkish indigenous breeds showed differences, and these differences may be used for alternative lamb meat production for the consumer.

Carcass fat of meat producing animals has long been identified as one of the most important characteristics of overall meat quality. In this respect, consumer choices of particular food reflect their awareness of the link between health and consumption of fats particularly saturated. Lamb meat is considered to be excessively fat and this results in substantial loss in its marketability. This study was carried out to assess the effect of breed, sex, post-weaning nutrition, live weight at slaughter and their interactions on the fatty acid (FA) composition in carcass fat of lambs of three indigenous dairy Greek breeds of sheep.

Noted for its unique herbaceous flavour which is imbued from a diet of indigenous fragrant plants, Karoo lamb is marketed as one of South Africa’s finest meat products and enjoys Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) status in South Africa and the European Union. Its distinct quality is imparted through natural grazing of the sheep on the Karoo veld that has a significant influence on the sensory and chemical profile of the meat. Descriptive sensory analysis, fatty acid analysis, solid-phase microextraction, isotope ratio mass spectrometry, portable near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy and proton transfer reaction-mass spectrometry proved to be very successful analytical tools for the authentication of regionally unique lamb meat, distinguishing Karoo from Non-Karoo lamb. Characteristic volatiles, specifically terpenes, present in both the Karoo bushes and the Karoo lamb meat and fat were detected. The dominant terpenes were tentatively identified as α-pinene, β-pinene, limonene and trans-caryophyllene, and they were particularly prominent in the fat tissue. Within the Karoo, regional differences were apparent as Hantam Karoo lamb had the highest ratings for herbaceous aroma and flavour and contained the greatest concentration of terpenes. Herbaceous aroma and flavour attributes associated with a diet rich in fragrant Karoo plants were verified with stable isotope ratio analysis. The results confirm that Karoo bushes are responsible for the distinct aroma and flavour of Karoo lamb, thereby providing vital evidence for its certification and to justify the protection of its indicator status.

SummaryThe paper analyses the importance of breed conservation in South Africa by means of added value through a number of species. This principle was applied to some of Southern Africa populations: Nguni cattle, indigenous pigs, indigenous sheep landraces including fat-tails (Pedi, Damara, Zulu, Afrikaner) and fat-rumped breeds (Persian) as well as the improved Boer goat. The latter is an example of what can be achieved by selecting an indigenous breed for a specific purpose.For each breed, possible alternative uses are explained by analysing their characters. For the Nguni cattle (very well adapted to local conditions) a premium is paid for hides with minimal tick damage as these are used for car upholstery, an important added value. Beef quality and easy calving are also relevant factors that are important when crossing the Nguni with European breeds.Indigenous sheep landraces are often used to develop hardy composites and this helps their conservation, while the Boer goat is in demand in many countries for meat-production and has been exported world-wide; this is probably the only selected meat-goat in the world.Indigenous pig breeds are capable of generating a good income and are satisfactory alternatives to modern breeds.

A flock of 244 hill sheep of the indigenous Boutsko breed of Epirus (NW of Greece), 1-6 years old, reared under a transhumance system was used to study the growth of suckled lambs and their carcass quality. The results of the study have been summarized as follows: 1) Birth liveweight of lambs was 4.3 ±0.12 Kg (single males), 3.9±0,10 Kg (single females) (P<0.05) and 3.6±0.08 Kg (twins) (P<0.01). The corresponding liveweights at slaughterwerell.2±0.25Kg, 10.7±0.23Kg and 11.3±0.36 Kg and their carcass weights 7.1 ±0,17 Kg, 7.1±0,17 and 6.9 ±0.26 Kg. 2) The conclusion drawn from the results of this study is that the Boutsko breed is a useful and well adapted genotype of sheep. However, its meat productivity is very low and could be improved by further within breed selection and/or grazing on improved pasture.

Abstract. The lipid analysis of commercial lamb's meat, from two main Moroccan production areas Middle Atlas and highlands of eastern Morocco, was conducted. This study concerns the lipid quality of sheep meat from Beni Guil (BG) and Timahdite (Ti) as indigenous breeds and that of the Ouled Djellal (ODj) breed of Algerian origin. To study the effect of the geographical area, the meat samples from the Beni Guil breed were taken in the two main locations of this breed: in the region of Ain Beni Mathar (BGA) and that of Tendrara (BGT). The fatty acid profiles of the sheep meats analyzed showed the following: (i) polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) richness was of 12.87 % and 20.59 % respectively for BGA and BGT breeds; (ii) polyunsaturated ∕ saturated fatty acid ratios were ranged between 0.28 to 0.50 respectively for BGA and Ti breed; and (iii) PUFA-n−3 content was 1.71 % for ODj breed and 2.13 % for BGA. Thus, the PUFA-n−6 ∕ PUFA n−3 ratios range between 4.92 and 9.6 for BGA and Ti sheep meat, respectively. The cholesterol content was 0.08 % and 0.12 % of fresh meat respectively for ODj and BGA. Finally, meats of BGA and ODj have similar thrombogenicity (1.23 and 1.27 respectively) and atherogenicity indices (0.71 and 0.68 respectively). Statistically, these values were significantly higher than those registered for Ti breed (IT: 1.04 and AI: 0.51). In conclusion, from a nutritional point of view, it can be deduced that these meats have an interesting lipid quality due to their richness in desirable fatty acid (UFA + C18 : 0).

The aims of this study were to determine the status of small ruminant production in Serbia and to provide projections for their sustainable use with optimal strategy of genetic improvement of sheep and goats in the future. For sustainable sheep and goat production, it is necessary to know a number of biological, technological, organizational and market factors. Number of sheep in Serbia during the past two decades fell by about 20%. This country grows more than 1.7 million sheep. In terms of breed structures, most of the populations are indigenous Pramenka sheep (80%), while the remaining 20% are Tsigai, Merinolandschaf, Ile de France, Pirot improved, Mis sheep, and other less important populations, as well as the crossbreed with foreign and domestic sheep. Interest of goat rearing is constantly increasing in last years for 20-30%. In regard to the breed structure, the least represented are goats of Alpine breed – approx. 2- 3%, White Serbian goat - 15%, different types of crosses – approx. 35% same as goats of low land Balkan type, and approx. 12% of high land Balkan type. Strategy of sheep and goat breeding programs in Serbia is focused on the improvement of indigenous breeds, because they are less demanding, and most importantly, the input is lower and their products have higher quality. Keywords: sheep; goat; sustainable; resources; meat; milk

Introduction. Modern economical challenges demand to find new ways of profitability increasing. Animal breeding is not an exception. The most widely used method is animal production increasing. Rather frequently such increasing is fulfilled through crossing of indigenous breeds with commercial breeds: the adaptation of latter goes easier and the production of the first one become higher. This method became rather popular during last decades, despite of some scientists’ warnings on impossibility of arithmetic counting of blood shares at biologic objects. Aim of the work was a try to prove the benefits of indigenous breeds of Ukraine from different points of view: cultural, ecological, health protective and others. Materials and methods. Analytical, axiomatic, hypothesis-deductive, empirical, synthetic, elementary-theoretical, of induction, summarizing and of isolated abstraction methods. Results. Valuable traits were sorted due to possibility of satisfaction of modern society’s major challenges. Tasty food. There are a lot of different proofs, concerning special qualities of local breeds products. In Ukraine it concerns, first of all, tasty broth from Grey Ukrainian breed meat. There was trial, in which Grey Ukrainian amongst outstanding French, Italian, English beef breeds took part (24 samples totally). Experts preferred Grey Ukrainian broth (blind trial). Milk of these cows is tasty and fatty too. Safe food. It is clear, that milk and meat of ill animals contains pathogenic bacteria. Unconditional guarantee of safe milk could be done only at the case of local breeds use, which are resistant to main antropozoonosis (common for humans and animals). Quality food. Higher quality of local breeds products is undeniable, as producers, trying to make production each time more profitable with different methods (especially in pig-breeding) often use biosimulators (probiotics, antibiotics, hormonal, tissue preparations, ferments, microelements, vitamins), which allow to strength physiological, including metabolic, processes in organism, to increase growth energy, production output, to improve food conversion. But pigs, which get such additives, do not have enough time to form completely till slaughter (muscle and adipose tissue). It resulted in reduction of meat quality and economical efficiency of its processing. Unique genes. We should remember, that loss of genes, which code valuable traits, particularly, disease-resistance, can lead to future loss of huge animal massive. Let’s remember case with BSE break in England in 1994: English slaughtered 5 mln. of adult cattle and 1 mln. of calves. Scientists suppose, that people ate products from about 700 th. of animals, which had hidden form of disease (first signs can manifest themselves in 8-10 years after contamination). Only in England up to 80 th. of people fall ill. Indigenous breeds are resistant to this disease (especially Grey Hungarian and Grey Ukrainian). Unpredictability of future demands. Now consumer needs diversified food with different tastes and there are a lot of signs, that this demand will be increasing. Availability of such products will be excluded at the case of mono-breed existence. Ecological component. Last time there are a lot of information on turning of ecosystems to destruction or complete altering after withdrawing from it one or other breed or species. Example of such harmonious interaction is met in India. In marshlands of island Chilka there is widespread buffalo Chilka. Its dung and urine support zooplankton, which feeds fish in lakes, which feed people and animals near lakes. Buffaloes Murrah and crossbreds Murrah-Chilka are less adapted to wet conditions and absence of unsalted water for drinking, that causes their inability to adapt at the system. One more example of organic interaction of unprofitable breeds and environment is Ronaldsey sheep with its high ability to adsorb copper and salt tolerance, which caused its exclusive ability to eat seaweed and is important factor of balance supporting at the place of its growth. World’s farm animals (especially of unprofitable breeds) are rather widely used for ecological services. Particularly, some of Podolic group breed, to which Grey Ukrainian belongs, is succefully used for pasture balance supporting, grazing perennial bushes (f.e. eleagnus species). Animals with more demandable feed intake can ignore plants, which can suppress other useful plants growth under lack of control conditions. In The State of World’s Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, FAO (2007) is marked, that in Cote d’Ivoire domestic cattle using at open areas reduces application of herbicides. Slovenia reports, that small livestock, which is grazing at overgrown shrub land, clears this land and in such way reduces the possibility of fire outbreaks (Holstein will not be grazing at shrub land). Esthetic pleasure. It seems, that esthetic pleasure can not be viewed on importance in one row with genetic factors and food quality, but it is rather important economic constituent. P.Hoyt revealed, that only in 1998 about 9 mln. people watched whales, spending for this $9 billions. When creating parks with Grey Ukrainian one shouldn’t doubt, that there would be a lot of willing ones to look at noble animals with lyra-shaped horns and red calves from grey parents. Pale-grey Lebedyn cows with long lashes and calm sight could be popular as well. It should be said, that in Korea Republic Burien goats was not popular only because of their appearance (they were not black), though they had higher gains. Only after black Australian goats importing situation was changed. Country heritage. That is very important component if the country would like to be special and prosperous. Reduction of production expenses. This point is rather important under market conditions. Local breeds gravely reduce expenses, taking into account their stress- and disease- resistance and undemanding nature. Rather high level of variability, despite of long time breeding at limited space conditions. The highest variability level is found in local breeds. Despite of prolonged breeding in closed and rather limited in number populations, they saved high variability, unlike Holstein, which is rather inbreeded, despite of wide use in the world. Hidden genetic load. Comparative evaluation of hidden genetic load level was done and it found, that genetic load in gene pool of Ukrainian dairy and beef cattle is approximately 3-5 %, while in gene pool of commercial breeds of western selection it ranges from 10 to15 %. The most affecting example of intensive spreading of molecular diseases in the gene pool of commercial breeds and their forcing elimination is the example of lethal gene (BLAD) immigration into gene pool of different breeds. That’s only one of several examples-consequences of unsuccessful not-checked crossing with imported breeds. One more example of unsuccessful dissemination of genes at the populations is the case with Poni Farm Arlinda Cheef, which is considered to be one of the most prolific bull in all history of Holstein breeding. Chromosomes of legendary bull, born in 1962 counts for almost 14 percent in the genome of current Holstein population of USA. Genetic mutation, which traces to this bull is considered to be responsible for 500,000 spontaneous aborts of Holstein cattle worldwide. Conclusions. Indigenous breeds bear considerable variability reserve, high cultural, esthetic and ecological value and at least that’s why they uniquely should be stored for future generations.

The effects of steroidal growth implants alone or in combination with β-adrenergic agonist feed additives have not been studied thoroughly in mutton sheep in South African feedlot conditions. This study investigated the effects of a non-steroidal growth implant zeranol (Ralgro®), alone or in combination with zilpaterol hydrochloride (Zilmax®), on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and selected meat quality traits in 160 SA Mutton Merino ram lambs fed in a commercial feedlot. The experimental design consisted of two Ralgro treatment groups x two Zilmax treatments x two Zilmax feeding periods x 20 animals per treatment group. Lambs were randomly allocated to eight treatment groups, of which one half were implanted with Ralgro after arrival, followed by feed supplementation with Zilmax at two Zilmax feeding periods during the finisher phase, compared with negative control treatments (e.g. no Ralgro or Zilmax; Ralgro + no Zilmax; or no Ralgro + Zilmax). All lambs were fed the grower ration traditionally used by the commercial feedlot, which contained 16.89% crude protein (CP) and 2.94 Mcal/kg dry matter (DM). Zilmax was supplemented in the feed at 40 mg per animal per day and fed for 18 days or 25 days, plus three days withdrawal. Lambs that did not receive the Zilmax treatment were fed the basal diet without Zilmax feed supplementation. Ralgro significantly increased average daily gains (ADG) and cold carcass mass (CCM) of lambs. Lambs supplemented with Zilmax during the finisher phase had higher ADG, greater CCM and increased dressing percentage by ca.1.1% compared with those in the control group. Lambs fed Zilmax for 25 days had higher CCM than those fed for 18 days. The duration of the Zilmax treatment also decreased hide weight, fat thickness and shear force values (tenderness). Zilmax increased ADG and CCM in lambs, particularly if combined with Ralgro implants during the growing phase. The results from this study indicate that the combination of Ralgro implants with Zilmax feed supplementation during the finisher phase had additive effects and increased ADG and CCM of feedlot lambs.Keywords: Growth performance, meat quality, South African Mutton Merino, sheep, Ralgro®, Zilmax®

Lamb producers in the Less Favoured Areas (LFAs) of the European Community appear, for different reasons, to be constrained by the economic value of the indigenous small-sized sheep breeds. The trial reported here forms part of a collaborative project whose overall aim is to improve the quality and marketability of sheep meat produced in the LFAs. The objective of this trial was to measure the growth and body composition of entire male lambs of 3 Greek dairy breeds from early weaning to 3 slaughter weights chosen to be of potential commercial interest.In all 108 ram lambs were used with equal numbers from the 3 breeds: Karagouniko (K), Serres (S) and Boutsiko (B). The lambs were weaned at about 8 weeks of age onto one of 3 levels of concentrate allowance called H, M and L with ad libitum access to alfalfa hay. The concentrate contained 175 g crude protein and 11.0 MJ ME/kg as fed. The concentrate allowances were calculated on incremental time-based scales which were related to the ad libitum intake of each of the breeds as observed in a previous experiment. The highest allowance was intended to be at about 0.80 of the ad libitum intake previously seen. Allowance L was 1/3 and level M 2/3 of H. Lambs were housed in individual pens on sawdust. Liveweight and hay intake were recorded once per week; there were no overall refusals of concentrate between start and slaughter. Lambs were slaughtered at 23. 28 or 33 kg irrespective of breed and carcasses stored for compositional evaluation.

Background: Small ruminant animals (SRA) have been associated with humans since their domestication are of world significance as socioeconomic animals providing products (meat, milk, wool, hair) that are in growing demand and sustainability of rural economics and many ecosystems with poverty elevation and food security in rural people in developing world including Bangladesh. People clearly want the benefit of SRA with the application of knowledge of science and technological research. Some research progress on production and management of SRA has been made during the past five decades in Bangladesh. However, such research information is often fragmented and not easily accessible, although these research findings are essential for further research and effective SRA development planning. Objective: This review aimed to improve the information based on various aspects of production and management of SRA by compiling and reviewing published research findings to identify constraints of their production for practical and sustainable solutions. Materials and Methods: A systematic literature of review of research articles on production and management of SRA published mainly in journals from 1968 to early 2021 of Bangladesh has been reviewed. A total of 332 inland research articles on these aspects supported with 19 foreign related articles have been reviewed and analyzed. Results: Bangladesh has approximately 26.435 million goats and 3.607 million sheep. Among goat population, 90% Black Bengal goat (BBG), 8.0% Jamunapari (JP) and 2.0% crossbred goats. Ten phenotypic coat color characteristics of BBG with high performance with solid black color goats documented. Sheep and goats are considered polyestrous species, and the average gestation length lasts for 150 days and give birth twice a year under good management and nutrition. Most of the smallholder farmers (80.5-95%) are raised their goats in semi-intensive system and 47% rural women are involved in goat rearing. Approximately 96% goat farmers and 60% sheep farmers used roadside grass and tree leaves and only 4.0% goat farmers used cultivated fodder whereas 40% sheep farmers used cultivated and road side grass to feed their sheep. Daily supplement of 100-300g concentrate to grazing SRA improved the growth and carcass gain, productive and reproductive performances. Castrated goats at eight weeks of age showed a much higher growth rate (76.33g/day) than un-castrated (62.72g/day) goats. The productive and reproductive performances of SRA have been reviewed and discussed. The BBG has excellent reproductive efficiency but its lower live weight and milk yield encouraged for crossbreeding with exotic bucks. The meat and milk yield traits of crossbred improved but reproductive efficiency decreased in comparison to BBG. Selection breeding of BBG not only increased live weight but also improved carcass value and preserves the indigenous genetic resources from extinction of unplanned breeding. Similarly, the crossbreds between native ewes  exotic rams resulted positive effect on wool quality and live weight but a negative effect on prolificacy and lambing interval. Almost all SRA farmers depended on natural breeding system with some research data on the uses of AI and more than 70% farmers are being faced breeding service shortages. Major advances in methods of semen collection and evaluation, evaluation of male fertility, cryopreservation of sperm and estrous cycle control have been reported in both the goat and sheep in Bangladesh. In addition, knowledge of ovulation control, timing of insemination, gamete biology has also been reported in inland literature. The average slaughtering age of BBG reported to be approximately 12 months whereas in native Bengal sheep has been suggested to be 6 to 9 with an average of 8 months to get maximum return. The major challenges for SRA production are breeds, poor management, inadequate feeds, breeding bucks and rams and high neonatal mortality (kids 25.2%) and lambs (12.4%) in Bangladesh. Conclusions: The SRA rearing as smallholder farmers managed mostly semi-intensive system and requires improved feeding, provision of veterinary medical services, financial assistance, improve natural breeding and/or AI services and extension services to encourage and enhance production of sheep and goat at rural levels in Bangladesh. An improvement in the performance of SRA would directly improve the diet and standard of living of rural smallholder farmers in Bangladesh. Keywords: Systematic review, Five decades, Small ruminants, Production, Management, Bangladesh

In Ireland today, we eat more pigmeat per capita, approximately 32.4 kilograms, than any other meat, yet you very seldom if ever see a pig (C.S.O.). Fat and flavour are two words that are synonymous with pig meat, yet scientists have spent the last thirty years cross breeding to produce leaner, low-fat pigs. Today’s pig professionals prefer to use the term “pig finishing” as opposed to the more traditional “pig fattening” (Tuite). The pig evokes many themes in relation to cuisine. Charles Lamb (1775-1834), in his essay Dissertation upon Roast Pig, cites Confucius in attributing the accidental discovery of the art of roasting to the humble pig. The pig has been singled out by many cultures as a food to be avoided or even abhorred, and Harris (1997) illustrates the environmental effect this avoidance can have by contrasting the landscape of Christian Albania with that of Muslim Albania.This paper will focus on the pig in Irish cuisine and culture from ancient times to the present day. The inspiration for this paper comes from a folklore tale about how Saint Martin created the pig from a piece of fat. The story is one of a number recorded by Seán Ó Conaill, the famous Kerry storyteller and goes as follows:From St Martin’s fat they were made. He was travelling around, and one night he came to a house and yard. At that time there were only cattle; there were no pigs or piglets. He asked the man of the house if there was anything to eat the chaff and the grain. The man replied there were only the cattle. St Martin said it was a great pity to have that much chaff going to waste. At night when they were going to bed, he handed a piece of fat to the servant-girl and told her to put it under a tub, and not to look at it at all until he would give her the word next day. The girl did so, but she kept a bit of the fat and put it under a keeler to find out what it would be.When St Martin rose next day he asked her to go and lift up the tub. She lifted it up, and there under it were a sow and twelve piglets. It was a great wonder to them, as they had never before seen pig or piglet.The girl then went to the keeler and lifted it, and it was full of mice and rats! As soon as the keeler was lifted, they went running about the house searching for any hole that they could go into. When St Martin saw them, he pulled off one of his mittens and threw it at them and made a cat with that throw. And that is why the cat ever since goes after mice and rats (Ó Conaill).The place of the pig has long been established in Irish literature, and longer still in Irish topography. The word torc, a boar, like the word muc, a pig, is a common element of placenames, from Kanturk (boar’s head) in West Cork to Ros Muc (headland of pigs) in West Galway. The Irish pig had its place in literature well established long before George Orwell’s English pig, Major, headed the dictatorship in Animal Farm. It was a wild boar that killed the hero Diarmaid in the Fenian tale The Pursuit of Diarmaid and Gráinne, on top of Ben Bulben in County Sligo (Mac Con Iomaire). In Ancient and Medieval Ireland, wild boars were hunted with great fervour, and the prime cuts were reserved for the warrior classes, and certain other individuals. At a feast, a leg of pork was traditionally reserved for a king, a haunch for a queen, and a boar’s head for a charioteer. The champion warrior was given the best portion of meat (Curath Mhir or Champions’ Share), and fights often took place to decide who should receive it. Gantz (1981) describes how in the ninth century tale The story of Mac Dathó’s Pig, Cet mac Matach, got supremacy over the men of Ireland: “Moreover he flaunted his valour on high above the valour of the host, and took a knife in his hand and sat down beside the pig. “Let someone be found now among the men of Ireland”, said he, “to endure battle with me, or leave the pig for me to divide!”It did not take long before the wild pigs were domesticated. Whereas cattle might be kept for milk and sheep for wool, the only reason for pig rearing was as a source of food. Until the late medieval period, the “domesticated” pigs were fattened on woodland mast, the fruit of the beech, oak, chestnut and whitethorn, giving their flesh a delicious flavour. So important was this resource that it is acknowledged by an entry in the Annals of Clonmacnoise for the year 1038: “There was such an abundance of ackornes this yeare that it fattened the pigges [runts] of pigges” (Sexton 45). In another mythological tale, two pig keepers, one called ‘friuch’ after the boars bristle (pig keeper to the king of Munster) and the other called ‘rucht’ after its grunt (pig keeper to the king of Connacht), were such good friends that the one from the north would bring his pigs south when there was a mast of oak and beech nuts in Munster. If the mast fell in Connacht, the pig-keeper from the south would travel northward. Competitive jealousy sparked by troublemakers led to the pig keepers casting spells on each other’s herds to the effect that no matter what mast they ate they would not grow fat. Both pig keepers were practised in the pagan arts and could form themselves into any shape, and having been dismissed by their kings for the leanness of their pig herds due to the spells, they eventually formed themselves into the two famous bulls that feature in the Irish Epic The Táin (Kinsella).In the witty and satirical twelfth century text, The Vision of Mac Conglinne (Aisling Mhic Conglinne), many references are made to the various types of pig meat. Bacon, hams, sausages and puddings are often mentioned, and the gate to the fortress in the visionary land of plenty is described thus: “there was a gate of tallow to it, whereon was a bolt of sausage” (Jackson).Although pigs were always popular in Ireland, the emergence of the potato resulted in an increase in both human and pig populations. The Irish were the first Europeans to seriously consider the potato as a staple food. By 1663 it was widely accepted in Ireland as an important food plant and by 1770 it was known as the Irish Potato (Mac Con Iomaire and Gallagher). The potato transformed Ireland from an under populated island of one million in the 1590s to 8.2 million in 1840, making it the most densely populated country in Europe. Two centuries of genetic evolution resulted in potato yields growing from two tons per acre in 1670 to ten tons per acre in 1800. A constant supply of potato, which was not seen as a commercial crop, ensured that even the smallest holding could keep a few pigs on a potato-rich diet. Pat Tuite, an expert on pigs with Teagasc, the Irish Agricultural and Food Development Authority, reminded me that the potatoes were cooked for the pigs and that they also enjoyed whey, the by product of both butter and cheese making (Tuite). The agronomist, Arthur Young, while travelling through Ireland, commented in 1770 that in the town of Mitchelstown in County Cork “there seemed to be more pigs than human beings”. So plentiful were pigs at this time that on the eve of the Great Famine in 1841 the pig population was calculated to be 1,412,813 (Sexton 46). Some of the pigs were kept for home consumption but the rest were a valuable source of income and were shown great respect as the gentleman who paid the rent. Until the early twentieth century most Irish rural households kept some pigs.Pork was popular and was the main meat eaten at all feasts in the main houses; indeed a feast was considered incomplete without a whole roasted pig. In the poorer holdings, fresh pork was highly prized, as it was only available when a pig of their own was killed. Most of the pig was salted, placed in the brine barrel for a period or placed up the chimney for smoking.Certain superstitions were observed concerning the time of killing. Pigs were traditionally killed only in months that contained the letter “r”, since the heat of the summer months caused the meat to turn foul. In some counties it was believed that pigs should be killed under the full moon (Mahon 58). The main breed of pig from the medieval period was the Razor Back or Greyhound Pig, which was very efficient in converting organic waste into meat (Fitzgerald). The killing of the pig was an important ritual and a social occasion in rural Ireland, for it meant full and plenty for all. Neighbours, who came to help, brought a handful of salt for the curing, and when the work was done each would get a share of the puddings and the fresh pork. There were a number of days where it was traditional to kill a pig, the Michaelmas feast (29 September), Saint Martins Day (11 November) and St Patrick’s Day (17 March). Olive Sharkey gives a vivid description of the killing of the barrow pig in rural Ireland during the 1930s. A barrow pig is a male pig castrated before puberty:The local slaughterer (búistéir) a man experienced in the rustic art of pig killing, was approached to do the job, though some farmers killed their own pigs. When the búistéirarrived the whole family gathered round to watch the killing. His first job was to plunge the knife in the pig’s heart via the throat, using a special knife. The screeching during this performance was something awful, but the animal died instantly once the heart had been reached, usually to a round of applause from the onlookers. The animal was then draped across a pig-gib, a sort of bench, and had the fine hairs on its body scraped off. To make this a simple job the animal was immersed in hot water a number of times until the bristles were softened and easy to remove. If a few bristles were accidentally missed the bacon was known as ‘hairy bacon’!During the killing of the pig it was imperative to draw a good flow of blood to ensure good quality meat. This blood was collected in a bucket for the making of puddings. The carcass would then be hung from a hook in the shed with a basin under its head to catch the drip, and a potato was often placed in the pig’s mouth to aid the dripping process. After a few days the carcass would be dissected. Sharkey recalls that her father maintained that each pound weight in the pig’s head corresponded to a stone weight in the body. The body was washed and then each piece that was to be preserved was carefully salted and placed neatly in a barrel and hermetically sealed. It was customary in parts of the midlands to add brown sugar to the barrel at this stage, while in other areas juniper berries were placed in the fire when hanging the hams and flitches (sides of bacon), wrapped in brown paper, in the chimney for smoking (Sharkey 166). While the killing was predominantly men’s work, it was the women who took most responsibility for the curing and smoking. Puddings have always been popular in Irish cuisine. The pig’s intestines were washed well and soaked in a stream, and a mixture of onions, lard, spices, oatmeal and flour were mixed with the blood and the mixture was stuffed into the casing and boiled for about an hour, cooled and the puddings were divided amongst the neighbours.The pig was so palatable that the famous gastronomic writer Grimod de la Reyniere once claimed that the only piece you couldn’t eat was the “oink”. Sharkey remembers her father remarking that had they been able to catch the squeak they would have made tin whistles out of it! No part went to waste; the blood and offal were used, the trotters were known as crubeens (from crúb, hoof), and were boiled and eaten with cabbage. In Galway the knee joint was popular and known as the glúiníns (from glún, knee). The head was roasted whole or often boiled and pressed and prepared as Brawn. The chitterlings (small intestines) were meticulously prepared by continuous washing in cool water and the picking out of undigested food and faeces. Chitterlings were once a popular bar food in Dublin. Pig hair was used for paintbrushes and the bladder was occasionally inflated, using a goose quill, to be used as a football by the children. Meindertsma (2007) provides a pictorial review of the vast array of products derived from a single pig. These range from ammunition and porcelain to chewing gum.From around the mid-eighteenth century, commercial salting of pork and bacon grew rapidly in Ireland. 1820 saw Henry Denny begin operation in Waterford where he both developed and patented several production techniques for bacon. Bacon curing became a very important industry in Munster culminating in the setting up of four large factories. Irish bacon was the brand leader and the Irish companies exported their expertise. Denny set up a plant in Denmark in 1894 and introduced the Irish techniques to the Danish industry, while O’Mara’s set up bacon curing facilities in Russia in 1891 (Cowan and Sexton). Ireland developed an extensive export trade in bacon to England, and hams were delivered to markets in Paris, India, North and South America. The “sandwich method” of curing, or “dry cure”, was used up until 1862 when the method of injecting strong brine into the meat by means of a pickling pump was adopted by Irish bacon-curers. 1887 saw the formation of the Bacon Curers’ Pig Improvement Association and they managed to introduce a new breed, the Large White Ulster into most regions by the turn of the century. This breed was suitable for the production of “Wiltshire” bacon. Cork, Waterford Dublin and Belfast were important centres for bacon but it was Limerick that dominated the industry and a Department of Agriculture document from 1902 suggests that the famous “Limerick cure” may have originated by chance:1880 […] Limerick producers were short of money […] they produced what was considered meat in a half-cured condition. The unintentional cure proved extremely popular and others followed suit. By the turn of the century the mild cure procedure was brought to such perfection that meat could [… be] sent to tropical climates for consumption within a reasonable time (Cowan and Sexton).Failure to modernise led to the decline of bacon production in Limerick in the 1960s and all four factories closed down. The Irish pig market was protected prior to joining the European Union. There were no imports, and exports were subsidised by the Pigs and Bacon Commission. The Department of Agriculture started pig testing in the early 1960s and imported breeds from the United Kingdom and Scandinavia. The two main breeds were Large White and Landrace. Most farms kept pigs before joining the EU but after 1972, farmers were encouraged to rationalise and specialise. Grants were made available for facilities that would keep 3,000 pigs and these grants kick started the development of large units.Pig keeping and production were not only rural occupations; Irish towns and cities also had their fair share. Pigs could easily be kept on swill from hotels, restaurants, not to mention the by-product and leftovers of the brewing and baking industries. Ed Hick, a fourth generation pork butcher from south County Dublin, recalls buying pigs from a local coal man and bus driver and other locals for whom it was a tradition to keep pigs on the side. They would keep some six or eight pigs at a time and feed them on swill collected locally. Legislation concerning the feeding of swill introduced in 1985 (S.I.153) and an amendment in 1987 (S.I.133) required all swill to be heat-treated and resulted in most small operators going out of business. Other EU directives led to the shutting down of thousands of slaughterhouses across Europe. Small producers like Hick who slaughtered at most 25 pigs a week in their family slaughterhouse, states that it was not any one rule but a series of them that forced them to close. It was not uncommon for three inspectors, a veterinarian, a meat inspector and a hygiene inspector, to supervise himself and his brother at work. Ed Hick describes the situation thus; “if we had taken them on in a game of football, we would have lost! We were seen as a huge waste of veterinary time and manpower”.Sausages and rashers have long been popular in Dublin and are the main ingredients in the city’s most famous dish “Dublin Coddle.” Coddle is similar to an Irish stew except that it uses pork rashers and sausage instead of lamb. It was, traditionally, a Saturday night dish when the men came home from the public houses. Terry Fagan has a book on Dublin Folklore called Monto: Murder, Madams and Black Coddle. The black coddle resulted from soot falling down the chimney into the cauldron. James Joyce describes Denny’s sausages with relish in Ulysses, and like many other Irish emigrants, he would welcome visitors from home only if they brought Irish sausages and Irish whiskey with them. Even today, every family has its favourite brand of sausages: Byrne’s, Olhausens, Granby’s, Hafner’s, Denny’s Gold Medal, Kearns and Superquinn are among the most popular. Ironically the same James Joyce, who put Dublin pork kidneys on the world table in Ulysses, was later to call his native Ireland “the old sow that eats her own farrow” (184-5).The last thirty years have seen a concerted effort to breed pigs that have less fat content and leaner meat. There are no pure breeds of Landrace or Large White in production today for they have been crossbred for litter size, fat content and leanness (Tuite). Many experts feel that they have become too lean, to the detriment of flavour and that the meat can tend to split when cooked. Pig production is now a complicated science and tighter margins have led to only large-scale operations being financially viable (Whittemore). The average size of herd has grown from 29 animals in 1973, to 846 animals in 1997, and the highest numbers are found in counties Cork and Cavan (Lafferty et al.). The main players in today’s pig production/processing are the large Irish Agribusiness Multinationals Glanbia, Kerry Foods and Dairygold. Tuite (2002) expressed worries among the industry that there may be no pig production in Ireland in twenty years time, with production moving to Eastern Europe where feed and labour are cheaper. When it comes to traceability, in the light of the Foot and Mouth, BSE and Dioxin scares, many feel that things were much better in the old days, when butchers like Ed Hick slaughtered animals that were reared locally and then sold them back to local consumers. Hick has recently killed pigs for friends who have begun keeping them for home consumption. This slaughtering remains legal as long as the meat is not offered for sale.Although bacon and cabbage, and the full Irish breakfast with rashers, sausages and puddings, are considered to be some of Ireland’s most well known traditional dishes, there has been a growth in modern interpretations of traditional pork and bacon dishes in the repertoires of the seemingly ever growing number of talented Irish chefs. Michael Clifford popularised Clonakilty Black Pudding as a starter in his Cork restaurant Clifford’s in the late 1980s, and its use has become widespread since, as a starter or main course often partnered with either caramelised apples or red onion marmalade. Crubeens (pigs trotters) have been modernised “a la Pierre Kaufman” by a number of Irish chefs, who bone them out and stuff them with sweetbreads. Kevin Thornton, the first Irish chef to be awarded two Michelin stars, has roasted suckling pig as one of his signature dishes. Richard Corrigan is keeping the Irish flag flying in London in his Michelin starred Soho restaurant, Lindsay House, where traditional pork and bacon dishes from his childhood are creatively re-interpreted with simplicity and taste.Pork, ham and bacon are, without doubt, the most traditional of all Irish foods, featuring in the diet since prehistoric times. Although these meats remain the most consumed per capita in post “Celtic Tiger” Ireland, there are a number of threats facing the country’s pig industry. Large-scale indoor production necessitates the use of antibiotics. European legislation and economic factors have contributed in the demise of the traditional art of pork butchery. Scientific advancements have resulted in leaner low-fat pigs, many argue, to the detriment of flavour. Alas, all is not lost. There is a growth in consumer demand for quality local food, and some producers like J. Hick & Sons, and Prue & David Rudd and Family are leading the way. The Rudds process and distribute branded antibiotic-free pig related products with the mission of “re-inventing the tastes of bygone days with the quality of modern day standards”. Few could argue with the late Irish writer John B. Keane (72): “When this kind of bacon is boiling with its old colleague, white cabbage, there is a gurgle from the pot that would tear the heart out of any hungry man”.ReferencesCowan, Cathal and Regina Sexton. Ireland's Traditional Foods: An Exploration of Irish Local & Typical Foods & Drinks. Dublin: Teagasc, 1997.C.S.O. Central Statistics Office. Figures on per capita meat consumption for 2009, 2010. Ireland. http://www.cso.ie.Fitzgerald, Oisin. "The Irish 'Greyhound' Pig: an extinct indigenous breed of Pig." History Ireland13.4 (2005): 20-23.Gantz, Jeffrey Early Irish Myths and Sagas. New York: Penguin, 1981.Harris, Marvin. "The Abominable Pig." Food and Culture: A Reader. Eds. Carole Counihan and Penny Van Esterik. 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