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1
Gedik, Ayse. "Rural to urban versus urban to urban migration in Turkey". Espace, populations, sociétés 3, n. 1 (1985): 86–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/espos.1985.1008.
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Wu, Harry X., e Li Zhou. "Rural-to-Urban Migration in China*". Asian-Pacific Economic Literature 10, n. 2 (novembre 1996): 54–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8411.1996.tb00016.x.
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Shefer, Daniel, e Luis Steinvortz. "Rural-to-urban and urban-to-urban migration patterns in Colombia". Habitat International 17, n. 1 (gennaio 1993): 133–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0197-3975(93)90050-m.
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Jumppanen, Aapo, Toni Ahvenainen, Urszula Ala-Karvia, Shinichi Hanada, Markku Mattila, Mitsuaki Hasegawa, Fumihiko Koyata et al. "Has COVID-19 affected urban-to-rural and rural-to-urban migration patterns?" Maaseutututkimus 30, n. 2 (13 dicembre 2022): 39–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.51807/maaseutututkimus.122757.
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Deng, Zihong, e Yik Wa Law. "Rural-to-urban migration, discrimination experience, and health in China: Evidence from propensity score analysis". PLOS ONE 15, n. 12 (28 dicembre 2020): e0244441. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0244441.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
This research examines how rural-to-urban migration influences health through discrimination experience in China after considering migration selection bias. We conducted propensity score matching (PSM) to obtain a matched group of rural residents and rural-to-urban migrants with a similar probability of migrating from rural to urban areas using data from the 2014 China Family Panel Studies (CFPS). Regression and mediation analyses were performed after PSM. The results of regression analysis after PSM indicated that rural-to-urban migrants reported more discrimination experience than rural residents, and those of mediation analysis revealed discrimination experience to exert negative indirect effects on the associations between rural-to-urban migration and three measures of health: self-reported health, psychological distress, and physical discomfort. Sensitivity analysis using different calipers yielded similar results. Relevant policies and practices are required to respond to the unfair treatment and discrimination experienced by this migrant population.
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Mohtadi, Hamid. "Rural stratification, rural to urban migration, and urban inequality: Evidence from Iran". World Development 14, n. 6 (giugno 1986): 713–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0305-750x(86)90014-8.
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Ilnicki, Dariusz. "Rural Areas as the Origin and Destination of Permanent Internal Migrations between 2002 and 2017 in Poland. A Local-Level Analysis (Nuts 5)". Quaestiones Geographicae 39, n. 2 (11 giugno 2020): 15–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/quageo-2020-0015.
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AbstractThe main aim of the study is to identify the main streams of permanent migration and determine their reach. Special attention has been paid to rural areas (a rural commune, the rural area of an urban–rural commune) as the origin and destination of migration. The study has been conducted at the lowest level of territorial division in Poland (NUTS 5 – cities and communes). The analysed data cover the period between 2002 and 2017 and come from the online database Demografia GUS [Demography, Statistics Poland]. While presenting the volume and directions of migrations, the total and maximum values of migration have been considered. This approach allowed identifying the catchment areas as well as the areas of migratory attractiveness. These areas are highly similar in terms of their spatial extent. However, they differ significantly in terms of magnitude and reach of the main migration streams. Permanent internal migrations within rural areas are the least significant among all migration directions. One of their characteristics is the fact that they are short–distance migrations, occurring between neighbouring units. Permanent internal migrations appear to be a good indicator of urbanisation of suburban zones and the shaping of functional urban–rural–urban connections.
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Le, Tuyen Thi Thanh. "Social impacts of rural to urban youth migration on rural communities in modern Vietnam". Социодинамика, n. 3 (marzo 2025): 23–39. https://doi.org/10.25136/2409-7144.2025.3.73546.
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Youth migration is an important phenomenon in modern Vietnam, acting as a major driving force for economic growth and social change. The migration of young people from rural to urban areas not only reflects the trend of economic development but also shows profound changes in social structure, family models and community relations. This paper aims to assess the social impact of young people migrating from rural to urban areas on rural communities in modern Vietnam, based on the case of Vinh Trach Dong commune, Bac Lieu province. The main methods used in this research include a questionnaire survey (N=811) of households with young people migrating from rural to urban areas and in-depth interviews (N=20) of people in these communities to clarify the analysis from observation or available data collection. In addition, the study also provides useful information to help explain the social impacts of rural-urban youth migration on rural communities in modern Vietnam. The combination of quantitative and qualitative methods in the study not only helps to measure the scale of impact but also clarifies changes in gender roles, impacts on marital relationships, impacts on child education, impacts on the elderly and changes in community relations. In addition to analyzing the social consequences of youth migration, the article also proposes reasonable management solutions to minimize negative impacts and support sustainable social development in rural areas. These solutions focus on facilitating local economic development, strengthening community cohesion, improving infrastructure, and developing policies to support families with migrants. From there, the study is expected to contribute a more comprehensive approach to managing labor migration and ensuring the sustainable development of rural communities in the context of strong urbanization in Vietnam.
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Mou, Mayisha Tahsin, Md Mahmudur Rahman e Nusrat Jahan Mim. "Non-Linear Migrations and Urban Resilience". Bhumi, The Planning Research Journal 10, n. 1 (22 agosto 2023): 6–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.4038/bhumi.v10i1.96.
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This paper looks at migrations as an inherent component of urban resilience and critically examines the linear understanding of rural-to-urban migration in urban studies. Based on an eight-month-long qualitative empirical study in Dhaka, Bangladesh, this paper reports how migrants from different rural parts of the country, with their complex experiences around migrations, enter various spatial systems in urban Dhakaranging from shared living to institutional involvements to temporal displacements due to external factors(such as pandemic). This paper also documents how their nonlinear migratory journeys contribute to building a sense of urban resilience toward the uncertainties that various spatial systems offer to them. Drawing from a rich body of literature on urbanization, rural-urban migration, and actor-based resilience, we explain how alternative narratives of non-linear migration studies from our fieldwork can redefine urban resilience from a migrant’s perspective.
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Lee, Hyunsoo, Jaesun Roh, Jin Hwa Jung e Woncheol Jang. "Network analysis of urban-to-rural migration". Korean Journal of Applied Statistics 29, n. 3 (30 aprile 2016): 487–503. http://dx.doi.org/10.5351/kjas.2016.29.3.487.
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Gangopadhyay, Partha. "Endogenous Cycles in Rural to Urban Migration". Journal of Interdisciplinary Economics 27, n. 1 (gennaio 2015): 76–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0260107914560861.
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Ngo, Lan Thi Phuong. "URAL EMPLOYMENTS IN THE MEKONG DELTA AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH URBAN AREAS IN THE SHIFT FROM RICE CULTIVATION TO SHRIMP FARMING". Science and Technology Development Journal 14, n. 3 (30 settembre 2011): 55–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.32508/stdj.v14i3.1997.
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By analyzing dimensions of labor migration in the delta’s rice-to-shrimp communities, this paper suggests that in the present context, the relationship between rural and urban areas cannot be separately analyzed. In this paper, this close relationship is manifested in two aspects of rural employments and rural-urban migration. Those factors of excess labor, limited land, lack of employment, and uncertain conditions in agriculture production are important movitations of labor migration in the delta. Our findings are that having close proximity to industrial and urban areas remains an important drive of rural-urban migration. However, the rapid development of transportation and information which more and more connects rural and urban areas effectively has reduced geographical distance. Consequently, the organic relations between rural and industrial and urban areas have accelerated rural-urban migration. Moreover, rural-migration is also an indicator of unsustainability in agricultural production of the Mekong Delta.
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Chimankar, Digambar Abaji. "Determinants of Rural Outmigration in India". Economic Journal of Nepal 37, n. 1-2 (30 giugno 2014): 40–49. https://doi.org/10.3126/ejon.v37i1-2.75143.
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Migration, the process of changing places from one geographical area to another, is more complex demographic phenomena of population change than fertility and mortality.The process is part and parcel of the human civilization. The present study, Bhandara district in Maharashtra, India is not exception to this phenomenon. The main objective of the study is to look into the determinants and patterns of migration in the district of Bhandara. From the different economic, social and demographic backgrounds, male and female both are migrating for marriage, education and employment. Female are migrating because of marriage and male migrating because of employment. The patterns of migration show that rural to rural to rural migration is more than the urban. It is dominated because of the marriage migration. Male migrants are migrating towards the urban places because of unemployment. Ever married, highly educated, low standard of living persons are migrating more irrespective of their caste, religion and type of family.
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Fauzia, Renata, e Soengwoo Lee. "THE IMPACT OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY ON RURAL TO URBAN MIGRATION IN JAVA, INDONESIA". Jurnal Tataloka 15, n. 4 (1 novembre 2013): 235. http://dx.doi.org/10.14710/tataloka.15.4.235-247.
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This paper investigates if the improvement of agricultural productivity will decrease rural to urban migration. Since rural to urban migration occurs due mainly to disparity between urban and agricultural wage, we assume that boosting agricultural income will reduce migration to urban areas. It is hypothesized that increase in agricultural productivity would result in a rise in agricultural wage, and hence income, ceteris paribus, reduces rural-urban migration. The data used in this study is the 2010 provincial statistics in West Java, Central Java, and East Java, Indonesia. The agricultural productivity and migration equations were estimated by using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS). The research findings may offer the suggestion to reduce rural to urban migration by boosting rural income through focusing the policy on agricultural productivity. Enhancing investment in agricultural sector such as increasing the number of subsidized fertilizer, adding agricultural labor and livestock, increasing education of rural people, and utilizing agricultural land resource are expected to increase agricultural output.Thus, it would also minimize the wage differential between urban and rural area.
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Engelinah Mmalebati, Mahlatji, e Malatji Thabiso Lucky. "An overview of factors contributing to rural-urban migration, a case of Mentz village". EUREKA: Social and Humanities, n. 3 (31 maggio 2024): 83–94. https://doi.org/10.21303/2504-5571.2024.003333.
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Rural urban migration is not a new phenomenon; it has been there for decades. At the dawn of democracy, 1994 South Africa started to experience a high volume of rural urban migration and this was because of opportunities available in the cities. There is a quite a large number of people in the rural communities migrating to cities as a results of lack of development in their communities and this migration process has a serious impact on the rural development. This qualitative study was conducted in the rural village of Mentz in Limpopo Province. Linguistic data was collected through one-on-one interviews with the selected members of the community of Mentz, ward councillors as well as the municipal officials in the Polokwane municipality. The study reveals that there are quite a number of factors that contributes to rural urban migration like better education, access to health facilities and job opportunities. It was also revealed in this study that when there is lack of development in the rural areas, this would lead to rural urban migration. This study recommends that the Polokwane local municipality should undertake a comprehensive approach to infrastructure development. This includes upgrading and expanding road networks to better connect remote areas with urban centers, ensuring smoother transportation of goods and people. The municipality can employ community health workers and mobile clinics to reach even the most isolated areas, ensuring that healthcare services are accessible to all. The Polokwane local municipality can create a more appealing and sustainable environment in rural areas, ultimately reducing the pressure for residents to migrate to urban centers in search of better healthcare opportunities.
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Gao, Li, Zheng Wu e Shu z. Li. "INTERNAL MIGRATION AND HEALTH CHANGES: A LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF CHINESE ADULTS IN MID AND LATER LIFE". Innovation in Aging 3, Supplement_1 (novembre 2019): S796. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igz038.2930.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Abstract Objectives: This study examines the effects of internal migration on health status and health changes among middle-aged and older migrants in China. Methods: Using longitudinal data from the 2011-2015 China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS), this study compares non-migrants with those of recent migrants and earlier migrants in regard to their self-rated health and mental health. OLS and a series of fixed effects models were conducted to examine the effects of migration on health status and health changes. Results: Compared with non-migrants, earlier migrants report better self-rated health but no difference in depression. Our findings demonstrate that recent migrants show better self-rated health changes than non-migrants. In addition, for recent migrants, there are significant changes in self-rated health among rural-to-urban migrants and rural-to-rural migrants, while urban-to-rural migrants and urban-to-urban migrants are not significantly different from non-migrations. Discussion: There are associations between internal migration and self-rated health in China. The effects of migration on health appear to differ by the type of migration. Those who migrated from rural area are mostly likely to be affected by migration. However, migrants from urban area are less affected.
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Nweke, Anselem C. "Rural-Urban Migration in Nigeria, Implication on the Development of the Society: Anambra State as the Focus of the Study". Journal of Public Administration and Governance 9, n. 2 (11 giugno 2019): 209. http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/jpag.v9i2.14912.
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This paper examines the implication of rural- urban migration on Nigeria Society using Anambra state as focus of the study. Cities have been growing both through natural increase and through stampede from rural areas in Nigeria. People migrate to urban areas based on the prevailing conditions they fund themselves and the reasons for the migration vary from one individual to another depending on the situation that informs the decision to migrate. In most rural areas, the effect of rural-urban migration was a rapid deterioration of the rural economy leading to poverty and food scarcity. The cause of the phenomenon has been described as the push factors in the rural areas and the pull factors in the urban areas. The objective of this paper is to identify the implication of rural-urban migration on Nigeria society. It is a survey research. Thus, 1200 questionnaire were distributed among the selected local governments in Anambra State. The analysis was run using Runs test and mode analysis. The result of the analysis found the effect of people migrating from rural areas to urban centres on the society to include: increase in prostitution in the urban centres; increase in squalor settlement in the urban centres; and people are doing all sorts of odd jobs in order to survive in urban centres. The paper therefore recommends that the government should make and implement a policy on provision of functional social amenities such as electricity, pipe borne water etc. in the rural areas. Good schools and qualified teachers should be made available in the rural areas and establishment of industries in both rural and urban areas that will to an extent accommodate unemployed youths.
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Rai, Pushpa. "Unequal Inaccessibility in Health Services Reason for Rural Migration: An Application of Lee's Push Pull Theory". Patan Gyansagar 6, n. 1 (9 luglio 2024): 82–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/pg.v6i1.67636.
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Rural-to-urban migration has been a growing phenomenon in recent years in Nepal. Federal Democratic Republic Nepal is combating the unequal distribution of resources, power and opportunities induced by a unitary and centralized government in the past. The aim of restructuring the state was to eliminate the uneven distribution of services, power and resources distribution in terms of region. Now, Nepal is implementing three levels of governments- federal, provincial, and local government to eliminate existing inequalities and to make powerful local areas. In this sense, rural-urban migration is not a growing phenomenon but is now a reverse situation. Local governments are developing in the local areas, the local people are migrating to cities. So, the objective of this paper is to apply the push-pull theory of migration and interlink Lee's theory and the distribution of health services in rural areas including Diprung Chuichumma Rural Municipality, Khotang. It is based on the positivistic philosophy and its approach is deductive approach. The causes of rural-to-urban migration are both push-pull factors. Unequal inaccessibility in health services between rural and urban areas is the main reason for migration.
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Qi, Ziwei. "An Overview of Rural to Urban Migration in China and Social Challenges". Migration Letters 16, n. 2 (5 aprile 2019): 273–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.33182//ml.v16i2.664.
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The rural to urban migration in China represents one of the greatest internal migrations of people in history as rural populations have moved to cities in response to growing labour demand. One major cause of the increased labour demand was the “Reform and Open Market Policy” initiated at the end of the 1970s. The policy amplified the rural to urban divide by promoting a more thoroughly market-based economy with a corresponding reduction in the importance of agricultural production and a greater emphasis on non-agricultural market sectors. As a result, a series of economic reforms have drastically changed the cultural and social aspects of the rural area over the past three decades. Many social problems have been created due to rural to urban migration. These problems include institutional discrimination because of the restrictive household registration policies; social stigmatisation and discrimination in state-owned employment sectors and among urban residents; psychological distress and feelings of alienation.
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Roy, Debdyuti, Sankar Kumar Acharyaq, Monirul Haque, Amrita Kumar Sarkar e Tapan Kumar Mandal. "Migration Attributes in Adaptation and Its Correlates during Pandemic: The Socio-ecological Interpretation". Indian Journal of Extension Education 59, n. 1 (2023): 75–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.48165/ijee.2023.59116.
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Migration is an integral part of social ecology as well as economic development. The four streams of internal migration are rural-rural, rural-urban, urban-rural, and urban-urban. Rural-urban migration has its inherent linkages to agricultural development. In recent years, COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the process of migration by humongous scale and magnitude. The study was conducted to examine the nature and extent of rural-urban migration, the role, performance and adaptation during migration of family vis-a-vis individual, the inter and intra-level interaction between two sets of variables, and lastly to generate a micro sociological policy based on the empirical research during 2020-21. Three urban and three rural areas of Birbhum district were selected purposively, depending on the prevalence of agricultural and non-agricultural activities. Three hundred respondents were identified through the snowball sampling method. The results show that variables like age, education, family size, income, expenditure, employment and management factor have the highest impact on migration. Also, both the pull and push factors are the main driver of migration.
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Han Gap Un e 한갑원. "Urban-to-Rural Migration andRural Resident Assimilation Measures". Cooperative Management Review 48, n. ll (giugno 2018): 1–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.35443/cmr.2018.48..001.
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Silveira, Jaylson J., Aquino L. Espíndola e T. J. P. Penna. "Agent-based model to rural–urban migration analysis". Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications 364 (maggio 2006): 445–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.physa.2005.08.055.
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Fan, C. Simon, e Oded Stark. "Rural-to-urban migration, human capital, and agglomeration". Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 68, n. 1 (ottobre 2008): 234–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2008.04.003.
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Choi, Yoon-Ji, e Hyo-Yeon Shin. "Factors Influencing Urban to Rural Migration for Farming". Journal of Agricultural Extension & Community Development 23, n. 3 (30 settembre 2016): 335–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.12653/jecd.2016.23.3.0335.
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WAKABAYASHI, Keiko. "MIGRATION FROM RURAL TO URBAN AREAS IN CHINA". Developing Economies 28, n. 4 (dicembre 1990): 503–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1049.1990.tb00195.x.
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Gugler, Josef. "The Son of the Hawk Does Not Remain Abroad: The Urban–Rural Connection in Africa". African Studies Review 45, n. 1 (aprile 2002): 21–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s000202060003153x.
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Abstract:Most rural–urban migrants maintain significant ties with their communities of origin in Africa south of the Sahara. Contrary to “modernist” assumptions that these ties would fade away, they often continue to be strong. This urban–rural connection has important consequences for rural–urban migration, for urban–rural return migration, for the rural economy, and for the political process. To understand the processes underpinning the urban–rural connection we need to distinguish different migration strategies and to deconstruct the notion of “rural.” Depending on their migration strategies, urban residents connect with a range of actors at the rural end: more or less closely related kin, kinship groups, non-kin groups, villages, larger political entities. These connections play out differently for men and women.
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MacDonald, Daniel. "Internal Migration and Sectoral Shift in the Nineteenth-Century United States". Social Science History 45, n. 4 (2021): 843–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/ssh.2021.36.
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AbstractWe study the relationship between internal migration and industrialization in the United States between 1850 and 1880. We use the Linked Representative Samples from IPUMS and find significant amounts of rural-urban and urban-urban migration in New England. Rural-urban migration was mainly driven by agricultural workers shifting to manufacturing occupations. Urban-urban migration was driven by foreign-born workers in manufacturing. We argue that rural-urban migration was a significant factor in US economic development and the structural transformation from agriculture to manufacturing.
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Nguyen Thi Ha, Thanh. "Migration flows to urban areas: characteristics, roles and pressures on urban development in Vietnam". Journal of Science Social Science 68, n. 1 (febbraio 2023): 89–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.18173/2354-1067.2023-0010.
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Migration flows to urban areas is an unavoidable trend in the process of urbanization in both developed and developing countries. In Vietnam, while rural-urban migration flows accounted for a larger proportion in the previous period, up to now, urban-urban migration flows have tended to dominate. This phenomena shows that Vietnam is in the process of urbanization in both breadth and depth. This study was conducted to clarify the main characteristics of urban migration flows in the context of urbanization in Vietnam, with similarities and differences between rural-urban and urban-urban migration flows. In addition, the study points out the main contributions and pressures of this migration flows to urban growth in Vietnam.
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Malik, Asma Seemi. "RURAL URBAN MIGRATION". Professional Medical Journal 22, n. 06 (10 giugno 2015): 674–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.29309/tpmj/2015.22.06.1230.
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Movement towards the urban centers of a country has been found to be acommon element in regards to the population dynamics. These dynamics however have asignificant economic, cultural, political and social impact on the lives of not only the migrantsbut also the place of destination. Through this research, it has been studied as to how therural urban movement in Pakistan impacts the social and cultural dimensions of the place ofdestination as well as those of the migrant. Furthermore, this research focused on findings themeasures taken by the government to curb the issues, however has found that the governmentof Pakistan is not taking any notice at all of the issues that exist. There is no long term vision orpolicy, a plan or implementation that would help in keeping the society and cultural of urbanand rural centers segregated.
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Keopasith, Thiengtham, e Shen Neng. "Then Effects of rural-urban migration on economic status of rural residents". International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science (2147- 4478) 9, n. 6 (27 ottobre 2020): 154–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.20525/ijrbs.v9i6.887.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
The study examined the effects of rural-urban migration on the economic status of rural residents. The study utilized a mixed-methods research approach to collect and analyze data, first, data were collected through a questionnaire from households whose family members migrated to urban centers, and interviews were held with various heads of villages in the study area. The study reveals that the majority of the migrants were able-bodied youth who migrated to urban centers to seek employment and education. Migrants’ families at places of origin benefited from migration of their own relations to urban centers mainly through remittances which enabled them to improve their livelihood as the remittances were spent on daily consumption and investment into business activities. The study recommends that government should formulate policies that would create employment for citizens in rural areas, and encourage the private sector to build industries in rural areas to prevent rural-urban migration. Government and the private sector should also empower rural farmers through the promotion of markets for farm produce in order to improve the income of rural farmers, reduce poverty, improve the quality of life and well-being, increase their happiness, satisfaction, and minimize rural-urban migration. The study findings are limited to developing countries where rural-urban migration is a challenge due to the generally low quality of life in rural areas. Further research on the effects of rural-urban migration on the economic status of rural residents should involve a quantitative analysis of the impact of remittances by migrants on poverty reduction in rural areas.
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Shen, Jianfa. "Rural development and rural to urban migration in China 1978–1990". Geoforum 26, n. 4 (novembre 1995): 395–409. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0016-7185(95)00044-5.
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Khadka, Rajendra. "City Centric Migration and Security Concern in Nepal". Journal of APF Command and Staff College 2, n. 1 (16 dicembre 2019): 89–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/japfcsc.v2i1.26748.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
This article tends to focus on the trend of internal migration and its security concern in Nepal. There are different social and security concerns of migration which are not taken seriously. The repercussion might be in different fields and effects can be seen after short or long epoch. Migration and its linkage with the security are varied. It is the subject of interest for people who want to develop and make their birth land, village or cities prosperous. Current tendency of migration in Nepal indicates that the extensive outmigration of people to foreign countries is either for job or to study. Effects on migrants and communities they leave, rural to urban migration, differ according to the type of migrants, the volume of migration, and the nature of the places involved. The volume is increasing in recent days that people are migrating from rural to urban part of country even in district level. Migrants leaving rural areas are not generally replaced by other migrants. This loss of population in the rural areas and their potential contributions affects the dependency ratio, rates of unemployment and underemployment, levels of human capital, and potential for innovation. This article examines the pattern of migration and also it tries to explore the push and pull factors of migration. The security concerns of migrationऽ which involves different forms like human security, physical security, environmental security etc are analyzed in this article.
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Lai, Juncheng. "From Countryside to City: How Land Property Rights Drive Migration in China". Transactions on Economics, Business and Management Research 4 (26 gennaio 2024): 16–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.62051/2mv43078.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
China’s remarkable economic surge since the 1970s hasn’t erased the pronounced economic disparities across different regions, most notably between rural and urban locales. Rooted in the historical division of land rights and usage stipulated by economic reforms, this urban-rural dichotomy has fostered varied development patterns in infrastructure, primary industries, and foreign trade and investment. At the core of this dichotomy is the contrasting landscape of land property rights—state ownership in urban areas with permissible leaseholds versus collective ownership in rural areas with restrictions on transfer or leasing. This paper investigates how these divergent land property rights regimes have engendered significant migration patterns, predominantly marked by rural to urban migration, in pursuit of better economic prospects. Through a meticulous examination of the Household Responsibility System (HRS) and subsequent agrarian reforms, this paper elucidates how partial property rights and restrictions on land transferability under HRS have had substantial repercussions on domestic migration. The analysis delineates how well-defined and secure property rights, as postulated by prominent theories of property rights, are instrumental in incentivizing migration. When operational, market mechanisms of land property rights enable farmers to lease their lands, thereby fostering migration by reducing the opportunity cost of leaving rural lands. Conversely, in the absence of robust property rights, government mechanisms often lead to forced land acquisitions sans adequate compensation, exacerbating rural-urban income disparities and propelling rural-urban migration. The paper expounds on the multifaceted implications of these migration patterns on economic opportunities, poverty alleviation, and urbanization in China. Additionally, it discusses the ripple effects of rural-urban migration on income disparity and the consequent socioeconomic repercussions. The findings shed light on the complex interrelationship between land property rights and migration, providing a nuanced understanding of China’s urbanization trajectory and its attendant rural-urban disparities. This analysis offers valuable insights for policy formulations aimed at addressing the systemic issues arising from the entrenched land property rights framework, and suggests a pathway towards a more balanced regional economic development and sustainable urbanization in China.
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Samson Olayemi Sennuga, Joseph Bamidele, Bankole Osho-Lagunju, Adebisi Olateju Omole, Mary E. Iheonu e Timipre Joseph Preyor. "Exploring the economic and social impacts of rural-urban migration of youths in Abuja, Nigeria". Global Journal of Research in Science and Technology 1, n. 1 (30 dicembre 2022): 026–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.58175/gjrst.2022.1.1.0013.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
The primary driver of urban unemployment and population pressure in an emerging nation like Nigeria is the phenomena of rural-urban migration, which is primarily sparked by rural "push" forces and urban "pull" factors. This circumstance also has an impact on the healthy growth of rural and urban communities. Despite this, little research is done to assess how it would affect urban residents' quality of life and rural livelihood. To this end, this study is mainly concerned with exploring the economic and social impacts of rural-urban migration of youths, determine the socio-economic characteristics of rural-urban migrant youths in the study area, assessing the impact of rural-urban migrant youths particularly on economic aspects (employment, cost of living, urban informal sectors) in the study area, investigate the impact of in-migration of youths particularly on social services (education, housing, health and other social facilities) in the study area, and investigate the push and pull factor that influence rural-urban migration in Abuja. Questionnaires were given to 210 rural-urban young people who were chosen at random to learn about the issues. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the participant-provided data. Youth from rural and urban migration move to cities in quest of work and to use city services and amenities. Youth migrants have put pressure on the socioeconomic as well as environmental conditions and characteristics of the study region because of the ongoing outflow of rural migrants seeking out urban basic utilities. Because of the high incidence of rural-to-urban migration, Abuja now faces issues such a housing shortage, unemployment, rising cost of living, limited access to social services, an increase in crime, the growth of urban informal sectors, and other challenges.
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Ram, Meetha, Bakhtawar Nizamani e Aazadi Fateh Muhammad. "Context of Rural to Urban Migration and Socio-Economic Empowerment of Women in Pakistan and Philippines; a Systematic Literature Review". Asas Wa Tandhim: Jurnal Hukum, Pendidikan Dan Sosial Keagamaan 4, n. 1 (29 ottobre 2024): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.47200/awtjhpsa.v4i1.2568.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
The movement of people from rural areas towards urban units is understood as rural-to-urban migration. Women empowerment is the process that leads women to ownership of resources, improves their ability to control their lives and families, and allows them to make decisions to develop new strategies in life. The rural-to-urban migration in Pakistan changes the socioeconomic status of women through their engagements in formal job markets and increases earning sources through paid or professional work. In the Philippines, the economic driver is one of the primary and dominant forces for rural-to-urban migration. This study aimed to assess the impacts of migration on women’s socio-economic status. Also, it focused on exploring migration trends and women’s engagement in the labour market after migration in both countries.
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Gacinya, John, e Elijah Kirimi. "Assessing the influence of Rural –Urban migration on human trafficking in Rwanda". Sociology International Journal 6, n. 1 (2021): 16–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.15406/sij.2022.06.00258.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Throughout the world, movement of people has been taking place from the rural characterized by deprivation to the urban mostly endowed with social amenities and economic advancement. As rural-urban influx continues, urban infrastructure is put on strain and this culminates into urban poverty which is a favorable condition for human trafficking. The study indicates that there is a close relationship between rural-urban migration and human trafficking in Rwanda. This is clearly shown by domestic workers, girls and women who flock the urban with hopes for economic advancement but only to suffer prostitution and human trafficking at a later stage. Lee’s migration theory which used push and pull factors was applied to explain the relationship between rural-urban migration and human trafficking. About 7,000 children left the rural to the urban and are potential recruits for human trafficking. Data was collected and analyzed by use of documentary method. Findings indicate there a very close relationship between rural-urban migration and human trafficking. To reduce human trafficking one needs to reverse ruralurban migration by applying rural development projects such as creation of basic social and economic infrastructure as well as promotion of non-farm income sectors in rural areas.
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Kumar, Rajan, Abhishek Singh, Vinod Kumar Tripathi e Girish Chandra Mishra. "Trend and Pattern of Rural-Urban Migration in India". International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences 11, n. 6 (10 giugno 2022): 344–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2022.1106.038.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
The study of internal migration has always fascinated demographers. Rural –Urban migration is an important factor that influences socio-economic development in developing countries. The present study is based on the census data to know the trend and pattern of internal migration as well as the rural-urban migration stream. As per 2011 census, around 450 million (37.2 percent) of population is classified as migrants in India. Finding shows that in 2011, the percentage of the in-migrants to the total population in three states Maharashtra, Delhi and West Bengal accounting about 44% of the total inter-state migrants in the country. The above mentioned three states were at top in 2001 census also with 39.5 % share of the total migrants in the country. Rural to rural migrations have the dominant stream among all the states. In this stream female are more mobile than male. Indian agricultural economy is reflected by this stream.
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DONG, Xin, e Weihua ZHOU. "Housing Affordability and Permanent Migration Intention of Rural-Urban Migrants". Chinese Journal of Urban and Environmental Studies 04, n. 02 (giugno 2016): 1650019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s2345748116500196.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Leading the rural-urban migration is the key to solving the problem of imbalanced urban structure in China; in which the migration will of the rural-urban migrants should not be ignored, especially the permanent will of migration. This paper uses the ratio of rent to income as an indicator of the housing affordability of rural-urban migrants, empirically analyzes the impact of housing affordability on the permanent migration will of rural-urban migrants. It was found that the impact of rent-income ratio is significant and there exists a turning point. Before the point, the ratio is positively correlated with the permanent migration will of rural migrants; whereas after the turning point, they are negatively correlated. Before that point, relative to income of rural migrants, the rents are still bearable and the ratio does not have a negative effect on the migration will, which explains why a large number of rural-urban migrants tend to choose the large-sized cities with higher housing prices, rather than the small and medium-sized cities or small towns with lower housing prices.
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Brockerhoff, Martin, e Hongsook Eu. "Demographic and Socioeconomic Determinants of Female Rural to Urban Migration in Sub-Saharan Africa". International Migration Review 27, n. 3 (settembre 1993): 557–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/019791839302700304.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Data from eight recent Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) in sub-Saharan Africa are used to assess whether fertility, child mortality and other individual-level characteristics motivate or constrain long-term female migration from rural to urban and other rural areas. Findings indicate that the likelihood of rural-urban and rural-rural migration is lowered in most countries when the woman has had two or more recent births, but not when she has had only one birth. Child mortality experience moderately reduces the risk of migration in most countries. The likelihood of rural-urban migration is greatly increased when the woman has attended school, is not married, is in her twenties, or does not belong to the largest ethnic group.
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Chilunga, Felix P., Crispin Musicha, Terence Tafatatha, Steffen Geis, Moffat J. Nyirenda, Amelia C. Crampin e Alison J. Price. "Investigating associations between rural-to-urban migration and cardiometabolic disease in Malawi: a population-level study". International Journal of Epidemiology 48, n. 6 (11 ottobre 2019): 1850–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyz198.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Abstract Background The extent to which rural-to-urban migration affects risk for cardiometabolic diseases (CMD) in Africa is not well understood. We investigated prevalence and risk for obesity, diabetes, hypertension and precursor conditions by migration status. Methods In a cross-sectional survey in Malawi (February 2013–March 2017), 13 903 rural, 9929 rural-to-urban migrant and 6741 urban residents (≥18 years old) participated. We interviewed participants, measured blood pressure and collected anthropometric data and fasting blood samples to estimate population prevalences and odds ratios, using negative binomial regression, for CMD, by migration status. In a sub-cohort of 131 rural–urban siblings-sets, migration-associated CMD risk was explored using conditional Poisson regression. Results In rural, rural-to-urban migrant and urban residents, prevalence estimates were; 8.9, 20.9 and 15.2% in men and 25.4, 43.9 and 39.3% in women for overweight/obesity; 1.4, 2.9 and 1.9% in men and 1.5, 2.8 and 1.7% in women for diabetes; and 13.4, 18.8 and 12.2% in men and 13.7, 15.8 and 10.2% in women for hypertension. Rural-to-urban migrants had the greatest risk for hypertension (adjusted relative risk for men 1.18; 95% confidence interval 1.04–1.34 and women 1.17: 95% confidence interval 1.05–1.29) and were the most screened, diagnosed and treated for CMD, compared with urban residents. Within sibling sets, rural-to-urban migrant siblings had a higher risk for overweight and pre-hypertension, with no evidence for differences by duration of stay. Conclusions Rural-to-urban migration is associated with increased CMD risk in Malawi. In a poor country experiencing rapid urbanization, interventions for the prevention and management of CMD, which reach migrant populations, are needed.
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Haque, M. Ershadul, e M. Mazharul Islam. "Rural to Urban Migration and Household Living Conditions in Bangladesh". Dhaka University Journal of Science 60, n. 2 (3 agosto 2012): 253–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/dujs.v60i2.11529.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
This study examines the relationships between rural to urban migration status and household living conditions, using the 2007 Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS) data. The analysis finds significant living condition advantage of rural-urban migrants and urban natives over rural-natives, primarily linked to migration selectivity by education and occupation. Once the independent effects of education and occupation are controlled, association between migration status and living conditions remain significant but living condition advantage of rural-urban migrants and urban natives over rural natives fall down. The results imply that promoting higher education and opportunities for employment outside the agricultural or labour sectors (pull factor) are more likely to yield improved living conditions in Bangladesh.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/dujs.v60i2.11529 Dhaka Univ. J. Sci. 60(2): 253-257, 2012 (July)
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Al-Maruf, Abdullah, A. K. M. Kanak Pervez, Pradip Kumar Sarker, Md Saifur Rahman e Jorge Ruiz-Menjivar. "Exploring the Factors of Farmers’ Rural–Urban Migration Decisions in Bangladesh". Agriculture 12, n. 5 (19 maggio 2022): 722. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12050722.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
In Bangladesh, rural–urban migration is widespread. Many earlier studies discussed the factors, patterns, causes, and consequences and the socio-economic and environmental impact of migration from the general perspective. However, rural–urban migration with a particular focus on particular communities or migrants’ employment profiles, for instance, farmers, is poorly described. In contrast, many farmers move from rural to urban areas every year in Bangladesh. However, the factors that affect farmers’ rural-to-urban migration are a primary concern to academia and key actors, as the country’s economy mainly depends on agriculture and farming. This paper, therefore, aimed to identify the underlying factors of the rural–urban (R–U) migration of farmers in Bangladesh. Data for this study came from phone interviews conducted with 254 migrant farmers living in city districts in Bangladesh. We adopted a three-step approach to select and identify factors that impacted farmers’ decision to move from rural to urban settings. First, we reviewed the extant literature and compiled more than 70 variables of interest relevant to farmers’ migration. Second, 30 variables were selected for data collection after consultations with key informants (KIIs) and informal discussions (IDs) with farmers and local community leaders. Besides, the Q-methodology was used to assess the level of importance of the selected variables. Lastly, principal component analysis (PCA) was performed to extract salient dimensions of farmers’ rural-to-urban migration, where 21 variables were detected that consistently exceeded a threshold value of 0.50 of communality for further analysis. Our findings show that six dimensions—i.e., individual, household, economic, attitudinal, spatial, and climate-induced extremes—significantly influence and contribute to rural urban migration decisions for farmers. Further, our results indicated that age, agricultural knowledge, household debt, seasonal famine/poverty (Monga), unemployment in rural areas, availability of anticipated job opportunities in urban areas, shortage of agricultural inputs, and river erosion significantly influenced farmers’ decision to leave their farms in Bangladesh. Findings from this study may be used as inputs in predictive models and benchmark guidelines for assessing trends and patterns of rural-to-urban migration and for the formulation of policy and programs targeting domestic migration in Bangladesh for proper urban planning and further rural development.
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Chen, Qianqian, Ruifa Hu, Yiduo Sun e Chao Zhang. "How Does Rural–Urban Migration Experience Affect Arable Land Use? Evidence from 2293 Farmers in China". Land 9, n. 11 (23 ottobre 2020): 400. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/land9110400.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Return migrants play an increasingly important role in agricultural production in China and other developing countries. However, the effect of rural–urban migration experience on farmers’ arable land use remains unclear. This study aims to fill this gap using data from a survey of 2293 farmers consisting of 586 return migrants and 1707 non-migrants in China. We employ the treatment effects model to account for the self-selectivity of rural–urban migration experience arising from observable and unobservable factors. The results show that after accounting for the self-selectivity bias, the rural–urban migration experience significantly increases farmers’ arable land use by 22%. Meanwhile, the positive effect of rural–urban migration experience on arable land use differs by farmers’ age group and region. While rural–urban migration experience increases arable land use for farmers aged below 65 years old by 29%, it shows no significant effect on arable land use for farmers aged 65 years old and above. In addition, there is a positive relationship between rural–urban migration experience and arable land use in Shaanxi, Shandong, and Zhejiang. However, there is no significant effect of rural–urban migration experience on arable land use. On such a basis, we discuss several important implications for policies related to arable land use in China.
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Dombio, Rose Rosana, e Rose Namara. "Understanding Rural – Urban Migration in Uganda’s Refugee Camps Authors". African Journal of Governance and Development (AJGD) 13, n. 1 (30 luglio 2024): 1–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.36369/2616-9045/2024/v13i1a1.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
With continued conflicts all over the world, more refugees will continue migrating to countries they consider safe. According to Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung and Young Leaders Think Tank (2017), refugees prefer dwelling in urban areas, which can be attributed to the global urbanisation phenomenon. This paper examines the factors influencing rural-urban migration to inform refugee management in urban settings. According to the Office of the Prime Minister, Uganda Refugee Statistics of September 2023, Uganda was host to over 1.5 million refugees, mainly from, South Sudan, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Somalia, Burundi, Eritrea and Rwanda. These refugees are registered in the rural settlements (refugee camps) as provided for by Uganda’s legal framework on the management of refugees, which framework also only recognises refugees in the capital Kampala as urban refugees. However, the landscape has evolved as some refugees have self-settled in various urban centres across Uganda, rapidly increasing the urban population and stressing urban services. Our study findings in Koboko Municipality show various personal, push and pull factors responsible for the refugees’ decision for rural-urban migration. These factors relate to demographic age, education level, gender, better social services, payable employment, economic activities, and utilisation of skills among others. The findings signal the need to recognise and plan for urban refugees in urban areas other than Kampala City. Urbanisation is a factor in refugee management in Uganda. Keywords: Urban refugee, Rural-urban migration, Koboko municipality, Uganda
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Khanam, Taslima. "Threat perception of the rural-urban migration as a linkage to the rise of crime: Bangladesh perspective". IIUC Studies 13 (29 luglio 2018): 69–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/iiucs.v13i0.37647.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
At present the rise of urban crime falls within the gripping focus of criminal justice and criminology. Researchers endeavor to figure out urban schemes of crime which linked with rural-urban migration. Although, rural-urban migration mostly concerns the subject of sociology, this article viewed from jurisprudential perspectives under the sociological school to study social doctrines in relation with the migration as social phenomena and to criticize as to their relation to social condition and social progress. This observable fact of rural-urban migration could also be apprehended as a supply of the intensifying and distressing crisis in urban areas which is rising violent behavior and criminal activities. This article uncovers the cause and effect of increasing crime under interrelation between migration and the security précised by the law and order environment. The author finds the needs and changes of the society due to the migration of a huge mass of people from rural to urban areas in Bangladesh. Finally, the paper recommends the balance of conflicting interests from social, political and ethical stance to facilitating the policies and laws concerned.IIUC Studies Vol.13 December 2016: 69-82
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Crankshaw, Owen, e Jacqueline Borel-Saladin. "Causes of urbanisation and counter-urbanisation in Zambia: Natural population increase or migration?" Urban Studies 56, n. 10 (12 settembre 2018): 2005–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0042098018787964.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
This article addresses the debate over the causes of urbanisation and counter-urbanisation in Zambia: Are urbanisation and counter-urbanisation caused mostly by net migration or are they caused mostly by the natural growth or decline of the urban population? Using population censuses, we apply the intercensal forward survival ratio method to measure net migration and the natural population growth of urban and rural areas in 1990, 2000 and 2010. The results show that the most important cause of urbanisation and counter-urbanisation was net migration rather than natural urban population growth or decline. Although natural urban population growth was roughly twice that of net migration, this had very little influence on urbanisation because it was matched by the natural growth of the rural population. We also address the causes of migration by examining employment trends. These results indicate that economic decline during the 1990s resulted in decreased urban employment and a dramatic rise in urban unemployment, which in turn caused migration from urban to rural areas. Conversely, during the 2000s, absolute employment grew and unemployment decreased, which corresponded with increased rural–urban migration (resulting in net urbanisation). Our findings also show that even during the period of net out-migration from urban areas and high urban unemployment levels, the resident urban-born workforce continued to grow strongly through natural increase. Thus, these results also show that urban population growth can increase substantially in the absence of urban economic growth, thereby increasing urban unemployment and urban–rural migration.
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Li, Weilong. "Rural-urban Migration and Overweight Status in Low- and Middle-income Countries: Evidence from Longitudinal Data in Indonesia". International Journal of Global Sustainability 8, n. 1 (7 settembre 2024): 21. http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/ijgs.v8i1.22239.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
With rapid urbanization and intensive rural-urban migration, being overweight has become an increasingly common source of health risks in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). However, the impact of rural-urban migration on overweight status is understudied in the LMIC context. Previous studies primarily used cross-sectional data, failing to adjust for migration health selection. Furthermore, the potential gender pattern in the impact of rural-urban migration remained unclear, and the potential cumulative effect of the duration of urban residence among migrants was rarely examined with longitudinal data. Meanwhile, the mediating effects of health behavioral factors were poorly understood. Using data from the fourth and fifth waves of the Indonesia Family Life Survey (IFLS) and employing fixed-effects (FE) models (N=7267), this study provided new evidence on the impact of rural-urban migration on overweight status across time and gender. Findings suggest that rural-urban migration significantly and positively predicted being overweight, and the association was significantly stronger among women than men. The results also show that years lived in urban areas did not significantly predict overweight among migrants, and that mediating health-related behaviors did little to explain adverse weight outcomes of migrants. As the number of rural-urban migrants continues growing, LMIC governments should implement health interventions aiming for healthy weight status among migrant communities. Meanwhile, gender-specific programs targeting women should be considered. Future research should explore other potential mediators of the link between rural-urban migration and overweight.
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Zhang, Zhuoni, Jerf W. K. Yeung e Tae Yeun Kim. "Rural to urban migration and distributive justice in contemporary China". Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 27, n. 1 (30 gennaio 2018): 80–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0117196817752792.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
This paper examines perceptions of micro justice and macro justice in contemporary China, focusing on comparisons among rural–urban migrants, urban locals and rural villagers. It puts forward three possibilities concerning distributive justice among rural–urban migrants relative to other groups, based on the social position hypothesis, reference group hypothesis, and subjective mobility hypothesis. Data from the 2010 Chinese General Social Survey largely support the reference group hypothesis. Rural–urban migrants are significantly more likely than urban locals to view their income level and society as fair, and the difference in perceived fairness of own income between the two groups varies by income level. Rural villagers and rural–urban migrants hold similar views on micro justice and macro justice. This paper contributes to the existing literature by suggesting that: (1) socio-economic status is not necessarily positively associated with favorable views of the current distributive system; and (2) social comparisons may play a more important role.
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Meagher, Kate. "Shifting the Imbalance". Journal of Asian and African Studies 32, n. 1-2 (1997): 81–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685217-90007283.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
In many African countries, high rates of migration have often been blamed on the "urban bias" in the resource allocations of the state. While the urban areas have benefited from investments, the rural areas have suffered depletion, thereby widening the gap in incomes and basic facilities between the two areas. Inevitably, there has been massive migration from rural to urban areas in search of the "good life." This population explosion in urban areas has had its attendant strain on facilities. One school of thought has suggested that the Structural Adjustment Program would address imbalances by shifting rural-urban terms of trade decisively in favour of rural producers and thereby encouraging a "return migration." Another school of thought has disputed the predictions that SAP would relieve the urban areas of their burden, however. An examination of the impact of SAP on population movement between rural and urban areas in northern Nigeria supports this sceptical view; SAP has not stemmed rural-urban migration.
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Zhang, Nan. "MIGRATION OVER THE LIFE COURSE AND LATER-LIFE DEPRESSION IN CONTEMPORARY CHINA". Innovation in Aging 7, Supplement_1 (1 dicembre 2023): 661–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igad104.2151.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Abstract Migrating between rural and urban areas over the life course profoundly shapes the conditions of later life. In the Chinese context, living in urban areas with an urban Hukou is associated with socioeconomic advantage. This study is among the first attempt to investigate how migration into urban areas in China is related to these processes and the association with risk of depression in later life by focusing on the timing and the type of migration (rural-urban residential mobility and/or institutional transition of Hukou status) of migration. Using data from China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study, we found strong associations between migration over the life course and risk of depression in later life in China. The timing and type of migration appears to play an important role. In-situ urbanisation is associated with lower depression scores in later life, and these effects are greater for in-situ urbanisation occurring in middle age compared with young adulthood. Forced urban-rural migration is associated with improved mental wellbeing. Formal social protection, particularly having a private pension, contributes substantially to the mental health advantage of social groups with an urban Hukou. Having an urban Hukou origin has an independent protective role in shaping mental wellbeing in later life in China, potentially partly due to the entitlement to a private pension attached to this status. When informal support has weakened in contemporary China, enhanced formal social protection in the form of adequate pensions should be put in place to mitigate structural inequalities associated with migration in old age.