Auswahl der wissenschaftlichen Literatur zum Thema „AID/APOBEC family, APOBEC1, APOBEC3A, RNA editing“

ABSTRACT The activation-induced deaminase/apolipoprotein B-editing catalytic subunit 1 (AID/APOBEC) family comprises four groups of proteins. Both AID, a lymphoid-specific DNA deaminase that triggers antibody diversification, and APOBEC2 (function unknown) are found in all vertebrates examined. In contrast, APOBEC1, an RNA-editing enzyme in gastrointestinal cells, and APOBEC3 are restricted to mammals. The function of most APOBEC3s, of which there are seven in human but one in mouse, is unknown, although several human APOBEC3s act as host restriction factors that deaminate human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication intermediates. A more primitive function of APOBEC3s in protecting against the transposition of endogenous retroelements has, however, been proposed. Here, we focus on mouse APOBEC2 (a muscle-specific protein for which we find no evidence of a deaminating activity on cytidine whether as a free nucleotide or in DNA) and mouse APOBEC3 (a DNA deaminase which we find widely expressed but most abundant in lymphoid tissue). Gene-targeting experiments reveal that both APOBEC2 (despite being an ancestral member of the family with no obvious redundancy in muscle) and APOBEC3 (despite its proposed role in restricting endogenous retrotransposition) are inessential for mouse development, survival, or fertility.

Abstract A mutational signature consistent with APOBEC (apolipoprotein B mRNA editing enzyme, catalytic polypeptide) activity has been identified in somatic mutations found in large-scale surveys of ultra-deep sequencing data from many human cancers including chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). APOBEC is a cytidine deaminase family made up of eleven genes, including AID (activation-induced cytidine deaminase) and APOBEC3B, both of which have been implicated in somatic mutation in various cancers, including CLL. These observations have led to the hypothesis that APOBEC cytidine deaminases may be driving somatic mutations leading to the development of more aggressive cancers. Therefore, we examined APOBEC gene family member RNA expression levels in CLL to test for correlations with expression levels and patient outcome. We further examined if CLL cells generated de novo APOBEC family member mutational patterns in the immunoglobulin variable region gene (IGHV) after implantation in a mouse xenograft model of CLL. CLL peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and associated clinical data were collected from patients after informed consent as approved by the Institutional Review Board at the North Shore-Long Island Jewish Health System and in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration. CLL samples were chosen based on availability with no pre-established inclusion/exclusion criteria. CLL RNA expression levels were examined by microarray or quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR). For microarray studies, CLL B cells were purified prior to RNA isolation and acquisition of microarray expression data using Illumina Human WG6 and HT12 bead chips, followed by quantile normalization using GenomeStudio software (Illumina). For qPCR, RNA expression from CLL PBMCs was measured relative to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase gene expression by Taqman assay with Roche UPL probes and LightCycler 480. To examine de novo mutations in CLL, the IGHV region was ultra-deep sequenced (Roche 454 FLX system) from human CLL cells recovered from the NOD/Shi-scid,γcnull (NSG) xenograft mouse model of CLL as approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee at the North Shore-Long Island Jewish Health System. CLL patient (N = 65) RNA expression by microarray showed very low levels of APOBEC1, 2, 3A, 3B, 3D, 4, and AID, modest levels of APOBEC3C and 3H, and high levels of APOBEC3F and 3G. Higher AID expression levels significantly correlated (P <0.05) with shorter time to first treatment (TFT), which was anticipated based on previous reports. Interestingly APOBEC3B and APOBEC3F expression differences showed possible trends correlating with worse patient outcome. Therefore, we tested select APOBEC gene family members by qPCR. For qPCR, we utilized the CLL patient cohort (N= 83) previously found to indicate that AID expression was a risk factor for worse patient outcome in a multivariate analysis (Patten et al. 2012 Blood 120:4802). RNA expression by qPCR followed the same pattern as the microarray data: AID and APOBEC3B had very low levels, APOBEC3H had modest levels, and APOBEC3F and 3G had high levels. Similar to AID, patients could be grouped based on the presence or absence of detectable APOBEC3B, with its presence showing a significant correlation (P <0.05) with worse TFT and overall survival. Higher levels of APOBEC3F and 3H showed a trend towards a correlation with shorter TFT, while differences in APOBEC3G expression had no significant correlation with patient outcome. Thus, not only did we confirm the correlation of AID expression with worse patient outcome, but we also found APOBEC3B and potentially APOBEC3F and 3H correlate with worse patient outcome. To test if CLL cells can acquire de novo mutations indicative of APOBEC gene family member activity, human CLL cells were transferred into NSG mice. After CLL cells proliferated for 4-14 weeks in this xenograft model, the IGHV region was amplified, ultra-deep sequenced, and analyzed for specific mutational characteristics of various APOBEC gene family members. The results of these ongoing analyses will be presented. In conclusion, the expression levels of the APOBEC gene family members AID, APOBEC3B, and potentially APOBEC3F and 3H, correlate with worse patient outcome. These data are consistent with the hypothesis that APOBEC gene family member activity may promote new mutations at sites outside the IG gene loci leading to the evolution of aggressive CLL. Disclosures Barrientos: Pharmacyclics, Celgene, and Genentech: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Gilead, Pharmacyclics, and AbbVie: Research Funding.

Abstract The APOBEC family of cytidine deaminases include AID (activity induced deaminase) and 10 related APOBEC enzymes (A1,A2,A3A,A3B,A3C,A3D,A3F,A3G,A3H and A4). AID is well studied for its role in somatic hyper mutation and class switch recombination of immunoglobulin genes. APOBECs (apolipoprotein B mRNA editing enzyme, catalytic polypeptide-like) have been shown to have roles in mRNA editing and in antiviral immunity. Recently, a causal role for the AID/APOBECs in inducing somatic mutations in myeloma has been proposed and we have previously published that APOBEC signature mutations as a frequent event in Myeloma. We have also observed that APOBEC-mediated mutations may account for mutations associated with progression of smoldering myeloma to MM. We further investigated the role of APOBEC in genomic changes in MM and observed that APOBEC expression and activity is elevated in myeloma cell lines as well as patient samples. Using knockdown and over expression approaches, we showed that depletion of APOBECs in myeloma cell lines reduces genomic instability. Following APOBEC3G knock down we observed decreased DNA damage (by g-H2AX), decrease in acquisition of new copy number events over time, and reduced mutational load, strongly suggesting that inhibiting APOBECs could be a potential approach to reduce genome evolution in MM. We next investigated the effect of APOBEC inhibition on myeloma cell proliferation. We observed that Sh-RNA-based APOBEC knock down in MM1S and H929 MM cell lines, led to significant inhibition of MM cell proliferation, and induction of apoptotic cell death. Associated with APOBEC knockdown, we also observed increased levels of Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1B (p27Kip1) at both RNA and protein level. By immunoprecipitation we found that APOBEC3G interacts and inhibits the RNA binding protein DEAD-END 1 (DND1), thereby preventing it from inhibiting miR-221-mediated targeting of p27 transcripts. Knockdown of DND1, or over-expression of miR-221 in APOBEC-depleted cells rescued the cell proliferation defects with concomitant decrease in p27 levels. These results show that APOBCs bind to and sequester DND1, leading to miR-221-mediated depletion of p27. In the absence of APOBEC, DND1 prevents the degradation of p27 mRNA, leading to elevated p27 levels and inhibition of cell cycle, suggesting a role for APOBECs in regulating MM cell proliferation that might be independent of its RNA/DNA mutator function. Taken together, these results indicate a significant functional role for APOBECs both in genome evolution as well as cell growth in myeloma and may constitute an important therapeutic target. Disclosures Munshi: OncoPep: Other: Board of director.

Members of the APOBEC family of cellular polynucleotide cytidine deaminases, most notably APOBEC3G and APOBEC3F, are potent inhibitors of HIV-1 infection. Wild type HIV-1 infections are largely spared from APOBEC3G/F function through the action of the essential viral protein, Vif. In the absence of Vif, APOBEC3G/F are encapsidated by budding virus particles leading to excessive cytidine (C) to uridine (U) editing of negative sense reverse transcripts in newly infected cells. This registers as guanosine (G) to adenosine (A) hypermutations in plus-stranded cDNA. In addition to this profoundly debilitating effect on genetic integrity, APOBEC3G/F also appear to inhibit viral DNA synthesis by impeding the translocation of reverse transcriptase along template RNA. Because the functions of Vif and APOBEC3G/F proteins oppose each other, it is likely that fluctuations in the Vif–APOBEC balance may influence the natural history of HIV-1 infection, as well as viral sequence diversification and evolution. Given Vif's critical role in suppressing APOBEC3G/F function, it can be argued that pharmacologic strategies aimed at restoring the activity of these intrinsic anti-viral factors in the context of infected cells in vivo have clear therapeutic merit, and therefore deserve aggressive pursuit.

Abstract The AID/APOBEC family of cytidine deaminase proteins includes AID (activity induced deaminase), and 10 related APOBEC enzymes (A1, A2, A3A, A3B, A3C, A3D, A3F, A3G, A3H and A4). AID has been well-studied for its role in somatic hyper mutation and class switch recombination of immunoglobulin genes whereas APOBECs (apolipoprotein B mRNA editing enzyme, catalytic polypeptide-like) have been shown to have roles in mRNA editing and in antiviral immunity. Dysregulated activity of APOBECs causes C >T transitions or C>G, C>A transversions in DNA. We have recently shown APOBEC signature mutation pattern in multiple myeloma (MM) genomes (Bolli et al Nat. Comm. 2014), and interestingly, the APOBEC mutation signature correlates with sub clonal diversity in myeloma. A role for the AID/APOBECs in generation of somatic mutations has also been proposed in a variety of other cancers based on identification of APOBEC signature mutations In order to understand which APOBECs are dysregulated in myeloma, we performed RNA sequencing analysis of primary myeloma cells from 409 newly-diagnosed MM patients and myeloma cell lines. Our analysis showed elevated expression of several APOBEC family members; mainly A3A, A3B, A3C, and A3G. We then optimized a plasmid-based functional assay and found high cytidine deaminase activity in extracts from a number of myeloma cell lines and patient derived CD138+ cells compared to CD138+ cells from healthy donors, suggesting that APOBECs are dysregulated in myeloma. We then investigated the impact of elevated APOBEC expression/function on overall genome maintenance and acquisition of genomic changes (such as amplifications, deletions) overtime. We used shRNA-mediated knockdown of specific APOBEC proteins in myeloma cell lines and investigated the acquisition of genomic changes in control and knockdown cells during their growth in culture, using SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism) arrays and WGS (whole genome sequencing) platforms. Our results with both approaches showed significant reduction in the accumulation of copy number changes (both amplifications and deletions) and overall mutation load after APOBEC knockdown. Evaluation with both the SNP and WGS showed that when control and APOBEC knockdown cells were cultured for three weeks, the acquisition of new copy number and mutational changes throughout genome were reduced by ~50%. We next investigated the relationship between APOBEC expression/activity in MM and other DNA repair pathways. Using an in vitro HR activity assay, we measured HR activity in extracts from control and APOBEC knockdown cells. Depletion of APOBEC proteins resulted in 50-80% reduction in in vitro HR activity of the extracts. We also evaluated correlation between HR activity and gene expression using RNA-seq data from myeloma cells derived from 100 patients at diagnosis and identified the genes whose expression correlated with HR activity. Elevated expression of APOBECs 3D, 3G and 3F significantly correlated with high HR activity (R=0.3; P≤0.02), suggesting their relevance to HR. Analyzing genomic copy number information for each patient we have also observed significant correlation between higher expression of A3G and increased genomic instability in this dataset (P=0.0045). In summary, our study shows that dysregulated APOBECs induce mutations and genomic instability, and inhibiting APOBEC activity could reduce the rate of accumulation of ongoing genomic changes. This data sheds light on biology of the disease as well as clonal evolution. Disclosures Munshi: Amgen: Consultancy; Oncopep: Patents & Royalties; Celgene: Consultancy; Janssen: Consultancy; Takeda: Consultancy; Merck: Consultancy; Pfizer: Consultancy.

The APOBEC family of proteins comprises deaminase enzymes that edit DNA and/or RNA sequences. The APOBEC3 subgroup plays an important role on the innate immune system, acting on host defense against exogenous viruses and endogenous retroelements. The role of APOBEC3 proteins in the inhibition of viral infection was firstly described for HIV-1. However, in the past few years many studies have also shown evidence of APOBEC3 action on other viruses associated with human diseases, including HTLV, HCV, HBV, HPV, HSV-1, and EBV. APOBEC3 inhibits these viruses through a series of editing-dependent and independent mechanisms. Many viruses have evolved mechanisms to counteract APOBEC effects, and strategies that enhance APOBEC3 activity constitute a new approach for antiviral drug development. On the other hand, novel evidence that editing by APOBEC3 constitutes a source for viral genetic diversification and evolution has emerged. Furthermore, a possible role in cancer development has been shown for these host enzymes. Therefore, understanding the role of deaminases on the immune response against infectious agents, as well as their role in human disease, has become pivotal. This review summarizes the state-of-the-art knowledge of the impact of APOBEC enzymes on human viruses of distinct families and harboring disparate replication strategies.

Apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing enzyme catalytic polypeptide-like (APOBEC) family proteins restrict retroviruses and retrotransposons by inducing hypermutation or degradation of the replication intermediates through their DNA cytidine deaminase activity. APOBECs can also act as endogenous sources of DNA damage that mutate many human cancers. Accumulation of APOBEC signature mutations is associated with disease progression and poor overall survival in multiple myeloma (Walker et al. Nat Commun, 2015). Among APOBEC3 enzymes, APOBEC3B (A3B) is the only family member that is predominantly located in the nucleus throughout the cell cycle. We previously reported that A3B knockdown decreased cytidine deaminase activity in myeloma cells, suggesting that among APOBECs, A3B plays a major role in cytidine deamination-related mutagenesis in myeloma cells (Yamazaki et al., Sci Rep, 2019). Recent studies showed that cofactors of A3B could affect the functions of A3B: heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins (hnRNPs) interact with surface hydrophobic residues of the N-terminal domain in order to bind to A3B (Xiao et al., Nuc. Acids Res, 2017; Zhang al., Cell Microbiol, 2008); BORF2, an Epstein-Barr viral protein, interacts with the A3B catalytic domain and inhibits A3B DNA cytidine deaminase activity (Cheng et al., Nat Microbiol, 2018). However, the biological mechanisms of how endogenous A3B induces mutations in genomic DNA are still unclear. In this study, we aim to ascertain the cofactors for nucleic acid binding and elucidate the regulatory mechanisms that prevent APOBEC-mediated genomic mutagenesis. Because of the high homology between APOBEC3 proteins, a specific antibody against A3B is not available, and it is difficult to analyze A3B-interaction at the endogenous expression level. To overcome this technical impediment, we used a lentiCRISPR system to insert a FLAG-tag sequence at the C-terminus of the A3B gene in A3B highly expressing myeloma cell lines (AMO1 and RPMI8226). We then conducted A3B-immunoprecipitation with the anti-FLAG M2 antibody, followed by mass spectrometry (MS) analysis to identify potential A3B interacting proteins. MS analysis identified 40 putative interacting proteins and these proteins were clustered largely into two interaction networks: ribonucleoprotein complex and ribosomal-associated proteins. We also performed Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis and revealed that spliceosome, ribosome, and RNA transport were significantly enriched terms. We confirmed the binding between A3B and selected A3B interacting proteins: hnRNPs, interleukin enhancer-binding factor 2 and 3 (ILF2, ILF3) in myeloma cell lines by co-immunoprecipitation assays. Next, we tested the intracellular colocalization of overexpressed A3B and interacting proteins in Hela cells by immunofluorescence microscopy. We found that ILF2 presents strong colocalization with A3B in the nuclei of cells. We also employed density-gradient sedimentation analysis to test if these proteins form high molecular mass (HMM) complexes with A3B in the nucleus using HEK293T cells expressing FLAG-tagged A3B. We detected that ILF2 is one of the components of HMM A3B complexes. To check whether these putative interacting proteins affect A3B cytidine deaminase activity, we next performed an in vitro luminescence-based screening assay (AlphaScreen)using a FLAG-GST protein library which was produced by the wheat cell-free protein production system. We found that hnRNP A1 and ILF2 decreased A3B cytidine deaminase activity. This study provides for the first time a proteomic characterization of A3B interactome in a myeloma cell context. Our findings reveal putative A3B cofactors in myeloma cell lines which may regulate the catalytic activity of A3B. We discuss how these proteins bind A3B and affect its activity in myeloma cells. Disclosures Takaori-Kondo: Pfizer: Honoraria; Janssen: Honoraria; Novartis: Honoraria; Celgene: Honoraria, Research Funding; Bristol-Myers Squibb: Honoraria, Research Funding; Ono: Research Funding; Takeda: Research Funding; Chugai: Research Funding; Kyowa Kirin: Research Funding.

ABSTRACT Retroelements are important evolutionary forces but can be deleterious if left uncontrolled. Members of the human APOBEC3 family of cytidine deaminases can inhibit a wide range of endogenous, as well as exogenous, retroelements. These enzymes are structurally organized in one or two domains comprising a zinc-coordinating motif. APOBEC3G contains two such domains, only the C terminal of which is endowed with editing activity, while its N-terminal counterpart binds RNA, promotes homo-oligomerization, and is necessary for packaging into human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) virions. Here, we performed a large-scale mutagenesis-based analysis of the APOBEC3G N terminus, testing mutants for (i) inhibition of vif-defective HIV-1 infection and Alu retrotransposition, (ii) RNA binding, and (iii) oligomerization. Furthermore, in the absence of structural information on this domain, we used homology modeling to examine the positions of functionally important residues and of residues found to be under positive selection by phylogenetic analyses of primate APOBEC3G genes. Our results reveal the importance of a predicted RNA binding dimerization interface both for packaging into HIV-1 virions and inhibition of both HIV-1 infection and Alu transposition. We further found that the HIV-1-blocking activity of APOBEC3G N-terminal mutants defective for packaging can be almost entirely rescued if their virion incorporation is forced by fusion with Vpr, indicating that the corresponding region of APOBEC3G plays little role in other aspects of its action against this pathogen. Interestingly, residues forming the APOBEC3G dimer interface are highly conserved, contrasting with the rapid evolution of two neighboring surface-exposed amino acid patches, one targeted by the Vif protein of primate lentiviruses and the other of yet-undefined function.

One of the most prevalent epitranscriptomic modifications is RNA editing. In higher eukaryotes, RNA editing is catalyzed by one of two classes of deaminases: ADAR family enzymes that catalyze A-to-I (read as G) editing, and AID/APOBEC family enzymes that catalyze C-to-U. ADAR-catalyzed deamination has been studied extensively. Here we focus on AID/APOBEC-catalyzed editing, and review the emergent knowledge regarding C-to-U editing consequences in the context of human disease.

Abstract Class switching from IgM to IgG and IgA is essential for antiviral immunity and requires activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID), an APOBEC family member with DNA-editing activity. Germinal center (GC) B cells express AID upon activation by CD4+ T cells through CD40 ligand (CD40L) and IL-4. HIV-1 is thought to impair IgG and IgA responses to viral antigens, opportunistic pathogens and vaccines by causing progressive loss of CD4+ T cells and by rendering B cells poorly responsive to CD4+ T cell help. It remains unknown whether HIV-1 targets AID to hamper protective IgG and IgA responses. We found that infected GCs contained less AID, but normal APOBEC3G, an AID-related RNA-editing protein. AID down-regulation was not associated with local loss of CD4+ T cells and CD40L, but rather correlated with decreased activation of AID-inducing transcription factors, such as NF-κB and STAT6, and with increased expression of feedback inhibitors of NF-κB and STAT6, including IκBα, SOCS1 and SOCS3. AID down-regulation also correlated with accumulation of the viral protein Nef in the GC and with trafficking of Nef within membrane channels connecting infected myeloid cells to B cells. Together with our recent in vitro studies showing that Nef penetrates B cells and inhibits class, the present in vivo data suggest that HIV-1 evades protective IgG and IgA responses by targeting the class switch recombinase machinery.

The thesis is focus on RNA editing mediated by two AID/APOBEC family members. The aim of my work was the investigation of possible novel factors that regulate hAPOBEC1 expression or cofactors which help the deaminase to exert its activity. First, I characterised cellular models for their proliferation and clonogenic activities as well as cell cycle distribution evaluating a combinatorial effect of hAPOBEC1 and RBM47 which lead to a decrease in cell growth. I investigated the role of RNA editing beyond the lipid transport by high-throughput sequencing which provided me information regarding new deamination events, RNA stability, and also a differential gene expression in presence or absence of the editosome components. By Differential expression analysis, I got a list of genes that are differentially expressed in clones with hAPOBEC1 and RBM47 which need to be analysed for their biological meaning. From the mRNA-seq I got a consistent list of putative edited sites even though some of them were validated with no success. Moreover, I applied a genetic library screen to activate a high number of genes in cells expressing RBM47 to evaluate an eventual up-regulation of APOBEC1 and find factors which trigger its expression. The cells in which editing happened have been selected thanks to a specific fluorescent reporter containing ApoB target. The results have still to be analysed. The second aim of my project was to study APOBEC3A regulation, by chemical and genetic screenings, through the development of a specific sensitive reporter system to detect APOBEC3A-mediated RNA editing. In this work I presented the design of an artificial fluorescent reporter containing a target of APOBEC3A like SDHB or DDOST properly built to produce a stop codon in the middle of the target and optimised for the levels of editing. I checked its specificity for APOBEC3A and not for other APOBEC proteins like APOBEC1 and APOBEC3B. This let me also detected a novel putative editing site mediated by APOBEC3A by Sanger sequencing. Moreover, I designed another fluorescent reporter system able to evaluate APOBEC3A RNA editing by fluorescent microscopy. I created stable cell lines expressing all the lentiviral reporter plasmids to further investigate induction of endogenous APOBEC3A and its regulation. In a future perspective the dual fluorescent reporter could be a useful tool to identify novel RNA editing targets upon the application of an activation library screen.