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1
Center, Langley Research, und United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration., Hrsg. Independent analysis of the space station node modal test data. Hampton, Va: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Langley Research Center, 1997.
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2
Frequency tables for scoring Rorschach responses: Code charts, normal and rare details, F+ and F- responses, popular responses, original responses. 5. Aufl. Western Psychological Services, 1986.
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3
Willis, J. R. Derivation of induction motor models from standstill frequency response tests. Electric Power Research Institute, 1991.
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4
Elwood, Mark. Selection of subjects for study. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199682898.003.0005.
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This chapter discussed principles of subject selection and defines target, source, eligible, entrant and participant populations. Selection issues and selection bias may affect internal validity, external validity, and modify the hypothesis being tested. It shows methods to reduce selection biases and to define participation rate and response rate. Principles for the selection of the exposed or test group and the comparison groups are shown for all studies. In randomised trials, intention-to-treat analysis, contamination, blinding, data monitoring, stopping rules, the CONSORT format, and trial registration are discussed. For observational studies, it shows the purpose of control groups, issues of definition and choice of controls, institutional and community controls, and frequency and individual matching. Many examples are given.
5
B, Toscano William, DeRoshia Charles und Ames Research Center, Hrsg. An evaluation of the frequency and severity of motion sickness incidences in personnel within the Command and Control Vehicle (C2V). Moffett Field, Calif: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Ames Research Center, 1998.
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6
Niaudet, Patrick, und Alain Meyrier. Minimal change disease. Herausgegeben von Neil Turner. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0056_update_001.
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Minimal change disease is characteristically responsive to high-dose corticosteroids. As this is the most common cause of nephrotic syndrome in children, and responses are usually prompt, response to 60 mg/m2/day of oral prednisolone (max. 80 mg) is often used as a diagnostic test. Adults respond more slowly and have a wider differential diagnosis, and often a high risk of side effects, so therapy is not recommended without confirmation by renal biopsy. Then first-line treatment is again prednisolone or prednisone, at 1 mg/kg/day (max. 60 mg). KDIGO and other treatment protocols recommend 6 weeks treatment at full dose then 6 weeks at half dose. Shorter protocols seem to increase the risk of relapse. Children frequently have a relapsing pattern of disease which may be managed by less extreme steroid exposure, but for which second-line therapies may be needed to avoid severe steroid side effects. This can arise in adults too. Some children and adults have steroid-dependent or steroid-resistant disease, leading to earlier initiation of treatment with second-line agents. These include levamisole, calcineurin inhibitors, mycophenolate mofetil, and anti-B cell antibodies. The evidence for these and recommendations for relapsing/resistant disease are given in this chapter.
7
Cortigiani, Lauro, und Eugenio Picano. Stress echocardiography. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199599639.003.0013.
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Stress echocardiography is a widely used method for assessing coronary artery disease, due to the high diagnostic and prognostic value. While inducible ischaemia predicts an unfavourable outcome, its absence is associated with a low risk of future events. The evaluation of coronary flow reserve by Doppler adds prognostic information to that of standard stress test. Stress echocardiography is indicated in cases when exercise testing is unfeasible, uninterpretable, or gives ambiguous result, and when ischaemia during the test is frequently a false positive response, as in hypertensives, women and patients with left ventricular hypertrophy. Viability detection represents another application of stress echocardiography. The documentation of viable myocardium predicts an improved outcome following revascularization in ischaemic and following resynchronization therapy in idiopathic cardiomyopathy. Moreover, stress echocardiography can aid significantly in clinical decision making in patients with valvular heart disease through dynamic assessment of mitral insufficiency, transvalvular gradients and pulmonary artery systolic pressure. Among the various stress modalities, exercise is safer than pharmacologic stress, in which major complications are three times more frequent with dobutamine than with dipyridamole. Stress echocardiography provides similar accuracy than perfusion scintigraphy but a substantially lower cost, without environmental impact and with no radiation biohazards for the patient.
8
Fhima, Ilanah, und Dev S. Gangjee. The Confusion Test in European Trade Mark Law. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199674336.001.0001.
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Historically, likelihood of confusion has been the core infringement test for trade mark law, and it remains the most frequently applied test in infringement actions by far. However, there are noticeable differences in how it is applied by the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), the General Court, and national courts; and questionable outcomes when it is applied in novel situations. This book is the first comprehensive and systematic account of the confusion test within the harmonised European trade mark system. It considers how the test is applied by national trade mark registries across EU member states, by the European Union Intellectual Property Office (EUIPO), by national courts, and by the CJEU. It offers practical guidance, while also evaluating the viability of more recent developments such as initial-interest confusion, post-sale confusion and consumer responses to uses of trade marks on the internet. The book analyses three distinct strata of legal doctrine: the decisions of the CJEU, including the General Court; the extensive body of decisions by EUIPO; and the application of harmonised trade mark law by courts of member states, focusing on leading decisions as well as wayward ones. It also draws upon the legal position in the US to illuminate these issues.
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Hook, Sharon, Graeme Batley, Michael Holloway, Paul Irving und Andrew Ross, Hrsg. Oil Spill Monitoring Handbook. CSIRO Publishing, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/9781486306350.
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Oil spills can be difficult to manage, with reporting frequently delayed. Too often, by the time responders arrive at the scene, the slick has moved, dissolved, dispersed or sunk. This Oil Spill Monitoring Handbook provides practical advice on what information is likely required following the accidental release of oil or other petroleum-based products into the marine environment.
The book focuses on response phase monitoring for maritime spills, otherwise known as Type I or operational monitoring. Response phase monitoring tries to address the questions – what? where? when? how? how much? – that assist responders to find, track, predict and clean up spills, and to assess their efforts. Oil spills often occur in remote, sensitive and logistically difficult locations, often in adverse weather, and the oil can change character and location over time. An effective response requires robust information provided by monitoring, observation, sampling and science.
The Oil Spill Monitoring Handbook completely updates the Australian Maritime Safety Authority’s 2003 edition of the same name, taking into account the latest scientific advances in physical, chemical and biological monitoring, many of which have evolved as a consequence of major oil spill disasters in the last decade. It includes sections on the chemical properties of oil, the toxicological impacts of oil exposure, and the impacts of oil exposure on different marine habitats with relevance to Australia and elsewhere. An overview is provided on how monitoring integrates with the oil spill response process, the response organisation, the use of decision-support tools such as net environmental benefit analysis, and some of the most commonly used response technologies. Throughout the text, examples are given of lessons learned from previous oil spill incidents and responses, both local and international.
General guidance of spill monitoring approaches and technologies is augmented with in-depth discussion on both response phase and post-response phase monitoring design and delivery. Finally, a set of appendices delivers detailed standard operating procedures for practical observation, sample and data collection.
The Oil Spill Monitoring Handbook is essential reading for scientists within the oil industry and environmental and government agencies; individuals with responder roles in industry and government; environmental and ecological monitoring agencies and consultants; and members of the maritime sector in Australia and abroad, including officers in ports, shipping and terminals.
10
Proudfoot, Diane, und B. Jack Copeland. Artificial Intelligence. Herausgegeben von Eric Margolis, Richard Samuels und Stephen P. Stich. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195309799.013.0007.
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In this article the central philosophical issues concerning human-level artificial intelligence (AI) are presented. AI largely changed direction in the 1980s and 1990s, concentrating on building domain-specific systems and on sub-goals such as self-organization, self-repair, and reliability. Computer scientists aimed to construct intelligence amplifiers for human beings, rather than imitation humans. Turing based his test on a computer-imitates-human game, describing three versions of this game in 1948, 1950, and 1952. The famous version appears in a 1950 article inMind, ‘Computing Machinery and Intelligence’ (Turing 1950). The interpretation of Turing's test is that it provides an operational definition of intelligence (or thinking) in machines, in terms of behavior. ‘Intelligent Machinery’ sets out the thesis that whether an entity is intelligent is determined in part by our responses to the entity's behavior. Wittgenstein frequently employed the idea of a human being acting like a reliable machine. A ‘living reading-machine’ is a human being or other creature that is given written signs, for example Chinese characters, arithmetical symbols, logical symbols, or musical notation, and who produces text spoken aloud, solutions to arithmetical problems, and proofs of logical theorems. Wittgenstein mentions that an entity that manipulates symbols genuinely reads only if he or she has a particular history, involving learning and training, and participates in a social environment that includes normative constraints and further uses of the symbols.
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Walsh, Bruce, und Michael Lynch. Hitchhiking and Selective Sweeps. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198830870.003.0008.
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When a favorable allele increases in frequency, it alters the coalescent structure (the pattern of times back to a common ancestor) at linked sites relative to that under drift. This creates patterns of sequence polymorphism than can be used to potentially detect ongoing, or very recent, selection. This idea of a neutral allele hitchhiking up to high frequency when coupled to a favorable allele is the notion of a selective sweep, and this chapter reviews the considerable body of associated population-genetics theory on sweeps. Different types of sweeps leave different signatures, resulting in the very diverse collection of tests of selection discussed in Chapter 9. Either a history of recurrent sweeps, or of background selection, results in linked genomic regions of reduced effective population size. This implies that more mutations in sich regions are efficiently neutral, which can result in increased substitution rates and lower codon bias. Finally, the chapter examines the theory for when response is expected to start from existing variation, as opposed to waiting for the appearance of new mutations.
12
Di Lazzaro, Vicenzo. Transcranial stimulation measures explored by epidural spinal cord recordings. Herausgegeben von Charles M. Epstein, Eric M. Wassermann und Ulf Ziemann. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568926.013.0014.
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In response to a single-electrical stimulus to the motor cortex an electrode placed in the medullary pyramid or on the dorsolateral surface of the cervical spinal cord records a series of high-frequency waves. This has been shown by various studies conducted on animals. Recording from the surface of the spinal cord during spinal cord surgery has provided evidence for the action of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial electrical stimulation (TES) on the human motor cortex. However, the interpretation of this data has been limited. This article explains both types of transcranial stimulation (magnetic or electrical) the direct recording of which shows that transcranial stimulation can evoke several different kinds of descending activities. The output also depends upon the representation of the motor cortex being stimulated.
13
Pierard, Luc A., und Lauro Cortigiani. Stress echocardiography: diagnostic and prognostic values and specific clinical subsets. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198726012.003.0015.
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Stress echocardiography is a widely used method for assessing coronary artery disease, due to its high diagnostic and prognostic value. While inducible ischaemia predicts an unfavourable outcome, its absence is associated with a low risk of future cardiac events. The method provides superior diagnostic and prognostic information than standard exercise electrocardiography and perfusion myocardial imaging in specific clinical subsets, such as women, hypertensive patients, and patients with left bundle branch block. Stress echocardiography allows effective risk assessment also in the diabetic population. The evaluation of coronary flow reserve of the left anterior descending artery by transthoracic Doppler adds diagnostic and prognostic information to that of standard stress test. Stress echocardiography is indicated in the cases when exercise electrocardiography is unfeasible, uninterpretable or gives ambiguous result, and when ischaemia during the test is frequently a false-positive response, as in hypertensive patients, women, and patients with left ventricular hypertrophy. Viability detection represents another application of stress echocardiography. The documentation of a large amount of viable myocardium predicts improved ejection fraction, reverse remodelling, and improved outcome following revascularization in patients with ischaemic cardiomyopathy. Moreover, stress echocardiography can aid significantly in clinical decision-making in patients with valvular heart disease through dynamic assessment of primary or secondary mitral regurgitation, transvalvular gradients, and pulmonary artery systolic pressure, as well as before vascular surgery due to the excellent negative predictive value. Finally, stress echocardiography allows effective risk stratification in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy through evaluation of inducible ischaemia, coronary flow reserve, and intraventricular gradient.
14
Pipitone, Nicolò, Annibale Versari und Carlo Salvarani. Large-vessel vasculitis. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199642489.003.0133.
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Large-vessel vasculitis includes giant cell arteritis (GCA) and Takayasu's arteritis (TAK). GCA affects patients aged over 50, mainly of white European ethnicity. GCA occurs together with polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR) more frequently than expected by chance. In both conditions, females are affected two to three times more often than males. GCA mainly involves large- and medium-sized arteries, particularly the branches of the proximal aorta including the temporal arteries. Vasculitic involvement results in the typical manifestations of GCA including temporal headache, jaw claudication, and visual loss. A systemic inflammatory response and a marked response to glucocorticoids is characteristic of GCA. GCA usually remits within 6 months to 2 years from disease onset. However, some patients have a chronic-relapsing course and may require long-standing treatment. Mortality is not increased, but there is significant morbidity mainly related to chronic glucocorticoid use and cranial ischaemic events, especially visual loss. The diagnosis of GCA rests on the characteristic clinical features and raised inflammatory markers, but temporal artery biopsy remains the gold standard to support the clinical suspicion. Imaging techniques are also used to demonstrate large-vessel involvement in GCA. Glucocorticoids are the mainstay of treatment for GCA, but other therapeutic approaches have been proposed and novel ones are being developed. TAK mainly involves the aorta and its main branches. Women are particularly affected with a female:male ratio of 9:1. In most patients, age of onset is between 20 and 30 years. Early manifestations of TAK are non-specific and include constitutional and musculoskeletal symptoms. Later on, vascular complications become manifest. Most patients develop vessel stenoses, particularly in the branches of the aortic artery, leading to manifestations of vascular hypoperfusion. Aneurysms occur in a minority of cases. There are no specific laboratory tests to diagnose TAK, although most patients have raised inflammatory markers, therefore, imaging techniques are required to secure the diagnosis. Glucocorticoids are the mainstay of treatment of TAK. However, many patients have an insufficient response to glucocorticoids alone, or relapse when they are tapered or discontinued. Immunosuppressive agents and, in refractory cases, biological drugs can often attain disease control and prevent vascular complications. Revascularization procedures are required in patients with severe established stenoses or occlusions.
15
Pipitone, Nicolò, Annibale Versari und Carlo Salvarani. Large-vessel vasculitis. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199642489.003.0133_update_003.
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Large-vessel vasculitis includes giant cell arteritis (GCA) and Takayasu’s arteritis (TAK). GCA affects patients aged over 50, mainly of white European ethnicity. GCA occurs together with polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR) more frequently than expected by chance. In both conditions, females are affected two to three times more often than males. GCA mainly involves large- and medium-sized arteries, particularly the branches of the proximal aorta including the temporal arteries. Vasculitic involvement results in the typical manifestations of GCA including temporal headache, jaw claudication, and visual loss. A systemic inflammatory response and a marked response to glucocorticoids is characteristic of GCA. GCA usually remits within 6 months to 2 years from disease onset. However, some patients have a chronic-relapsing course and may require longstanding treatment. Mortality is not increased, but there is significant morbidity mainly related to chronic glucocorticoid use and cranial ischaemic events, especially visual loss. The diagnosis of GCA rests on the characteristic clinical features and raised inflammatory markers, but temporal artery biopsy remains the gold standard to support the clinical suspicion. Imaging techniques are also used to demonstrate large-vessel involvement in GCA. Glucocorticoids are the mainstay of treatment for GCA, but other therapeutic approaches have been proposed and novel ones are being developed. TAK mainly involves the aorta and its main branches. Women are particularly affected with a female:male ratio of 9:1. In most patients, age of onset is between 20 and 30 years. Early manifestations of TAK are non-specific and include constitutional and musculoskeletal symptoms. Later on, vascular complications become manifest. Most patients develop vessel stenoses, particularly in the branches of the aortic artery, leading to manifestations of vascular hypoperfusion. Aneurysms occur in a minority of cases. There are no specific laboratory tests to diagnose TAK, although most patients have raised inflammatory markers, therefore, imaging techniques are required to secure the diagnosis. Glucocorticoids are the mainstay of treatment of TAK. However, many patients have an insufficient response to glucocorticoids alone, or relapse when they are tapered or discontinued. Immunosuppressive agents and, in refractory cases, biological drugs can often attain disease control and prevent vascular complications. Revascularization procedures are required in patients with severe established stenoses or occlusions.
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Noris, Marina, und Tim Goodship. The patient with haemolytic uraemic syndrome/thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. Herausgegeben von Giuseppe Remuzzi. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0174.
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The patient who presents with microangiopathic haemolytic anaemia, thrombocytopenia, and evidence of acute kidney injury presents a diagnostic and management challenge. Haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS) and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP) are two of the conditions that frequently present with this triad. They are characterized by low platelet count with normal or near-normal coagulation tests, anaemia, and signs of intravascular red cell fragmentation on blood films, and high LDH levels.HUS associated with shiga-like toxins produced usually by E.coli (typically O157 strains) may occur in outbreaks or sporadically, with geographical variations in incidence. It is predominantly a disease of young children in which painful blood diarrhoea in a minority of infected patients is succeeded by microangiopathy and acute kidney injury. Management is supportive and recovery is usual, although permanent renal damage may lead to later deterioration. Older patients may be affected and tend to have worse outcomes. Neuraminidase-producing Streptococcus pneumoniae infections (usually pneumonia) very rarely cause a similar HUS.Atypical HUS occurs sporadically and is increasingly associated with defects in the regulation of the complement pathway, either genetic or autoimmune-caused. It may respond to plasma exchange for fresh frozen plasma. Recurrences are common, including after transplantation.TTP is associated with more neurological disease and less renal involvement, but HUS and TTP overlap substantially in their manifestations. The underlying problem is in von Willebrand factor (vWF) cleavage. The plasma metalloprotease ADAMTS13 is responsible for cleaving vWF multimers, a process that is important to prevent thrombosis in the microvasculature. Autoantibodies or rarely genetic deficiency may impair this process. Plasma exchange may remove antibodies and replenish the protease.
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Vaheri, Antti, James N. Mills, Christina F. Spiropoulou und Brian Hjelle. Hantaviruses. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198570028.003.0035.
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Hantaviruses (genus Hantavirus, family Bunyaviridae) are rodent- and insectivore-borne zoonotic viruses. Several hantaviruses are human pathogens, some with 10-35% mortality, and cause two diseases: hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) in Eurasia, and hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS) in the Americas. Hantaviruses are enveloped and have a three-segmented, single-stranded, negative-sense RNA genome. The L gene encodes an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, the M gene encodes two glycoproteins (Gn and Gc), and the S gene encodes a nucleocapsid protein. In addition, the S genes of some hantaviruses have an NSs open reading frame that can act as an interferon antagonist. Similarities between phylogenies have suggested ancient codivergence of the viruses and their hosts to many authors, but increasing evidence for frequent, recent host switching and local adaptation has led to questioning of this model. Infected rodents establish persistent infections with little or no effect on the host. Humans are infected from aerosols of rodent excreta, direct contact of broken skin or mucous membranes with infectious virus, or rodent bite. One hantavirus, Andes virus, is unique in that it is known to be transmitted from person-to-person. HFRS and HCPS, although primarily affecting kidneys and lungs, respectively, share a number of clinical features, such as capillary leakage, TNF-, and thrombocytopenia; notably, hemorrhages and alterations in renal function also occur in HCPS and cardiac and pulmonary involvement are not rare in HFRS. Of the four structural proteins, both in humoral and cellular immunity, the nucleocapsid protein appears to be the principal immunogen. Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses are seen in both HFRS and HCPS and may be important for both protective immunity and pathogenesis. Diagnosis is mainly based on detection of IgM antibodies although viral RNA (vRNA) may be readily, although not invariably, detected in blood, urine and saliva. For sero/genotyping neutralization tests/RNA sequencing are required. Formalin-inactivated vaccines have been widely used in China and Korea but not outside Asia. Hantaviruses are prime examples of emerging and re-emerging infections and, given the limited number of rodents and insectivores thus far studied, it is likely that many new hantaviruses will be detected in the near future.