Zeitschriftenartikel: „Rainfall characteristics“

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Hisada, Yukiko, Yuji Sugihara und Nobuhiro Matsunaga. „Meteorological Characteristics of Local Heavy Rainfall in the Fukuoka Plain“. Journal of Disaster Research 10, Nr. 3 (01.06.2015): 429–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2015.p0429.

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Heavy local rainfall has been increasingly observed in urban Fukuoka on fine summer afternoons in recent years. Such rainfall tends to occur suddenly on calm afternoons and is considered to be caused by local wind conditions influenced by local topography rather than by weather fronts or typhoons. This local rainfall is considered to be caused by a mechanism different from similar rainfalls occurring on fine Kanto plain afternoons. We set up 14 rain gauges in urban Fukuoka in this study to clarify and confirm actual local rainfall conditions there. Maximum local rain is about 64 km2lasting 10 to 30 minutes. The maximum 10-minute rainfall was 13.8 mm. The average surface air temperature on days with local rainfall differs 2°–3°C from that on fine days. Upper atmosphere humidity distribution differs greatly between fine days and those with heavy local rain. Accordingly, heavy local rain is more likely to occur if surface air temperature and humidity in upper atmosphere rise above a certain level. Some difference is seen between days of heavy local rainfall and fine day in terms of the K index (KI), a measure of atmospheric stability. We confirmed that the atmospheric state becomes more unstable on days with heavy local rainfall than on fine days. Heavy local rainfall often begins in either the eastern or western inland Fukuoka plain and moves toward the coast. That is, based on numerical simulation using the meteorological mesoscale weather research and forecasting (WRF) model, wind blowing opposite to the sea wind blows in the upper atmosphere, moving cumulonimbus clouds causing heavy local rainfall toward the coast. We also confirmed that heavy local rainfall tends to occur in eastern inland areas with wind from the west, but tends to occur in western areas with wind from the east. We therefore assumed that heavy local rainfall in urban Fukuoka was triggered by updrafts generated when wind struck the inland Fukuoka plain mountain system.

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SIVARAMAKRISHNAN, T. R., und J. R. PRASAD. „Precipitation characteristics over Paradeep“. MAUSAM 49, Nr. 3 (17.12.2021): 321–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.54302/mausam.v49i3.3637.

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The daily rainfall records since 1976 and the SRRG records after its installation in 1982 at Paradeep have been analysed and rainfall climatology has been worked out. The heaviest 24-hour rainfall recorded at the station is 264 mm on 4 June 1982. The mean annual rainfall is 1475 mm. January and December are near dry months while August is the wettest month getting about 339 mm rainfall. The variability of annual rainfall here is 20 %. Light rainspells giving a total rain of 10 mm or less form about 50% occasions in pre-monsoon period and 63% of occasions in monsoon period. The extended rainspells lasting for more than 4 hours form about 10% of occasions in pre-monsoon season and 6% occasions in monsoon season. While morning (04-08 hr IST) period gets the rainfall in both pre-monsoon and monsoon months, early night gets the peak rainfall activity during the pre-monsoon months.

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Back, Álvaro J., Augusto C. Pola, Nilzo I. Ladwig und Hugo Schwalm. „Erosive rainfall in the Rio do Peixe Valley in Santa Catarina, Brazil: Part II - Characteristics and temporal distribution pattern“. Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agrícola e Ambiental 21, Nr. 11 (November 2017): 780–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1807-1929/agriambi.v21n11p780-784.

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ABSTRACT Exploring the characteristics of erosive rain is an important aspect of studying erosive processes, and it allows researchers to create more natural and realistic hydrological simulations. The objective of this study was to analyse the characteristics of erosive rain and to determine the temporal distribution pattern of erosive rainfall in the Valley of Rio do Peixe in the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil. Daily pluviograms from the meteorological stations located in the cities Campos Novos, Videira, and Caçador in Santa Catarina from 1984 to 2014 were utilized for this study. By studying rainfall that is classified as erosive, the values of kinetic energy, maximum intensity in thirty minutes, and the value of EI30 erosivity index were determined. The rainfall was also classified according to the temporal distribution of rainfall in advanced, intermediate, and delayed patterns. Erosive rainfalls occur at a frequency of 53.3% advanced, 31.1% intermediate, and 15.6% delayed patterns. Erosive rainfall has an average precipitation amount of 25.5 mm, duration of 11.1 h, kinetic energy of 5.6 MJ ha-1, maximum intensity of 30 min of 17.7 mm h-1, and erosivity of 206.4 MJ mm ha-1 h-1. The highest frequency of erosive rainfall occurred in rainfalls lasting from 6 to 12 h (36.1%), followed by rainfalls lasting from 4 to 6 h (22.4%).

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Hellin, Jon, Martin Haigh und Frank Marks. „Rainfall characteristics of hurricane Mitch“. Nature 399, Nr. 6734 (Mai 1999): 316. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/20577.

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Chen, Ching-Sen, und Yi-Leng Chen. „The Rainfall Characteristics of Taiwan“. Monthly Weather Review 131, Nr. 7 (Juli 2003): 1323–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2003)131<1323:trcot>2.0.co;2.

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Hong, Seong-Hyun, Young-Gyu Kim, Won-Hyun Lee und Eun-Sung Chung. „Rainfall Variations of Temporal Characteristics of Korea Using Rainfall Indicators“. Journal of Korea Water Resources Association 45, Nr. 4 (30.04.2012): 393–407. http://dx.doi.org/10.3741/jkwra.2012.45.4.393.

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Iserloh, T., J. B. Ries, J. Arnáez, C. Boix-Fayos, V. Butzen, A. Cerdà, M. T. Echeverría et al. „European small portable rainfall simulators: A comparison of rainfall characteristics“. CATENA 110 (November 2013): 100–112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2013.05.013.

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Liu, Chenglin, Yuwen Zhou, Jun Sui und Chuanhao Wu. „Multivariate frequency analysis of urban rainfall characteristics using three-dimensional copulas“. Water Science and Technology 2017, Nr. 1 (07.03.2018): 206–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2018.103.

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Abstract Urban runoff is a major cause of urban flooding and is difficult to monitor in the long term. In contrast, long term continuous rainfall data are generally available for any given region. As a result, it has become customary to use design rainfall depth as a proxy for runoff in urban hydrological analyses, with an assumption of the same frequency for runoff and rainfall. However, this approach has lack of overall coordination and cannot fully reflect the variability of rainfall characteristics. To address this issue, this study presents a three-dimensional copula-based multivariate frequency analysis of rainfall characteristics based on a long term (1961–2012) rainfall data from Guangzhou, China. Firstly, continuous rainfall data were divided into individual rainfall events using the rainfall intensity method. Then the characteristic variables of rainfall (design rainfall depth, DRD; total rainfall depth, TRD; peak rainfall depth, PRD) were sampled using the annual maximum method. Finally, a copula method was used to develop the multivariate joint probability distribution and the conditional probability distribution of rainfall characteristics. The results showed that the copula-based method is easy to implement and can better reflect urban rainstorm characteristics. It can serve a scientific reference for urban flood control and drainage planning.

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Jun, Changhyun, Xiaosheng Qin, Yeou-Koung Tung und Carlo De Michele. „Storm event-based frequency analysis method“. Hydrology Research 49, Nr. 3 (09.11.2017): 700–710. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/nh.2017.175.

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Abstract In this study, a storm event-based frequency analysis method was proposed to mitigate the limitations of conventional rainfall depth–duration–frequency (DDF) analysis. The proposed method takes the number, rainfall depth, and duration of rainstorm events into consideration and is advantageous in estimation of more realistic rainfall quantiles for a given return period. For the purpose of hydraulics design, the rainfall depth thresholds are incorporated to retrieve the rainstorm events for estimating design rainfalls. The proposed method was tested against the observed rainfall data from 1961 to 2010 at Seoul, Korea and the computed rainfall quantiles were compared with those estimated using the conventional frequency analysis method. The study results indicated that the conventional method was likely to overestimate the rainfall quantiles for short rainfall durations. It represented that the conventional method could reflect rainfall characteristics of actual rainstorm events if longer durations (like 24 hours) were considered for estimation of design rainfalls.

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SOUSA, MARCOS MAKEISON MOREIRA DE, HELBA ARAÚJO DE QUEIROZ PALÁCIO, EUNICE MAIA DE ANDRADE, JACQUES CARVALHO RIBEIRO FILHO und MATHEUS MAGALHÃES SILVA MOURA. „DETERMINANT PLUVIOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SEDIMENT TRANSPORT IN A CATCHMENT WITH THINNED VEGETATION IN THE TROPICAL SEMIARID“. Revista Caatinga 33, Nr. 3 (September 2020): 785–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1983-21252020v33n322rc.

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ABSTRACT Knowing determinant factors of erosive process is essential to adopt soil conservationist and loss-mitigation measures. Therefore, the objective of this work was to assess the correlation between rainfall characteristics and sediment transport in the Semiarid region of Brazil. The study was conducted at the Iguatu Experimental Basin in the state of Ceará, Brazil, in a watershed with area of 1.15 ha. The vegetation was thinned by removal of plants with diameters below 10 cm, and the area remained with an arboreous cover of 60%. The following variables were evaluated from 2012 to 2016: rainfall depth (mm), rainfall duration (hours), maximum rainfall intensity in 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45, and 60 minutes (mm h-1), mean rainfall intensity (mm h-1), rainfall depth in the previous 5 days (mm), runoff depth (mm), and transported sediment (kg ha-1). The records showed 158 rainfall events, 27 with surface runoff and 24 with sediment transport. The correlations were investigated by multivariate analysis of principal components (PC). The model explained 84% of total variance with four PC-PC1, PC2, PC3, and PC4 were formed, respectively, for disaggregating power of rainfall on soil particles, represented by the rainfall intensities; soil water content; runoff depth and sediment transport; and rainfall duration and interval between rainfalls. The highest factorial weight was found for the maximum intensity in 20 minutes, indicating the need for further hydrological studies focused on this variable at basin scale in areas of the Semiarid region of Brazil subjected to thinning of the vegetation.

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Yeo, Myeong-Ho, James Pangelinan und Romina King. „Identifying Characteristics of Guam’s Extreme Rainfalls Prior to Climate Change Assessment“. Water 14, Nr. 10 (14.05.2022): 1578. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w14101578.

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Extreme rainfall and its consequential flooding account for a devastating amount of damage to the Pacific Islands. Having an improved understanding of extreme rainfall patterns can better inform stormwater managers about current and future flooding scenarios, so they can minimize potential damages and disruptions. In this study, the scaling invariant properties of annual maximum precipitations (AMPs) are used for describing the regional patterns of extreme rainfalls over Guam. AMPs are calculated at seven stations in Guam and exhibit distinct simple scaling behavior for two different time frames: (1) from 15 min to 45 min; and (2) from 45 min to 24 h. With these two different behaviors, the conventional estimation methods for sub-hourly durations overestimate the frequencies at a site in which breakpoints are clearly observed, while the proposed Scaling Generalized Extreme Value (GEV) method, based on the Scaling Three-NCM (S3NCM) method, provides comparable estimates. A new regional extreme rainfall analysis approach based on scaling exponents is introduced in this study. Results show distinct extreme rainfall patterns over Guam. Moreover, the numerical and graphical analyses identify that a tropical cyclone may increase daily AMPs by 3%, on average.

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Jiang, Xinyu, Lijiao Yang und Hirokazu Tatano. „Assessing Spatial Flood Risk from Multiple Flood Sources in a Small River Basin: A Method Based on Multivariate Design Rainfall“. Water 11, Nr. 5 (17.05.2019): 1031. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w11051031.

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A key issue in assessing the spatial distribution of flood risk is considering risk information derived from multiple flood sources (river flooding, drainage inundation, etc.) that may affect the risk assessment area. This study proposes a method for assessing spatial flood risk that includes flooding and inundation in small-basin areas through multivariate design rainfall. The concept of critical rainfall duration, determined by the time of concentration of flooding, is used to represent the characteristics of flooding from different sources. A copula method is adopted to capture the correlation of rainfall amounts in different critical rainfall durations to reflect the correlation of potential flooding from multiple flood sources. Rainfalls for different return periods are designed based on the copula multivariate analysis. Using the design rainfalls as input, flood risk is assessed following the rainfall–runoff–inundation–loss estimation procedure. A case study of the Otsu River Basin, Osaka Prefecture, Japan, was conducted to demonstrate the feasibility and advantages of this method. Compared to conventional rainfall design, this method considers the response characteristics of multiple flood sources, and solves the problem of flood risk assessment from multiple flood sources. It can be applied to generate a precise flood risk assessment to support integrated flood risk management.

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Suaydhi, Suaydhi. „Characteristics of daily rainfall over the Maritime Continent“. Journal of Science and Science Education 2, Nr. 1 (19.07.2018): 29–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.24246/josse.v2i1p29-39.

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Daily rainfall characteristics is important in the anticipation of natural hazard events, such as floods and landslides. In this study, daily rainfall data from the Global Precipitation Climatology Project One Degree Daily (GPCP1DD) dataset are used to analyze the rainfall frequency, intensity and extreme rainfall indicators over the Indonesian Maritime Continent. A threshold of 1 mm is used to define a wet day. The analysis is conducted over the whole domain and several sub domains. It is revealed that the rainfall patterns over Indonesia are shaped by the frequency distribution of rainfall intensity over different seasons. Heavy rainfall (greater than 15 mm/day) generally determines the rainfall peak season over a specific region. It is also shown that the land areas receive more frequent and more intense rainfall than the ocean areas.

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Takahashi, H. G. „Seasonal changes in diurnal rainfall cycle over and around the Indochina Peninsula observed by TRMM-PR“. Advances in Geosciences 25 (08.03.2010): 23–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-25-23-2010.

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Abstract. This study used TRMM-PR data to examine seasonal changes in rainfall characteristics over the Indochina Peninsula, with a focus on the diurnal rainfall cycle. No distinct seasonal changes in the phases of diurnal variations of rainfall were found, even though low-level wind fields changed largely with the seasonal march. Regions with an afternoon maximum received large amounts of rainfall during the pre-monsoon season, whereas regions with a nocturnal or morning rainfall maximum received little rainfall during the pre-monsoon season. This result suggests that the difference in diurnal rainfall variations may be associated with the regional differences in seasonal march of monsoon rainfall over and around the Indochina Peninsula, through the different mechanism between evening and morning rainfalls.

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Floris, M., A. D'Alpaos, C. Squarzoni, R. Genevois und M. Marani. „Recent changes in rainfall characteristics and their influence on thresholds for debris flow triggering in the Dolomitic area of Cortina d'Ampezzo, north-eastern Italian Alps“. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 10, Nr. 3 (26.03.2010): 571–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-10-571-2010.

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Abstract. In this paper, we examine variations in climate characteristics near the area of Cortina d'Ampezzo (Dolomites, Eastern Italian Alps), with particular reference to the possible implications for debris-flow occurrence. The study area is prone to debris-flow release in response to summer high-intensity short-duration rainfalls and, therefore, it is of the utmost importance to investigate the potential increase in debris-flow triggering rainfall events. The critical rainfall threshold is agreed to be a crucial triggering factor for debris-flows. Data from a monitoring system, placed in a catchment near Cortina (Acquabona), show that debris-flows were triggered by rainfalls with peak rainfall intensities ranging from 4.9 to 17.4 mm/10 min. The analyses of meteorological data, collected from 1921 to 1994 at several stations in the study area, show a negative trend of annual rainfall, a considerable variation in the monthly rainfall distribution, and an increase in the temperature range, possibly related to global climate changes. Moreover, high-intensity and short-duration rainfall events, derived from data collected from 1990 and 2008, show an increase in exceptional rainfall events. The results obtained in a peak-over-threshold framework, applied to the rainfall data measured at the Faloria rain gauge station from 1990 to 2008, clearly show that the interarrival time of over-threshold events computed for different threshold values decreased in the last decade. This suggests that local climatic changes might produce an increase in the frequency of rainfall events, potentially triggering debris flows in the study area.

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Guan, Hongjie, und Rongjiang Cao. „Effects of biocrusts and rainfall characteristics on runoff generation in the Mu Us Desert, northwest China“. Hydrology Research 50, Nr. 5 (30.08.2019): 1410–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/nh.2019.046.

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Abstract How the presence of biocrusts regulates runoff generation in the Mu Us Desert is not well known. Runoff experiments under natural and artificial rainfalls and numerical simulations were conducted in semiarid environments to evaluate the effects of biocrust type and rainfall characteristics on runoff. The experimental results showed that the water drop penetration time (WDPT) of the moss-dominated biocrusts was 68.7% higher than that of lichen-dominated biocrusts. Nevertheless, the saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) for moss-dominated biocrusts was 72.7% lower than that for the lichen-dominated biocrusts. Runoff yield for moss-dominated biocrusts was significantly higher than that for lichen-dominated biocrusts. Runoff yield was mainly explained by rainfall amount (or maximum 5-min rainfall intensity, I5max) (P < 0.001) and WDPT (P = 0.001). The influences of biocrust type, rainfall intensity, and their interaction on runoff coefficient were significant at the probability level of 0.01. The results of numerical simulations concluded that surface runoff was generated for lichen- and moss-dominated biocrusts when rainfall intensity reached 73.5 and 49 mm h–1, respectively. Runoff coefficient in the moss-covered soil increased obviously when rainfall intensity changed from 49 to 73.5 mm h–1. The results suggest that runoff could be changed substantially under increasing trends in rainfall intensity in the Mu Us Desert.

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Chen, Xintuo, Yiyao Wang, Chengyue Lai, Jia She, Ke Zhong, Jiayang Chen und Zhaoli Wang. „Ammonia Nitrogen Pollution Characteristics of Natural Rainfall in Urban Business District in Southern China: A Case Study of Chengdu City“. Energy and Earth Science 2, Nr. 1 (23.04.2019): 15. http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/ees.v2n1p15.

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Chengdu city was chosen as the representative of southern cities in China in this work, characteristics of ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N) pollution in natural rainfall were analyzed by measuring the concentration in 15 natural rainfalls from April to September in 2017. The influence of ammonia emission from toilet vent of building on NH3-N pollution in rainfall was investigated, and the variation of total NH3-N pollutants and its influencing factors were expounded. The results showed that the average concentration of NH3-N in first rainfall was the highest, reaching 18.2mg/L, the average concentration of NH3-N in the subsequent 14 rainfalls was between 2.0 and 5.0mg/L, which is higher than Grade V (?2mg/L) of Environmental Quality Standards of Surface Water (GB 3838-2002), and was an important source of NH3-N pollution in water. The concentration of NH3-N in natural rainfalls decreased with the increase of the distance between the sampling point and the toilet vent, indicating that the ammonia discharged from toilet exhaust is a major source of NH3-N pollution in urban atmosphere. The main factors affecting total NH3-N pollutants in natural precipitation include rainfall intensity, rainfall duration and drought days. The total amount of NH3-N pollutants in surface runoff is less than that in natural rainfall.

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KANE, R. P. „Characteristics of African rainfall – An update“. MAUSAM 50, Nr. 2 (17.12.2021): 159–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.54302/mausam.v50i2.1841.

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Each year during 1901-1990 was characterized as having an El Nino (EN) or Southern Oscillation minimum (SO) or warm (W) or cold (C) waters in east equatorial Pacific sea surface or any combination of these, or none (non-events). In contrast to Indian summer monsoon rainfall which showed a very good association between ENSOW type years and droughts, none of the African regions showed any significant, consistent relationship with any combination, except S. Africa where a slight bias for droughts was observed during El Nino years. When departures in specific regions were compared, often there was lack of coherence within regions. For years when departures in every region could be classified as positive or negative, all type of teleconnections between W. Africa, E. Africa and S. Africa were seen and no preponderance was observed for continental scale floods or droughts, nor for opposite depart for equator and subtropics. Five-year running averages indicated long intervals of positive departures preceded or followed by long intervals of droughts, with average spacings of -24 years for W. Africa and E. Africa (but phases not matching) and of -17 years for S. Africa. This seems to be a basis feature of African rainfall variability.

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TSUCHIYA, Shuichi, Shuichi KURE, Naoyoshi SATO und Tadashi YAMADA. „STUDIES ON TEMPORAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RAINFALL“. PROCEEDINGS OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING 47 (2003): 139–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.2208/prohe.47.139.

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Muhammad, N. S., J. Abdullah und P. Y. Julien. „Characteristics of Rainfall in Peninsular Malaysia“. Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1529 (Mai 2020): 052014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1529/5/052014.

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Nagy, Jozef Turi. „Evaluation of rainfall characteristics in Bratislava“. Atmospheric Research 27, Nr. 1-3 (Dezember 1991): 209–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-8095(91)90020-w.

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Fasullo, J. „Biennial Characteristics of Indian Monsoon Rainfall“. Journal of Climate 17, Nr. 15 (August 2004): 2972–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2004)017<2972:bcoimr>2.0.co;2.

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Maruyama, Takeo, und Toshihiko Kawachi. „Evaluation of Rainfall Characteristics Using Entropy“. Journal of Rainwater Catchment Systems 4, Nr. 1 (1998): 7–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.7132/jrcsa.kj00003257785.

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CALLES, BENGT, und LENA KULANDER. „STORM RAINFALL CHARACTERISTICS AT ROMA, LESOTHO“. South African Geographical Journal 77, Nr. 1 (April 1995): 6–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03736245.1995.9713583.

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Simmonds, Ian, und Pandora Hope. „Persistence Characteristics of Australian Rainfall Anomalies“. International Journal of Climatology 17, Nr. 6 (Mai 1997): 597–613. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-0088(199705)17:6<597::aid-joc173>3.0.co;2-v.

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Das, P., K. Mahmud und S. Karmaker. „Surface-Runoff Characteristics under Simulated Rainfall Conditions“. Progressive Agriculture 24, Nr. 1-2 (17.06.2014): 219–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/pa.v24i1-2.19175.

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This paper describes a rainfall-runoff simulation study, conducted in a laboratory to investigate surface runoff characteristics, verify unit hydrograph assumption and investigate the nature of the recession constant. A hydrology bench consisting of a metallic tray with an over head sprinkler system was used for this study. The metallic tray with soil bed and a river network acted as a small catchment. The over head sprinkler system consisting of spray nozzles acted as rainfall simulator. Different rainfall intensities and durations were taken as the treatments for the experiments. Surface runoff volume was collected at 10 secondly pulses of time in each experiment. Collected data were then processed and analyzed to explain the results. Unit hydrographs were developed from the surface runoff hydrographs for different rainfall durations and intensities. Recession constant K was calculated from the recession limb of each surface runoff hydrograph by optimization. Investigations show that runoff volume, runoff generation rate and peak runoff rate increase with the increasing rainfall duration. However, the peak runoff rate per sec of effective rainfall decreases with the increasing rainfall duration. There is also an evidence of the effects of rainfall intensity on runoff characteristics but no specific trend is identified. This study also reveals that the assumption of linearity between runoff volume and hydrograph ordinates is partially valid with some error which may be attributed to the non-uniform distributions of rainfall. Nature of recession constant suggests that the recession hydrograph is not only a function of catchment characteristics but also depends on rainfall intensities.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/pa.v24i1-2.19175 Progress. Agric. 24(1&2): 219 - 227, 2013

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Tayşi, H., und M. Özger. „Disaggregation of future GCMs to generate IDF curves for the assessment of urban floods“. Journal of Water and Climate Change 13, Nr. 2 (29.10.2021): 684–706. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2021.241.

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Abstract Urbanization and industrialization cause an increase in greenhouse gas emissions, which in turn causes changes in the atmosphere. Climate change is causing extreme rainfalls and these rainfalls are getting stronger day after day. Floods are threatening urban areas, and short-duration rainfall and outdated drainages are responsible for urban floods. Intensity–Duration–Frequency (IDF) curves are crucial for both drainage system design and assessment of flood risk. Once IDF curves are determined from historical data, they are assumed to be stationary. However, IDF curves must be non-stationary and time varying based on preparation for extreme events. This study generates future IDF curves with short-duration rainfalls under climate change. To represent future rainfall, an ensemble of four Global Climate Models generated under Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) 4.5 and 8.5 were used in this study. A new approach to the HYETOS disaggregation model was applied to disaggregate daily future rainfall into sub-hourly using disaggregation parameters of hourly measured rainfalls. Hence, sub-hourly future rainfalls will be obtained capturing historical rainfall patterns instead of random rainfall characteristics. Finally, historical and future IDF curves were compared. The study concludes that increases in short-duration rainfalls will be highly intensified in both the near and distant futures with a high probability.

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Zeng, Yong, Lianmei Yang, Zepeng Tong, Yufei Jiang, Zuyi Zhang, Jinru Zhang, Yushu Zhou, Jiangang Li, Fan Liu und Jin Liu. „Statistical Characteristics of Raindrop Size Distribution during Rainy Seasons in Northwest China“. Advances in Meteorology 2021 (06.03.2021): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/6667786.

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Raindrop size distribution (DSD) is of great significance for understanding the microphysical process of rainfall and the quantitative precipitation estimation (QPE). However, in the past, there was a lack of relevant research on Xinjiang in the arid region of northwest China. In this study, the rainy season data collected by the disdrometer in the Yining area of Xinjiang were used for more than two years, and the characteristics of DSDs for all samples, for two rain types (convective and stratiform), and for six different rain rates were studied. The results showed that nearly 70% of the total samples had a rainfall rate of less than 1 mm·h−1, the convective rain was neither continental nor maritime, and there was a clear boundary between convective rain and stratiform rain in terms of the scattergram of the standardized intercept parameter ( log 10 N w ) versus the mass-weighted average diameter ( D m ). When the raindrop diameter was less than 0.7 mm, DSDs of the two rainfalls basically coincided, while when the raindrop diameter was greater than 0.7 mm, DSDs of convective rainfall were located above the stratiform rain. As the rainfall rate increased, D m increased, while log 10 N w first increased and then decreased. In addition, we deduced the Z − R (radar reflectivity-rain rate) relationship and μ − Λ relationship (shape parameter-slope parameter of the gamma DSDs) suitable for the Yining area. These conclusions are conducive to strengthening the understanding of rainfall microphysical processes in arid regions and improving the ability of QPE in arid regions.

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Xie, Zongxu, Hanbo Yang, Huafang Lv und Qingfang Hu. „Seasonal Characteristics of Disdrometer-Observed Raindrop Size Distributions and Their Applications on Radar Calibration and Erosion Mechanism in a Semi-Arid Area of China“. Remote Sensing 12, Nr. 2 (12.01.2020): 262. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs12020262.

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Raindrop size distributions (DSDs) are the microphysical characteristics of raindrop spectra. Rainfall characterization is important to: (1) provide information on extreme rate, thus, it has an impact on rainfall related hazard; (2) provide data for indirect observation, model and forecast; (3) calibrate and validate the parameters in radar reflectivity-rainfall intensity (Z-R) relationships (quantitative estimate precipitation, QPE) and the mechanism of precipitation erosivity. In this study, the one-year datasets of raindrop spectra were measured by an OTT Parsivel-2 Disdrometer placed in Yulin, Shaanxi Province, China. At the same time, four TE525MM Gauges were also used in the same location to check the disdrometer-measured rainfall data. The theoretical formula of raindrop kinetic energy-rainfall intensity (KE-R) relationships was derived based on the DSDs to characterize the impact of precipitation characteristics and environmental conditions on KE-R relationships in semi-arid areas. In addition, seasonal rainfall intensity curves observed by the disdrometer of the area with application to erosion were characterized and estimated. The results showed that after quality control (QC), the frequencies of raindrop spectra data in different seasons varied, and rainfalls with R within 0.5–5 mm/h accounted for the largest proportion of rainfalls in each season. The parameters in Z-R relationships (Z = aRb) were different for rainfall events of different seasons (a varies from 78.3–119.0, and b from 1.8–2.1), and the calculated KE-R relationships satisfied the form of power function KE = ARm, in which A and m are parameters derived from rainfall shape factor μ. The sensitivity analysis of parameter A with μ demonstrated the applicability of the KE-R formula to different precipitation processes in the Yulin area.

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Yang, Chun Xia, Bin Zhen, Li Li, Jing Huang und Peng Jiao. „Erosion Characteristics Based on GIS and Fractal Dimensions“. Advanced Materials Research 271-273 (Juli 2011): 1142–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.271-273.1142.

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Soil erosion processes and erosion distribution was research focus to establish distributed mathematical equation in the soil erosion areas, GIS techniques and fractal theory provide a means to advance these studies.Slope erosion patterns of bare slope was studied under rainfall intensities of 45、90 and 130mm/h with 20°slope gradient using simulated rainfall experiment. The results showed that the time of rill appeared of lower rainfall intensity was later than that of high rainfall intensity；Within the rainfall time，the rill scale expanded increased with the increasing of rainfall intensity; The erosion distribution was studied by the three-dimensional laser scanner，The trend of rill erosion deep kept roughly consistent with that of sediment; The characteristics was analyzed of slope erosion by GIS, the fractal dimension and sediment were both increased with rainfall intensity, The fractal dimension was increasing with erosion pattern complexity. So the fractal dimension is the representative of erosion complexity.

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Hamada, Atsushi, Yuki Murayama und Yukari N. Takayabu. „Regional Characteristics of Extreme Rainfall Extracted from TRMM PR Measurements“. Journal of Climate 27, Nr. 21 (24.10.2014): 8151–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-14-00107.1.

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Abstract Characteristics and global distribution of regional extreme rainfall are presented using 12 yr of the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Precipitation Radar (PR) measurements. By considering each rainfall event as a set of contiguous PR rainy pixels, characteristic values for each event are obtained. Regional extreme rainfall events are defined as those in which maximum near-surface rainfall rates are higher than the corresponding 99.9th percentile on a 2.5° × 2.5° horizontal-resolution grid. The geographical distribution of extreme rainfall rates shows clear regional differences. The size and volumetric rainfall of extreme events also show clear regional differences. Extreme rainfall rates show good correlations with the corresponding rain-top heights and event sizes over oceans but marginal or no correlation over land. The time of maximum occurrence of extreme rainfall events tends to be during 0000–1200 LT over oceans, whereas it has a distinct afternoon peak over land. There are also clear seasonal differences in which the occurrence over land is largely coincident with insolation. Regional extreme rainfall is classified by extreme rainfall rate (intensity) and the corresponding event size (extensity). Regions of “intense and extensive” extreme rainfall are found mainly over oceans near coastal areas and are likely associated with tropical cyclones and convective systems associated with the establishment of monsoons. Regions of “intense but less extensive” extreme rainfall are distributed widely over land and maritime continents, probably related to afternoon showers and mesoscale convective systems. Regions of “extensive but less intense” extreme rainfall are found almost exclusively over oceans, likely associated with well-organized mesoscale convective systems and extratropical cyclones.

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Assouline, S., A. El Idrissi und E. Persoons. „Modelling the physical characteristics of simulated rainfall: a comparison with natural rainfall“. Journal of Hydrology 196, Nr. 1-4 (September 1997): 336–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0022-1694(96)03256-8.

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ROWNTREE, K. M. „RAINFALL CHARACTERISTICS, RAINFALL RELIABILITY AND THE DEFINITION OF DROUGHT: BARINGO DISTRICT, KENYA“. South African Geographical Journal 71, Nr. 2 (September 1989): 74–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03736245.1989.9713513.

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Svoboda, Vojtěch, Martin Hanel, Petr Máca und Jan Kyselý. „Projected changes of rainfall event characteristics for the Czech Republic“. Journal of Hydrology and Hydromechanics 64, Nr. 4 (01.12.2016): 415–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/johh-2016-0036.

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Abstract Projected changes of warm season (May–September) rainfall events in an ensemble of 30 regional climate model (RCM) simulations are assessed for the Czech Republic. Individual rainfall events are identified using the concept of minimum inter-event time and only heavy events are considered. The changes of rainfall event characteristics are evaluated between the control (1981–2000) and two scenario (2020–2049 and 2070–2099) periods. Despite a consistent decrease in the number of heavy rainfall events, there is a large uncertainty in projected changes in seasonal precipitation total due to heavy events. Most considered characteristics (rainfall event depth, mean rainfall rate, maximum 60-min rainfall intensity and indicators of rainfall event erosivity) are projected to increase and larger increases appear for more extreme values. Only rainfall event duration slightly decreases in the more distant scenario period according to the RCM simulations. As a consequence, the number of less extreme heavy rainfall events as well as the number of long events decreases in majority of the RCM simulations. Changes in most event characteristics (and especially in characteristics related to the rainfall intensity) depend on changes in radiative forcing and temperature for the future periods. Only changes in the number of events and seasonal total due to heavy events depend significantly on altitude.

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Chung, Eun-Sung. „Comparison of Precipitation Characteristics using Rainfall Indicators Between North and South Korea“. Journal of the Korean Society of Civil Engineers 33, Nr. 6 (2013): 2223. http://dx.doi.org/10.12652/ksce.2013.33.6.2223.

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Papa, M. N., V. Medina, F. Ciervo und A. Bateman. „Derivation of critical rainfall thresholds for shallow landslides as a tool for debris flow early warning systems“. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 17, Nr. 10 (23.10.2013): 4095–107. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-4095-2013.

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Abstract. Real-time assessment of debris-flow hazard is fundamental for developing warning systems that can mitigate risk. A convenient method to assess the possible occurrence of a debris flow is to compare measured and forecasted rainfalls to critical rainfall threshold (CRT) curves. Empirical derivation of the CRT from the analysis of past events' rainfall characteristics is not possible when the database of observed debris flows is poor or when the environment changes with time. For debris flows and mud flows triggered by shallow landslides or debris avalanches, the above limitations may be overcome through the methodology presented. In this work the CRT curves are derived from mathematical and numerical simulations, based on the infinite-slope stability model in which slope instability is governed by the increase in groundwater pressure due to rainfall. The effect of rainfall infiltration on landside occurrence is modelled through a reduced form of the Richards equation. The range of rainfall durations for which the method can be correctly employed is investigated and an equation is derived for the lower limit of the range. A large number of calculations are performed combining different values of rainfall characteristics (intensity and duration of event rainfall and intensity of antecedent rainfall). For each combination of rainfall characteristics, the percentage of the basin that is unstable is computed. The obtained database is opportunely elaborated to derive CRT curves. The methodology is implemented and tested in a small basin of the Amalfi Coast (South Italy). The comparison among the obtained CRT curves and the observed rainfall amounts, in a playback period, gives a good agreement. Simulations are performed with different degree of detail in the soil parameters characterization. The comparison shows that the lack of knowledge about the spatial variability of the parameters may greatly affect the results. This problem is partially mitigated by the use of a Monte Carlo approach.

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Li, Jian, und Rucong Yu. „Characteristics of Cold Season Rainfall over the Yungui Plateau“. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology 53, Nr. 7 (Juli 2014): 1750–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jamc-d-13-0285.1.

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AbstractThe climatic features of the distinctive cold season precipitation over the Yungui Plateau of China and the corresponding circulation background are investigated. From daily rainfall data observed with a high-density station network, it is found that the highest rainfall frequency in southern China during November–February appears over the Yungui Plateau. The rainfall intensity in this region is fairly low, and there is no remarkable rainfall-amount maximum. In comparison with the rainfall in southeastern China, the precipitation over the Yungui Plateau is more concentrated in weak events, with 85.9% of rainfall days having daily precipitation amounts of less than 3 mm. By regressing the circulation field on the rainfall frequency index, a favorable climatic background for high rainfall frequency is explored. In high-rainfall-frequency years, the surface wind exhibits southwesterly wind anomalies west of 104°E and cold air penetrates from the north on the eastern side. These two branches converge on the eastern edge of the Hengduan Mountains. In the lower troposphere, southwesterly winds prevail and anomalous water vapor fluxes converge over the Yungui Plateau. In the middle and higher troposphere, the westerly zonal wind strengthens and leads to an anomalous divergence. These dynamic and moist conditions contribute to the formation of clouds and precipitation. The northward- and eastward-facing slopes of the Yungui Plateau uplift the shallow, cold air carried by the northerly and easterly winds, and the terrain effects trigger the precipitation process. The low temperature and small specific humidity over the Yungui Plateau modulate the rainfall intensity to a low level.

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Nesbitt, Stephen W., Robert Cifelli und Steven A. Rutledge. „Storm Morphology and Rainfall Characteristics of TRMM Precipitation Features“. Monthly Weather Review 134, Nr. 10 (01.10.2006): 2702–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/mwr3200.1.

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Abstract Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Precipitation Radar (PR), TRMM Microwave Imager (TMI), and Visible and Infrared Scanner (VIRS) observations within the Precipitation Feature (PF) database have been analyzed to examine regional variability in rain area and maximum horizontal extent of rainfall features, and role of storm morphology on rainfall production (and thus modes where vertically integrated heating occurs). Particular attention is focused on the sampling geometry of the PR and the resulting impact on PF statistics across the global Tropics. It was found that 9% of rain features extend to the edge of the PR swath, with edge features contributing 42% of total rainfall. However, the area (maximum dimension) distribution of PR features is similar to the wider-swath TMI up until a truncation point of nearly 30 000 km2 (250 km), so a large portion of the feature size spectrum may be examined using the PR as with past ground-based studies. This study finds distinct differences in land and ocean storm morphology characteristics, which lead to important differences in rainfall modes regionally. A larger fraction of rainfall comes from more horizontally and vertically developed PFs over land than ocean due to the lack of shallow precipitation in both relative and absolute frequency of occurrence, with a trimodal distribution of rainfall contribution versus feature height observed over the ocean. Mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) are found to be responsible for up to 90% of rainfall in selected land regions. Tropicswide, MCSs are responsible for more than 50% of rainfall in almost all regions with average annual rainfall exceeding 3 mm day−1. Characteristic variability in the contribution of rainfall by feature type is shown over land and ocean, which suggests new approaches for improved convective parameterizations.

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Fister, W., T. Iserloh, J. B. Ries und R. G. Schmidt. „Comparison of rainfall characteristics of a small portable rainfall simulator and a portable wind and rainfall simulator“. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, Supplementary Issues 55, Nr. 3 (01.06.2011): 109–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1127/0372-8854/2011/0055s3-0054.

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Rasheed, Ashiq, Prasanna Egodawatta, Ashantha Goonetilleke und James McGree. „A Novel Approach for Delineation of Homogeneous Rainfall Regions for Water Sensitive Urban Design—A Case Study in Southeast Queensland“. Water 11, Nr. 3 (19.03.2019): 570. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w11030570.

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The delineation of homogeneous regions is primarily based on long-term overall rainfall characteristics and therefore does not necessarily consider the homogeneity of event-based rainfall characteristics. However, event-based rainfall characteristics including antecedent dry days, rainfall intensity, total rainfall and total duration of rainfall events are critical for Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD). Accordingly, this study presents a novel approach to objectively identify homogeneous rainfall regions based on event-based rainfall characteristics. This approach uses cluster analysis and Hosking–Wallis heterogeneous tests collectively to test the homogeneity of event-based rainfall characteristics. A case study conducted for southeast Queensland (SEQ), Australia is also presented in this article. This study compares the results of the novel modified approach against results of the conventional approach for the delineation of homogeneous regions. It was evident from the results that the entire SEQ could be treated as a homogeneous rainfall region based on the conventional approach. In contrast, based on the modified approach, the coast and the inland of SEQ were identified as separate homogeneous regions. Further, antecedent dry days and rainfall intensity were recognized as the deciding rainfall characteristics in the delineation of homogeneous rainfall regions.

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Shen, Zhenzhou, Wenyi Yao, Peiqing Xiao und Xueqin Yang. „Analysis of day rainfall characteristics of Zhengzhou“. E3S Web of Conferences 38 (2018): 01031. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20183801031.

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Raindrop characteristics, including speed and size of raindrops, in Zhengzhou city of Yellow River basin were analyzed through a natural rainfall on the loess slope. Results showed that the process of natural rainfall belonged to a parabola and counts, size and terminal velocity would increase with the rainfall intensity rising. Besides, the size and terminal velocity of natural raindrops were relatively scattered; In the process of individual rainfall, the terminal velocity and its peak value were mainly focused between 0.8~5m/s and 1m/s, respectively. Size of raindrops were mainly consisted of 0.125-0.5mm, among which the terminal velocity of raindrops with a size of 0.125mm, 0.25mm, 0.375mm, 0.5mm were primarily 0.8-3.4m/s, 0.6-3.4m/s, 0.8-1m/s, 1-1.4m/s, respectively.

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Palamarchuk, L., K. Sokur und T. Zabolotska. „DYNAMICS OF RAINFALL INTENSITY AND MESOSTRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THEIR FIELDS IN THE WARM PERIOD OF THE YEAR IN THE PLAIN PART OF UKRAINE“. Hydrology, hydrochemistry and hydroecology, Nr. 4 (55) (2019): 95–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/2306-5680.2019.4.8.

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The research deals with the structure of temporal changes in rainfall intensity and the spatial distribution of magnitude within separate processes of fallout of dangerous and heavy rainfalls in the warm season. The analysis based on the data from the Ukrainian hydrometeorological observation network (2005-2017) and the data obtained during a special scientific experiment (Kyiv, Bagrynova Mt., warm period 1969). It has been determined 97 cases of such rainfalls, the characteristics of their spatial distribution, seasonal and daily variations. For individual processes, on the basis of pluviometric measurements there were determined the maximum rainfall intensities, the time of their occurrence, the presence and the number of waves (periods) of rainfall amplification and their temporal and spatial parameters. The mass of rainwater per unit area and the volumetric intensity were calculated for moments of maximum intensity or amplification waves. The analysis of spatial and temporal fluctuations of intensity values within a separate process allowed to distinguish three types of rainfall during the warm period of the year: heavy precipitations (maximum intensities greater than 1 mm/min., such intensities more often observed at the beginning of the process; it notes the presence of one/two waves of amplification of rainfall with different amplitudes), slight precipitations (maximum intensities are approximately equal to 0.1 mm/min, several (3-5) waves of amplification of rainfall with small but equal amplitudes), and a “mix” of heavy and slight precipitations during the development of frontal stratus with so-called “flooded” convection (maximum intensities less than 1 mm / min; there are several waves of amplification of different amplitude). Conditions for the formation of heavy precipitations of the last type are the combination of mechanisms of thermal and dynamic convection, which is manifested in the enhancement of vertical lifting of air masses due to the blocking processes. It was made a comparison of the intensity and nature of precipitation in the current climatic period and in previous periods. It was found that the values of the maximum intensity for the same type of precipitation during the different observation periods practically coincide. Obviously, there is a zone of “upper limit” of the intensity of the processes of precipitation and moisture storage of clouds, which ensures the constant intensity of rainfall over time. There is some increase in number and length of waves of rainfall amplification, as well as an increase in the frequency of rainfalls with “flooded” convection. The research shows the recurrence of rainfall intensity for certain types within certain gradations of their values. On this basis an integral providing curve is created, which makes it possible to estimate the probability or recurrence of given precipitation intensity values at different levels of providing.

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Yamada, Tadashi, Tadashi Hibino, Takashi Araki und Makoto Nakatsugawa. „Statistical Characteristics of Rainfall in Mountainous Basins.“ Doboku Gakkai Ronbunshu, Nr. 527 (1995): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.2208/jscej.1995.527_1.

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HISADA, Yukiko, Nobuhiro MATSUNAGA und Yuji SUGIHARA. „CHARACTERISTICS OF LOCALIZED HEAVY RAINFALL IN FUKUOKA“. Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Ser. B1 (Hydraulic Engineering) 69, Nr. 4 (2013): I_361—I_366. http://dx.doi.org/10.2208/jscejhe.69.i_361.

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Allerup, Peter. „Rainfall generator with spatial and temporal characteristics“. Atmospheric Research 42, Nr. 1-4 (Oktober 1996): 89–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-8095(95)00055-0.

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Simon, Anu, und K. Mohankumar. „Spatial variability and rainfall characteristics of Kerala“. Journal of Earth System Science 113, Nr. 2 (Juni 2004): 211–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02709788.

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SIMMONDS, I., und P. HOPE. „Correction: Persistence characteristics of Australian rainfall anomalies“. International Journal of Climatology 17, Nr. 8 (30.06.1997): 908. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-0088(19970630)17:8<908::aid-joc181>3.0.co;2-e.

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Tarhule, Aondover, und Ming-Ko Woo. „Changes in rainfall characteristics in northern Nigeria“. International Journal of Climatology 18, Nr. 11 (September 1998): 1261–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-0088(199809)18:11<1261::aid-joc302>3.0.co;2-z.

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Boer, R., K. A. Notodiputro und I. Las. „PREDICTION OF DAILY RAINFALL CHARACTERISTICS FROM MONTHLY CLIMATE INDICES(PREDIKSI KARAKTERISTIK CURAH HUJAN HARIAN DARI PARAMETER IKLIM BULANAN)“. Agromet 21, Nr. 1 (19.06.2007): 12. http://dx.doi.org/10.29244/j.agromet.21.1.12-20.

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Information on rainfall characteristics such as dry-spell, wet-spell, maximum rainfall and some others are required for agricultural planning. The occurrence of long dry-spell in growing season, in particular during a growing stage sensitive to drought, should be avoided. This information will assist farmer to arrange their planting time and cropping pattern. If information on daily rainfall characteristics could be predicted before planting season is started, better planting arrangement could be developed. Pacific sea surface temperature anomaly, Darwin and Jakarta air pressure difference, Tahiti and Darwin air pressure difference, are climate indices that have been found to be related to Indonesian rainfall variation. Many GCM models have been developed for the prediction of these indices and the predicted indices can be accessed easily from many web-sites. Prediction of the indices for one-year period ahead is given in monthly basis. This study described the development of a weather generator model that used monthly rainfall as inputs for generating daily rainfall data. Relationship between monthly rainfall anomaly and the climate indices is developed. Thus, the likely monthly rainfall anomaly for coming season can be estimated from the indices. This predicted rainfall anomaly is then used to tune the weather generator model for the creation of statistically-based daily weather data for specific sites. The characteristics of daily rainfall such as dry spell, wet spell are generated using Excel spreadsheet that has been furnished with Monte Carlo simulation capability. Results of analysis showed that statistical characteristics of generated rainfall data are similar to the characteristic of observed data. Therefore, the use of predicted monthly rainfall data for coming season as input for the weather data generator model is expected to yield likely daily rainfall data for the coming season.

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Jan, Petrů, und Kalibová Jana. „Measurement and computation of kinetic energy of simulated rainfall in comparison with natural rainfall“. Soil and Water Research 13, No. 4 (18.10.2018): 226–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/218/2016-swr.

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Rainfall characteristics such as total amount and rainfall intensity (I) are important inputs in calculating the kinetic energy (KE) of rainfall. Although KE is a crucial indicator of the raindrop potential to disrupt soil aggregates, it is not a routinely measured meteorological parameter. Therefore, KE is derived from easily accessible variables, such as I, in empirical laws. The present study examines whether the equations which had been derived to calculate KE of natural rainfall are suitable for the calculation of KE of simulated rainfall. During the experiment presented in this paper, the measurement of rainfall characteristics was carried out under laboratory conditions using a rainfall simulator. In total, 90 measurements were performed and evaluated to describe the rainfall intensity, drop size distribution and velocity of rain drops using the Thies laser disdrometer. The duration of each measurement of rainfall event was 5 minutes. Drop size and fall velocity were used to calculate KE and to derive a new equation of time-specific kinetic energy (KEtime – I). When comparing the newly derived equation for KE of simulated rainfall with the six most commonly used equations for KEtime – I of natural rainfall, KE of simulated rainfall was discovered to be underestimated. The higher the rainfall intensity, the higher the rate of underestimation. KE of natural rainfall derived from theoretical equations exceeded KE of simulated rainfall by 53–83% for I = 30 mm/h and by 119–275% for I = 60 mm/h. The underestimation of KE of simulated rainfall is probably caused by smaller drops formed by the rainfall simulator at higher intensities (94% of all drops were smaller than 1 mm), which is not typical of natural rainfall.

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