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1

Kotidis, Antonis, and Stacey L. Schreft. "Cyberattacks and Financial Stability: Evidence from a Natural Experiment." Finance and Economics Discussion Series 2022, no. 025 (2022): 1–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.17016/feds.2022.025.

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This paper studies the effects of a unique multi-day cyberattack on a technology service provider (TSP). Using several confidential daily datasets, we identify and quantify first- and second-round effects of the event. For banks using relevant services of the TSP, the attack impaired their ability to send payments over Fedwire, even though the Federal Reserve extended the time they had to submit payments. This impairment (first-round effect) caused other banks to receive fewer payments (second-round effect), leaving them at risk of having too few reserves to send their own payments (a potentia
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Eichengreen, Barry, Arnaud Mehl, Livia Chitu, and Gary Richardson. "Mutual Assistance between Federal Reserve Banks: 1913–1960 as Prolegomena to the TARGET2 Debate." Journal of Economic History 75, no. 3 (2015): 621–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050715001138.

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This article reconstructs the history of mutual assistance among Federal Reserve Banks. We present data on accommodation operations through which Reserve Banks mutualized gold reserves in emergency situations between 1913 and 1960. Reserve sharing was important in response to liquidity crises and bank runs. Such cooperation was essential for the cohesion of the U.S. monetary union. But fortunes could change, with emergency recipients of gold becoming providers. Because imbalances did not endlessly grow, instead narrowing when region-specific shocks subsided, mutual assistance created only limi
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3

Kocherlakota, Narayana R. "The Decentralized Central Bank: A Review Essay on The Power and Independence of the Federal Reserve by Peter Conti-Brown." Journal of Economic Literature 55, no. 2 (2017): 621–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/jel.20161406.

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This essay discusses the structure and governance of the Federal Reserve System in light of the many changes in its activities over the past thirty years. Based on this analysis, it argues in favor of four specific reforms: clarification of Congressional expectations for the system; enhanced Federal Reserve Board of Governors transparency with respect to its oversight of the Reserve Banks; stripping monetary-policy votes from the President of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York and the Boards of Directors of the Reserve Banks; and the initiation of a public conversation about redesigning the
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4

Gordon, David. "The Federal Reserve Banks New Monetary Policy Tool." Journal of Business & Economics Research (JBER) 10, no. 9 (2012): 533. http://dx.doi.org/10.19030/jber.v10i9.7193.

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The Federal Reserve Bank (FED) plays a vital role in the US economy. The roles and functions of the Fed are discussed here. This paper also offers an explanation of the traditional tools the Fed uses to conduct monetary policy. Open market operations are explained. The important role of the discount rate is discussed. The legally required reserve ratios are also explored. This author believes that the Fed has recently created a new tool. This tool is the payment of interest on demand deposit accounts at the Fed. This new tool is explained and its ramifications explored. The functions of moneta
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Gilbert, R. Alton. "Determinants of Federal Reserve lending to failed banks." Journal of Economics and Business 47, no. 5 (1995): 397–408. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0148-6195(95)00034-8.

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Woolley, John T. "Les conséquences du fédéralisme sur l’élaboration de la politique de la Réserve fédérale." Revue française d'administration publique 92, no. 1 (1999): 671–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/rfap.1999.3344.

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The Consequences of a Fedéral Structure on the Construction of the Policy of the Federal Reserve ; The Federal Reserve has a regional composition formed by twelve district banks and a central council, the council of govemors. Several institutional characteristics contribute to the independence of the Fédéral Reserve, however the four-year mandate of the president of the Reserve expires, quite by chance, at the beginning of the year of the presidential élection, something which is not without conséquence for the relations between the Reserve and those in political power. The Federal Open Market
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7

Feldstein, Martin. "What Powers for the Federal Reserve?" Journal of Economic Literature 48, no. 1 (2010): 134–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/jel.48.1.134.

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In this essay, I explain my reasons for the following policy recommendations: (1) The Fed should continue to manage monetary policy as it has in the past, should act as the nation's lender of last resort, should fully supervise the large bank holding companies and their subsidiary banks, and should be given resolution authority over the institutions that it supervises. (2) While a council of supervisors and regulators can play a useful role in dealing with macro prudential risks, it should not replace the central role of the Federal Reserve. (3) The virtually unlimited lending powers that the
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8

Романченко, Д. В. "Central banks: legal status, goals, functions, operations." Экономика и предпринимательство, no. 4(117) (June 1, 2020): 71–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.34925/eip.2020.117.4.012.

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В статье определены сущность Центральных банков в целом, на примере Федеральной резервной системы США рассмотрены инструменты влияния Центрального банка на экономику страны. Определены правовой статус, цели и функции Центральных банков в финансовой системе мира, обозначены роль ЦБ в экономике и инструменты его влияния на различные экономические процессы, рассмотрены принципы работы Федеральной резервной системы США. The article defines the essence of Central banks in General, using the example of the US Federal reserve system, the tools of the Central Bank's influence on the country's economy
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9

Mitchener, Kris James, and Gary Richardson. "Shadowy Banks and Financial Contagion during the Great Depression: A Retrospective on Friedman and Schwartz." American Economic Review 103, no. 3 (2013): 73–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/aer.103.3.73.

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This essay assesses whether network linkages within the banking system amplified the real effects of bank failures during the Great Contraction. In 1929, nearly all interbank deposits held by Federal Reserve member banks belonged to “shadowy” nonmember banks which were outside the regulatory reach of federal regulators. Regional banking panics in the early 1930s drained these interbank deposits from central reserve city banks. Money-center banks in Chicago and New York responded to volatile and declining interbank deposits by changing their asset composition. They reduced their lending to busi
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10

Bertola, Giuseppe, Leonardo Bartolini, and Alessandro Prati. "Banks' Reserve Management, Transaction Costs, and the Timing of Federal Reserve Intervention." IMF Working Papers 00, no. 163 (2000): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.5089/9781451857924.001.

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11

Bartolini, Leonardo, Giuseppe Bertola, and Alessandro Prati. "Banks’ reserve management, transaction costs, and the timing of Federal Reserve intervention." Journal of Banking & Finance 25, no. 7 (2001): 1287–317. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0378-4266(00)00130-8.

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12

Stauffer, Robert F. "Back to Basics: Reserve Requirements and Money Stock Changes, 1929–1936." American Economist 44, no. 1 (2000): 62–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/056943450004400108.

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This paper explains how the shift of deposits from nonmember banks and country banks to larger member banks increased the average or “effective” reserve requirement in the 1929–1936 period. The result was an inappropriate tightening of monetary conditions, along with liquidity problems for those banks most susceptible to failure. A basic money multiplier model is developed to help clarify the possible impact of increases in effective reserve requirements. The resulting perspective strengthens the usual charges against the Federal Reserve of monetary policy malfeasance during the Great Depressi
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13

Toma, Eugenia Froedge, and Mark Toma. "Research activities and budget allocations among Federal Reserve Banks." Public Choice 45, no. 2 (1985): 175–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00215063.

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ORHAN, Mehmet, and Halil İbrahim ÇELİKEL . "The Spillover Effects of Fed’s Policies with Emphasis to the Fragile Five." Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies 6, no. 12 (2014): 1011–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.22610/jebs.v6i12.557.

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Since the Bretton Woods Agreement, the U.S. dollar has played the role of dominant global currency. As a result, the Federal Reserve Bank has many privileges such as the ability to run trade deficits without foreign exchange reserves. In the world, foreign exchange rates of currencies are quoted against the dollar, and majority of currency trading involves the dollar. Besides, international trade in primary commodities, such as oil, wheat, gold and coffee are bought and sold in U.S. dollar. The central banks of countries hold major positions of their international reserves in dollars. Any chan
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15

Malloy, Matthew, Francis Martinez, Mary-Frances Styczynski, and Alex Thorp. "Retail CBDC and U.S. Monetary Policy Implementation: A Stylized Balance Sheet Analysis." Finance and Economics Discussion Series 2022, no. 032 (2022): 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.17016/feds.2022.032.

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This paper discusses how a Federal Reserve issued retail central bank digital currency (CBDC) could affect U.S. monetary policy implementation. Using a stylized balance sheet analysis, we analyze the effect a retail CBDC could have on the balance sheets of the Federal Reserve, commercial banks, and U.S. households. Then we consider how these balance sheet changes could affect monetary policy implementation for the Federal Reserve. We illustrate that the potential effects on monetary policy implementation from a retail CBDC are highly dependent on the initial conditions of the Federal Reserve’s
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16

Binder, Sarah, and Mark Spindel. "Monetary Politics: Origins of the Federal Reserve." Studies in American Political Development 27, no. 1 (2013): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0898588x12000120.

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Nearly unique amongst the world's monetary bodies, the Federal Reserve defies description as a central bank. A century after its creation, the Fed retains a hybrid structure of a president-appointed, Senate-confirmed Washington board and twelve largely privately directed regional reserve banks—each of which remains moored in the cities originally selected in 1914. In this article we investigate the origins of the Federal Reserve System, focusing on the selection of the twelve reserve bank cities. In contrast to accounts that suggest politics played no role in the selection of the cities, we su
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17

Jaremski, Matthew, and David C. Wheelock. "The Founding of the Federal Reserve, the Great Depression, and the Evolution of the U.S. Interbank Network." Journal of Economic History 80, no. 1 (2019): 69–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050719000792.

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Financial network structure is an important determinant of systemic risk. This article examines how the U.S. interbank network evolved over a long and important period that included two key events: the founding of the Federal Reserve and the Great Depression. Banks established connections to correspondents that joined the Federal Reserve in cities with Fed offices, initially reducing overall network concentration. The network became even more focused on Fed cities during the Depression, as survival rates were higher for banks with more existing connections to Fed cities, and as survivors estab
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18

Carlson, Mark, and Rebecca Zarutskie. "Considerations regarding the use of the discount window to support economic activity through a funding for lending program." Finance and Economics Discussion Series, no. 2022-070 (October 2022): 1–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.17016/feds.2022.070.

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This paper considers the use of the Federal Reserve’s ability to provide loans to depository institutions under its discount window lending authority in support of achieving its monetary policy objectives through a funding for lending program. Broadly, a funding for lending program could be structured as one in which the Federal Reserve makes ample low-cost funding available to banks or a program in which the Federal Reserve only provides low-cost funding conditional on the banks meeting certain lending targets. We provide a general description of how a funding for lending program could be str
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19

Toma, Eugenia Froedge, and Mark Toma. "Research activities and budget allocations among Federal Reserve Banks: Reply." Public Choice 45, no. 2 (1985): 197–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00215065.

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20

Rolnick, Arthur J. "Research activities and budget allocations among Federal Reserve Banks: Comment." Public Choice 45, no. 2 (1985): 193–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00215064.

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21

Wheelock, David. "Economics and Politics in Selecting Federal Reserve Cities: Why Missouri Has Two Reserve Banks." Review 97, no. 4 (2015): 269–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.20955/r.2015.269-88.

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22

Barnes, Michelle L., and Jose A. Lopez. "Alternative measures of the Federal Reserve Banks’ cost of equity capital." Journal of Banking & Finance 30, no. 6 (2006): 1687–711. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbankfin.2005.09.005.

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23

RAMAZANOV, Seifullakh A. "A dynamic analysis of active operations of reserve-currency central banks under another uncertainty." Finance and Credit 28, no. 2 (2022): 412–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.24891/fc.28.2.412.

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Subject. This article discusses the active operations of central banks of reserve currencies in conditions of uncertainty for the period from 2006 to 2021. Objectives. Based on the consideration of the features of the monetary policies of reserve-currency central banks for the period from the Great Recession to the COVID-19 pandemic, the article aims to conduct a dynamic analysis of the structure of their active operations and propose areas for improving the issue policy of the world's leading central banks. Methods. For the study, I used the methods of comparative and dynamic analyses, synthe
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24

Durfee, Jon, Jesse Leigh Maniff, and Priyanka Slattery. "Examining CBDC and Wholesale Payments." FEDS Notes, no. 2023-09-08-2 (September 2023): None. http://dx.doi.org/10.17016/2380-7172.3368.

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This paper explores whether a new settlement asset in the form of central bank money is essential for a new platform that processes wholesale payment transactions. Central bank money currently exists for wholesale transactions in the form of depository institution balances at the Federal Reserve (Reserve Banks) used for Fedwire® Funds Service (Fedwire).
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25

Marquez, Jaime. "Stylized Facts of the FOMC’s Longer-Run Forecasts." Journal of Risk and Financial Management 16, no. 3 (2023): 152. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jrfm16030152.

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Conventional explanations of monetary policy decisions in the United States assume that the longer-run Federal funds rate is determined by a representative central banker (i.e., the Fed) using longer-term forecasts of economic activity and unemployment. This assumption is inconsistent with the federalist structure of the Federal Reserve in which the Federal funds rate is determined by a committee made up of the Federal Reserve Board and the Federal Reserve Banks. This inconsistency would be irrelevant if differences in the Fed participants’ longer-run projections were small or constant, but th
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T. A. H., Dilpriya, Lanel G. H. J., and Perera M. T. M. "Reviewing the Efficacy of Federal Reserve Bank Reserve Policies through a Time Series Analysis of the Effective Federal Funds Rate." International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science VII, no. IV (2023): 869–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.47772/ijriss.2023.7472.

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The Effective Federal Funds Rate (EFFR) is a crucial interest rate that reflects the cost of banks borrowing funds from each other overnight. This rate is a significant indicator of the financial system’s health and stability in the United States. The rate values fluctuate due to various factors, such as changes in monetary policy, supply and demand for reserves, market expectations, events in financial markets, seasonal factors, and changes in regulations. Although it’s challenging to pinpoint the exact factors that cause the variation in this rate, the concepts of time series are employed to
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27

Brimmer, Andrew F. "Distinguished Lecture on Economics in Government: Central Banking and Systemic Risks in Capital Markets." Journal of Economic Perspectives 3, no. 2 (1989): 3–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/jep.3.2.3.

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Bagehot's conception of the last resort lending function of the central bank is shared by most economists today. On several occasions, the Federal Reserve has digressed from its overall strategy of monetary control to also undertake a tactical rescue of individual banks and segments of the capital market. On three other occasions, the Federal Reserve has intervened to counter systemic risks to the financial system beyond the arena of commercial banks. The events which prompted these actions were the threat to the commercial paper market triggered by the bankruptcy of the Penn Central Railroad
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Kandrac, John. "Can the Federal Reserve Effectively Target Main Street? Evidence from the 1970s Recession." Finance and Economics Discussion Series 2021, no. 060 (2021): 1–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.17016/feds.2021.061.

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Modern central bankers confront a challenge of providing economic stimulus even when the policy rate is constrained by a lower bound. This challenge has led to substantial innovation by policymakers and a proliferation of new policy tools. In this paper, I offer evidence on the efficacy of a new tool known as funding for lending, which provides banks with subsidized funding to make additional loans. I focus on a historical episode from the United States in which the Federal Reserve provided banks with steeply subsidized loans to promote the expansion of credit within their local communities. I
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Ma, Weizhou, Yuanyuan Gu, Pengyu Chen, and Jiashu Pan. "Lesson from SVB Failure." Advances in Economics, Management and Political Sciences 82, no. 1 (2024): 315–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.54254/2754-1169/82/20230612.

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In the first quarter of 2023, Silicon Valley Bank declared bankruptcy. This paper's goal is to examine Silicon Valley Bank's collapse from the perspectives of the asset and liability side of the corporate annual report, interest rate, firm management, bank regulatory mechanism, and market impact. Silicon Valley's bank failures began with the Federal Reserve's rapid rise in interest rates over a short period of time. This paper also discusses the implications for the industry and the world as a whole by this declaration of Silicon Valley Bank's bankruptcy. In addition, by comparing the way Chin
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de Lavigne-Aubery, Marie. "Halifax 1940 : port de transit pour l'or européen." Northern Mariner / Le marin du nord 28, no. 2 (2018): 139–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.25071/2561-5467.220.

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Europe had been invaded and Britain stood alone to face Hitler’s armies. As it was imperative that the gold reserves in Europe’s central banks be protected from German greed, the gold had to be sent to North America in warships. With access to US ports limited by the Convention on maritime neutrality, the Allies chose the port of Halifax, Nova Scotia, as a transit hub for the European treasure. The gold was unloaded in the utmost secrecy and transported by rail to the Bank of Canada in Ottawa and the Federal Reserve in New York.
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Li, Longcan. "Do central banks respond to house price movements? A Bayesian DSGE approach." Australian Economic Papers 63, S1 (2024): 99–114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-8454.12350.

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AbstractThis thesis explores whether monetary policy reacts to house price movements, by employing a New Keynesian model with a housing factor and estimated using Bayesian estimation techniques. The primary emphasis of this study is on the United States, with supplementary analyses on central banks in several advanced economies. The principal finding of this thesis reveals that the Federal Reserve responded substantially but episodically to house prices. Furthermore, my investigation indicates that the Reserve Bank of Australia, the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, Bank of England, and the Europea
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J. Powell, Robert, and Duc H. Vo. "A Comprehensive Stability Indicator for Banks." Risks 8, no. 1 (2020): 13. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/risks8010013.

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Stability indicators are essential to banks in order to identify instability caused by adverse economic circumstances or increasing risks such as customer defaults. This paper develops a novel comprehensive stability indicator (CSI) that can readily be used by individual banks, or by regulators to benchmark financial health across banks. The CSI incorporates the three key risk factors of Creditworthiness, Conditions and Capital (3Cs), using a traffic light system (green, orange and red) to classify bank risk. The CSI achieves similar outcomes in ranking the risk of 20 US banks to the much more
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Carlson, Mark, and David C. Wheelock. "Interbank Markets and Banking Crises: New Evidence on the Establishment and Impact of the Federal Reserve." American Economic Review 106, no. 5 (2016): 533–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/aer.p20161044.

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This paper examines the impact of the Federal Reserve's founding on seasonal pressures and contagion risk in the interbank system. Deposit flows among classes of banks were highly seasonal before 1914; amplitude and timing varied regionally. Panics interrupted normal flows as banks throughout the country sought funds from the central money markets simultaneously. Seasonal pressures and contagion risk in the system were lower by the 1920s, when the Fed provided seasonal liquidity and reserves. Panics returned in the 1930s, due in part to shocks from nonmember banks and because the Fed's decentr
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Correia, Sergio, Matthew P. Seay, and Cindy M. Vojtech. "Updated Primer on the Forward-Looking Analysis of Risk Events (FLARE) Model: A Top-Down Stress Test Model." Finance and Economics Discussion Series 2022, no. 009 (2022): 1–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.17016/feds.2022.009.

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While the bank stress test exercise conducted by the Federal Reserve System is a critical policy tool for assessing the health of large banks, the Federal Reserve has worked to build additional tools to assess the resiliency of the banking system as a whole and to address macroprudential goals. The Forward-Looking Analysis of Risk Events (FLARE) model is one such tool. This technical note describes the FLARE model, which is a top-down model that helps assess how well the banking system is positioned to weather exogenous macroeconomic shocks. FLARE estimates banking system capital under varying
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Woolley, John T. "The Politics of Monetary Policy: A Critical Review." Journal of Public Policy 14, no. 1 (1994): 57–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0143814x00001252.

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ABSTRACTThe Federal Reserve Bank of the United States is a pre-eminent banking institution, and an institution that has been subject to scrutiny from a wide variety of scholarly perspectives. The object of this article is to review prominent works dealing with the politics of the Federal Reserve, particularly its relations with other institutions and their effects on monetary policy. The review shows that the formal legal independence of a central bank such as the Fed does not mark the end of monetary politics, and its record suggests a greater measure of modesty and caution on the part of ent
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Wang, Zikun. "A Study of the Impact of Monetary Policies on Financial Crisis." Advances in Economics, Management and Political Sciences 84, no. 1 (2024): 42–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.54254/2754-1169/84/20240776.

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Monetary policy stands as a pivotal instrument for macroeconomic management, pivotal in stabilizing economies, fostering growth, and mitigating inflationary pressures. In the wake of global financial upheavals, the efficacy and adaptability of monetary policy have garnered heightened scrutiny. The United States, boasting the world's largest economy, and the Federal Reserve, a stalwart among central banks, wield profound influence on global financial dynamics via their policy decisions. Each action taken by the Federal Reserve reverberates across borders, profoundly impacting numerous nations.
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Wu, Keyu. "A Study of the Relationship Between Monetary Policies and Financial Crises." Highlights in Business, Economics and Management 36 (July 17, 2024): 293–300. http://dx.doi.org/10.54097/nrakte51.

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In the process of the financial crisis evolving into a global crisis, the Federal Reserve has diligently applied the lessons gleaned from historical financial upheavals, including the Great Depression of 1929, the Stagflation Crisis of 1970, and the Subprime Crisis of 2008. Through a proactive approach to crisis management via monetary policy, the Federal Reserve has endeavored to mitigate the impact of such crises. This paper conducts a comprehensive analysis, drawing upon a brief retrospective examination of relevant literature and historical experiences in monetary policy during crisis peri
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Kleymenova, Anya, Lori Leu, and Cindy M. Vojtech. "Is This Time Different: How Are Banks Performing during the Recent Interest Rate Increases Compared to 2004–2006?" FEDS Notes, no. 2024-04-12-1 (April 2024): None. http://dx.doi.org/10.17016/2380-7172.3466.

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In 2022, the Federal Reserve began its latest monetary tightening cycle. Increases in interest rates are generally favorable for commercial bank net interest income (interest income minus interest expense). This relationship holds because many loan types have adjustable rates, and banks do not pass through all interest rate increases to depositors.
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Davis, Caroline, and Arantxa Jarque. "Gender Composition of the Boards of Directors of the Regional Federal Reserve Banks." Economic Quarterly 105, no. 04 (2020): 201–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.21144/eq1050401.

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Hillery, Paula V., and Stephen E. Thompson. "The Federal Reserve Banks as Fiscal Agents and Depositories of the United States." Federal Reserve Bulletin 86, no. 4 (2000): 0. http://dx.doi.org/10.17016/bulletin.2000.86-4.

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Nurisso, George C., and Edward Simpson Prescott. "Origins of too-big-to-fail policy in the United States." Financial History Review 27, no. 1 (2020): 1–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0968565020000013.

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This article traces the origin of too-big-to-fail policy in modern US banking to the bailout of the $1.2b Bank of the Commonwealth in 1972. It describes this bailout and those of subsequent banks through that of Continental Illinois in 1984. During this period, market concentration due to interstate banking restrictions is a factor in most of the bailouts and systemic risk concerns were raised to justify the bailouts of surprisingly small banks. Finally, most of the bailouts in this period relied on the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation's use of the Essentiality Doctrine and Federal Reserv
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Kwiatkowski, Wojciech. "PIERWSZY BANK STANÓW ZJEDNOCZONYCH JAKO PIERWOWZÓR SYSTEMU REZERWY FEDERALNEJ." Zeszyty Prawnicze 9, no. 1 (2017): 171. http://dx.doi.org/10.21697/zp.2009.9.1.07.

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First Bank of the United States as a Prototype for the Federal Reserve SystemSummaryThe article describes the history of the First Bank of the United Statesfirst banking- institution, that was charted in XVII-th century North America as an effect of a cooperation of two federal bodies – Congress and the President. Although, the federal government possessed only 20 %, of the shares with federal licences it could conduct its activity on territory of the whole country. Moreover – the Bank is now referred to as the first central bank in the United States because of its national scope and services
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Gorton, Gary, and Ellis W. Tallman. "Too Big to Fail Before the Fed." American Economic Review 106, no. 5 (2016): 528–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/aer.p20161043.

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“Too-big-to-fail” is consistent with policies followed by private bank clearing houses during financial crises in the U.S. National Banking Era prior to the existence of the Federal Reserve System. Private bank clearing houses provided emergency lending to member banks during financial crises. This behavior strongly suggests that “too-big-to-fail” is not the problem causing modern crises. Rather it is a reasonable response to the threat posed to large banks by the vulnerability of short-term debt to runs.
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Flemming, Jean, and Ruth Judson. "Implications of a U.S. CBDC for International Payments and the Role of the Dollar." FEDS Notes, no. 2024-02-16 (February 2024): None. http://dx.doi.org/10.17016/2380-7172.3435.

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Technological advances in recent decades have brought about a wave of private-sector innovation in payments and have led central banks to explore a variety of improvements to their payment systems, including the possibility of issuing a central bank digital currency (CBDC). Survey evidence from the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) shows that over 90% of central banks are exploring CBDCs (Kosse and Mattei, 2022). The Federal Reserve is also exploring the implications of, and options for, introducing a CBDC.
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Xiao, Kairong. "Monetary Transmission through Shadow Banks." Review of Financial Studies 33, no. 6 (2019): 2379–420. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/rfs/hhz112.

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Abstract I find that shadow bank money creation significantly expands during monetary-tightening cycles. This “shadow banking channel” offsets reductions in commercial bank deposits and dampens the impact of monetary policy. Using a structural model of bank competition, I show that the difference in depositor clienteles quantitatively explains banks’ different responses to monetary policy. Facing a more yield-sensitive clientele, shadow banks are more likely to pass through rate hikes to depositors, thereby attracting more deposits when the Federal Reserve raises rates. My results suggest that
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Hoag, Christopher. "Clearinghouse loan certificates as interbank loans in the United States, 1860–1913." Financial History Review 23, no. 3 (2016): 303–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0968565016000196.

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Before the founding of the Federal Reserve, bank clearinghouse associations served as an emergency lending facility during the National Bank Era (1863–1913). This article clarifies the operation of clearinghouse loan certificates during panic periods. If clearinghouse loan certificates do not circulate among the general public, then they bear similarities to interbank loans among clearinghouse member banks. In general, the central clearinghouse organization does not act alone as a lender of last resort to make loans from the central clearinghouse to individual member banks.
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Schellhorn, Carolin. "Financial System Stability, the Timing of Climate Change Action and the Federal Reserve." Journal of Central Banking Theory and Practice 9, no. 3 (2020): 45–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/jcbtp-2020-0035.

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AbstractTimely and effective climate action is a precondition for the stability of the global financial system and for long-term, inclusive prosperity. Because the Federal Reserve and other central banks share responsibility with legislative and regulatory authorities and other experts for maintaining financial system stability, the Fed also shares responsibility for effective climate action. For climate action to be effective in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and limiting global warming, it must be widespread, it must be substantive, and it must come sooner rather than later. The new low-i
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Prokopowicz, Dariusz. "ANTI-CRISIS STATE INTERVENTION AND CREATED IN MEDIA IMAGES OF GLOBAL FINANCIAL CRISIS." International Journal of New Economics and Social Sciences 8, no. 2 (2018): 177–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0012.9941.

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The global financial crisis in 2008 was the reason for increasing the scale of interventionist economic policies in developed countries. The main instrument of this policy was the significant development of a mild monetary policy and interventionist measures aimed at forcing the restructuring processes of heavily indebted enterprises and stopping the decline in lending by commercial banks. As part of the pro-development activities of the state intervention, the Federal Reserve Bank applied a mild monetary policy of low interest rates and a program for activating lending and maintaining liquidi
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Cline, William R. "Quantity Theory of Money Redux? Will Inflation be the Legacy of Quantitative Easing?" National Institute Economic Review 234 (November 2015): R15—R26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/002795011523400103.

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Since the onset of the Federal Reserve's unconventional programme of large-scale asset purchases, known as quantitative easing (QE), some economists and financial practitioners have feared that the consequent buildup of the Fed's balance sheet could lead to a large expansion of the money supply, and that such an increase could cause a sharp rise in inflation. So far fears about induced inflation have not been validated. This article examines the basis for the original concerns about inflation in terms of the classic quantity theory of money, which holds that inflation occurs when the money sup
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Monadjemi, Mehdi, and John Lodewijks. "Capital Adequacy and Liquidity of Global Financial Institutions: A Study of Reforms after the Great Recession." Journal of Economics and Public Finance 5, no. 4 (2019): p419. http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/jepf.v5n4p419.

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The global financial crises of 2007-2009 was followed by the Great Recession which was the worst since the Great Depression of 1930s. The crises left significant adverse effects on global growth and employment. Policymakers of affected countries responded differently to the outcomes of these crises. The central banks, including US Federal Reserve Bank and Bank of England, provided ample liquidity for the financial institutions and lowered the interest rate to near zero. The policymakers and regulators realized that capital inadequacy and insufficient liquidity of financial institutions were th
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