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Artykuły w czasopismach na temat "French commercial code"
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Klimaszewska, Anna. "About the translations of the French Commercial Code of 1807 into Polish". Czasopismo Prawno-Historyczne 72, nr 1 (10.08.2020): 269–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.14746/cph.2020.1.15.
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Klimaszewska, Anna. "FRANCUSKIE PRAWO HANDLOWE NA PRZEŁOMIE XIX I XX WIEKU. KODEKS HANDLOWY NAPOLEONA Z 1807 R. A JEGO DEKODYFIKACJA". Zeszyty Prawnicze 11, nr 2 (21.12.2016): 189. http://dx.doi.org/10.21697/zp.2011.11.2.10.
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French Commercial Law at the Turn of the XXth Century. The Code of Napoleon from 1807 and its DecodificationSummary The French „Code de Commerce” of 1807 is one of five legal acts known as the great napoleonian codifications. They have been created in the spirit of the quest for the ideal modern legislation that was supposed to last as long as possible. Unfortunately unlike the „Code Civil” the „Code de Commerce” in its original form lasted only 30 years. This was owed to many various factors related to the code itself but also the legal doctrines of the time and the socio-economical environment in which it was created. As a result it has undergone the so called „process of decodification” involving a shift of code matter from the code itself into other legal acts.
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Kovac, Mitja. "Frustration of purpose and the French Contract Law reform". Maastricht Journal of European and Comparative Law 25, nr 3 (czerwiec 2018): 288–309. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1023263x18781190.
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Frustration of purpose remains one of the most ill-defined concepts in the English law of contracts. The same problem has also recently attracted the attention of the French legislature in its modernization of the Code Civil. The French reform entitles courts with broad powers to adjust the contract when unforeseen contingencies have made the bargain unduly costly. This article argues that the introduction of an economically inspired adjustment rule in English contract law should be re-considered to maintain its current superior commercial position. If implemented, then the ‘ex ante division of surplus’ should be the governing principle in adjusting contract price, because such a remedy will not affect the agreed-upon division of the surplus. Moreover, this paper suggests that the recent French reform is indeed a long-awaited step toward a more effective regulation of the notorious ‘unforeseen contingencies’ phenomena, but also suggests that further improvements might be needed. Furthermore, it offers a set of arguments suggesting that the English law in its current form might still be the preferred option in the world of international business transactions. The international commercial attractiveness of English contract law, although being challenged by the new French Civil Code, remains undisputed.
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Tepe, Berna. "Intermediate Appellate Review of Commercial Law Decisions in Turkey". EMAJ: Emerging Markets Journal 4, nr 1 (6.08.2014): 59–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.5195/emaj.2014.51.
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The judiciary in Turkey is still preparing for the expected intermediate appellate review (istinaf) mechanism in Turkey although the official date for its functioning is yet to be specified. Under Turkish law, a first instance court decision can be appealed not because an assertion or a claim is rejected, but due to a substantive or procedural norm of law which should have been applied during the proceedings in an accurate manner. The scope of such review also covers the suitability of the first instance court’s decision. There are nonfunctional aspects to the judicial review as specified in the 2011 Code of Civil Procedure of which a major column of novelties consist of the suspended mechanism of dual appellate review. However, the 2011 Code of Civil Procedure regulates the intermediate appellate review as a series of procedural acts and steps. The reasons to appeal a first instance court’s decision can rather be deduced from the provisions of 2011 Code of Civil Procedure. In order to structure the reasons and stages of the intermediate appellate review in Turkey, a distinction is made in the present article between (i) review over the appeal’s conditions of admissibility, (ii) review of the decision’s legality, (iii) review of the decision’s legitimacy. Rationally, the reasons for intermediate appellate review should be construed as to accomodate at least the grounds for higher appellate review as well as the extraordinary judiciary review. As different areas of private law are based on different principles, it is noteworthy that cases referred to herein pertain to commercial law. Finally, due to the parallelism between the Turkish and the French legal systems, references to decisions given by the French jurisdiction on commercial matters are made throughout the present article.
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Payette, Louis. "Prêts commerciaux à taux préférentiel". Le prêt commercial 28, nr 4 (12.04.2005): 963–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/042849ar.
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References to the "Prime Rate" or to the "Base Rate" of lending institutions are of frequent use in commercial loan agreements relating to the interest payable by the borrower. The concept of "Prime Rate" as a valid contractual arrangement has been challenged on the grounds of vagueness or on the basis that discretionary rights were given to one party, the lender ; the scope of its meaning as well as the extent of the duties of a lender lending at prime rate has been reviewed by various judicial decisions. The author reviews such decisions, Canadian, American, and French, and measures the impact of various requirements of the Civil Code, the Interest Act, the Bills of Exchange Act, the Code of Civil Procedure on agreements whereby the variable rate of interest payable by the borrower is related to "Prime Rate".
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Lilkoff, Lubin. "Le règlement des litiges commerciaux dans un système sans tribunaux de commerce : l'expérience québécoise". Les Cahiers de droit 24, nr 3 (12.04.2005): 505–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/042559ar.
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Quebec's Civil Code acknowledges the existence of a dual regime including both civil and commercial juridical operations. This distinction, which is derived from French Law, also exists in Belgian and German Law. These countries have created specialized commercial courts or tribunals with jurisdiction over commercial matters. They are staffed with judges drawn from business. One may ask how in fact a dualistic system of this nature functions in Quebec, given the absence of such special commercial tribunals. It may be noted that although there is no body of commercial law dealing exclusively with traders, there exists in fact a system of business law comprehensive enough to apply also to non-traders (Part I). In addition, the informal nature of the procedural rules, as well as the background of the judges who are selected mainly from the ranks of practising lawyers, permits one to discern a close resemblance between litigation before these courts and the conduct of trials before commercial tribunals (Part II).
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Gilbar, Gad G. "RESISTANCE TO ECONOMIC PENETRATION: THEKĀRGUZĀRAND FOREIGN FIRMS IN QAJAR IRAN". International Journal of Middle East Studies 43, nr 1 (24.01.2011): 5–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020743810001170.
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AbstractEuropean merchants and investors doing business in the Middle East during the long 19th century expected that commercial disputes in mixed cases would be conducted according to procedures and laws familiar to and accepted by them. In the Ottoman Empire and Egypt, mixed courts based on the French commercial code were established during that century. The Qajars, however, offered the foreign commercial community a different judicial institution: the localkārguzār(agent) and his majlis (court). By the beginning of the 20th century, thirty-sixkārguzāroffices operated in Iranian towns and harbors. Nevertheless, foreign (mainly British) merchants and their consuls complained bitterly that it was not an effective institution and that it clearly favored the localtujjār(big merchants). They claimed that these defects meant huge financial losses to them. The Qajars viewed this institution and its functioning differently. It served their policy of discouraging foreign penetration, and it contributed to the competitiveness of the Iraniantujjārin their struggle for commercial superiority.
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Klimaszewska, Anna. "Ordonanse królewskie we Francji". Czasopismo Prawno-Historyczne 69, nr 2 (4.10.2018): 47–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.14746/cph.2017.2.3.
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The issue of royal ordinances in France is not a subject avoided by Polish authors, especially in legal history textbooks. However, the information included in these books is fragmentary in its character, and some pieces require verification. In this extensive legislative material one can distinguish specific ordinances (spéciales), which regulate single issues, as well as general ones (générales), which constitute acts pertaining to a wide spectrum of issues, or even detailed codes. The latter, i.e. the ordinances general in their character, can be further divided into two groups. The first of them encompasses the ordinances published between the 14th and the 17th century (I), while the second one includes the so-called Great Ordinances enacted during the reign of Louis XIV and Louis XV (II). The purpose of the following publication is not to perform a detailed characteristic of the ordinances but, first and foremost, to show that although certain significant institutions were regulated by the ordinances from group I in a way which left a permanent mark on the French legal system, the Great Ordinances by Louis XIV and Louis XV, which represent a completely different character from all the previous general ordinances, constituted codes in the strict sense of the word. As a result of that codification work, performed in stages during the reign of two sovereigns, the ancien régime France did not lack generaland unified legal acts, created with an understanding of the creative role of law in modifying the reality, regulating select fields of law in a comprehensive way and binding in the entire territory of the country. The code of civil procedure, the code of criminal procedure, as well as the commercial code and the maritime code, were enacted at the time. Some areas of civil law were also regulated. The only thing which was not elaborated, or evenapproached in those days, was the penal code. Napoleonic codes should be therefore considered as the subsequent chapter of codification activities in France, carried out for the first time by Louis XIV. The popularity of this issue in the Enlightenment literature and the fact that it was a common phenomenon in other European countries is not a sufficient argument to justify applying this term only to those French acts which were enacted in the 19th century and afterwards.
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Amayreh, Osama Ismail Mohammad, Izura Masdina Mohamad Zakr, Pardis Moslemzadeh Tehrani i Yousef Mohammad Shandi. "THE PRE-CONTRACTUAL OBLIGATION TO CONFIDENTIALITY OF INFORMATION IN THE PALESTINIAN CIVIL CODE DRAFT AND ITS ROLE IN MAINTAINING ECONOMIC CONTRACTUAL EQUILIBRIUM". UUM Journal of Legal Studies 10 (24.12.2019): 121–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.32890/uumjls.10.2.2019.6561.
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It is inconceivable that a person can be legally obliged to provide influential information to another party in order to contract freely and in an enlightened manner without requiring the latter to maintain the confidentiality of the exchanged information between the parties. In this context, Article 2.1.16 of the UNIDROIT principles of International Commercial Contracts and Article 1112-2 of the French Decree N 131-2016, etc. tend to apply the obligation to confidentiality of information at the pre-contracting phase as one of the most substantial principles governing this phase. However, the Palestinian legislature, having ignored enacting legal provisions obliging the parties to maintain the confidentiality of information in the pre-contracting phase, caused legislative deficiencies in the legislative remedies of the subject of confidentiality of information in the pre-contracting phase. A such, as a prime objective, this paper seeks to suggest orientations for the formulation of provisions for the obligation to maintain confidentiality of information in the Palestinian Civil Code Draft. Thus, an analytical comparative approach -with the French civil code- is used, while alluding briefly to German and English law, as to illustrate the Palestinian legislative deficiencies and the urgent need to legislate a legal article obligating the negotiating parties to maintain confidentiality of information, in order to contribute to the stability of civil and commercial transactions. In this regard, contractual equilibrium entails that the obligation to maintain confidentiality of information has its own independent essence from all the theories that the jurisprudence adopted as a legal basis for this obligation.
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Ong, Kenneth Keng Wee, Jean François Ghesquière i Stefan Karl Serwe. "Frenglish shop signs in Singapore". English Today 29, nr 3 (15.08.2013): 19–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266078413000278.
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The presence of French in advertising communication within largely non-French speaking communities has been noted by a few linguists. Haarmann (1984, 1989) found that French is used in Japanese advertisements as ethno-cultural hieroglyphs which connote refinement, poshness, style and tastefulness – stereotypes of France and French culture. The unintelligibility of French to Japanese patrons is perceived as a non-issue, as social or symbolic meanings are deemed to be more vital to attract patrons than denotational meanings. A parallel case was found in British advertisements of food, fashion and beauty businesses where French symbolism or linguistic fetish is seen as attractive to largely non-French, English-speaking patrons (Kelly-Holmes, 2005). Notably, French symbolic meanings are sometimes accompanied by elaborative messages in English. Kelly-Holmes (2005) noted that English is used only where message comprehension is important for explicit communication. Curtin (2009) documented the fact that ‘vogue’ or ‘display’ French shop names favored by high-end restaurants and beauty salons in Taipei occurred concomitantly with vogue English. Vogue English is relatively more ubiquitous across the city's linguistic landscape due to its connotations being exploited in a wide span of applications vis-à-vis the chic prestige of French, which is tied to food, beauty and fashion businesses. The Taipei case shows that non-idiomatic French is employed as a socio-commercial accessory, similar to the case of decorative English used in Japan (Dougill, 1987) and in Milan, Italy (Ross, 1997). However, a more recent study on Tokyo shop signs gleaned linguistic patterns other than vogue English and vogue French (MacGregor, 2003), such as French + Japanese and English + French + Japanese. A recent study by Serwe et al. (in press) found that French and French-like shop names are increasingly in currency, with local shop owners keen to stand out and appeal to the increasingly cosmopolitan and sophisticated clientele in Singapore, who are nevertheless overwhelmingly non-French speaking. They further found that French and French-inspired shop signs of food businesses can be classified into four categories, namely, monolingual French, French + another language, French function words + another language, and coinages, noting that there are idiomatic usages and non-idiomatic usages in the first three categories. In this paper, we throw the spotlight on coinages, which we argue are mostly explicable as French-English code-switched blends. We focus on localized nominal concoctions used by shop owners across food and beauty commercial entities within Singapore. We borrowed the term ‘Frenglish’ from Martin's (2007) study to refer to the French-English blends. However, we noted that Martin's study focused on the use of English in advertising communication in France, where English is the minority language that is largely sidelined by the Toubon Law. Contrastively, English in Singapore is de facto the national language, while French is a foreign language with few speakers.
Rozprawy doktorskie na temat "French commercial code"
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Hadj-Aïssa, Hakim. "Contribution critique à l’étude du déséquilibre significatif au sens de l’article L. 442-1 du Code de commerce". Thesis, Université de Lorraine, 2019. http://www.theses.fr/2019LORR0250.
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La présente contribution s’intéresse à l’étude du déséquilibre significatif au sens de l’article L. 442-1 du Code de commerce (ancien article L. 442-6). Les interrogations qu’il suscite sont nombreuses : connaissance et spécificité de la règle dans les relations commerciales, légitimité du texte, cohérence interne de ses dispositions et mise en perspective dans le système global de lutte contre le déséquilibre significatif. Pour y répondre, il est nécessaire de combiner deux approches, l’une analytique et l’autre synthétique. À travers la première, il s’agit de mettre en lumière, par une méthode scientifique préalablement exposée, la manière dont les juges se saisissent de ce texte, le but étant de parvenir à une connaissance plus précise et effective de la règle en question. Chacun des éléments qui la composent font donc l’objet d’une analyse détaillée, à savoir, la notion en tant que telle ainsi que son régime. Les résultats obtenus permettent, ensuite, d’adopter une approche synthétique afin de mieux aborder la délicate question de l’articulation entre, d’une part, cet article et, d’autre part, les autres textes qui sanctionnent le déséquilibre significatif. Ils permettent également de proposer des pistes d’amélioration de l’actuel article L. 442-1, notamment dans la perspective d’une prochaine réformeThis contribution focuses on the study of the significant imbalance under Article L. 442-1 of the French Commercial Code (formerly Article L. 442-6). The questions it raises are numerous: knowledge and specificity of the regulations in commercial relations, legitimacy of the text, internal coherence of its provisions and putting it into perspective in the global system for fighting the significant imbalance. To answer this question, it is necessary to combine two approaches, one analytical and the other synthetic. The first one is to highlight, by a scientific method previously described, the way in which judges deal with this text. The aim is to achieve a more precise and effective knowledge of the rule in question. Each of its components is therefore the subject of a detailed analysis, namely the concept as such and its system. The results obtained then make it possible to adopt a synthetic approach in order to better address the delicate question of the structure between, on the one hand, this article and, on the other hand, the other texts that sanction the significant imbalance. They also make it possible to propose ways of improving the current Article L. 442-1, particularly with a view to a forthcoming reform
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Grace, Thomas. "COMMON AIRBORNE INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM; A FRESH LOOK". International Foundation for Telemetering, 2001. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/606475.
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International Telemetering Conference Proceedings / October 22-25, 2001 / Riviera Hotel and Convention Center, Las Vegas, NevadaThe US Government originally funded the development of the Common Airborne Instrumentation System (CAIS) to address industry-wide compatibility, maintenance, and commonality issues. Although initially targeted for US Department of Defense (DoD) programs, CAIS is also being used throughout the world in many commercial applications. This paper provides a fresh look at the evolution of the CAIS concept starting with some historical background of the CAIS Program, an overview of the CAIS System Architecture and recent trends in the use of “Commercial Off The Shelf (COTS)” products and technology.
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Al-Naddaf, Hani. "L'application de la notion d'entreprise entre le Code de commerce français et le Code civil du Québec". Thèse, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/1866/2351.
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Ce mémoire analyse l'introduction et l'application de la notion d'entreprise dans le Code de
commerce français et dans le Code civil du Québec. En adoptant cette notion, les deux
législateurs avaient pour objet principal de pallier à la désuétude de principes traditionnels
du droit commercial et d'ajuster leurs législations aux nouvelles mutations économiques et
sociales. Ainsi, est évoquée présentement, en France comme au Québec, la notion
d'entreprise.
Cependant, force est de constater que le rôle donné à cette notion de même que le contexte
dans lequel elle s'applique ne sont pas les mêmes dans les deux législations. Dans le C.c.Q.,
la notion d'entreprise a remplacé définitivement la notion de commerce afin d'élargir le
champ d'application des règles dérogatoires propres au monde des affaires. Quant au
législateur français, bien qu'il ait introduit l'entreprise dans la plupart des règles des affaires,
il a opté pour le maintien du droit commercial.
Dès lors, l'accent sera mis sur la méthode poursuivie par chacune des deux législations
quant à l'adoption et l'application de la notion d'entreprise ainsi que sur les difficultés et les
avantages inhérents à chaque démarche.
La conclusion tirée de cette étude montre que les deux expériences sont aux antipodes l'une
de l'autre en ce qui concerne l'état actuel de droit de chaque législation suite à l'adoption de
la notion d'entreprise. En gardant la notion de commerce, le législateur français profite
toujours d'une stabilité juridique certaine dérivant notamment d'un bagage doctrinal et
jurisprudentiel notable, lié au droit commercial. Toutefois, cette stabilité est faite au
détriment d'une structure juridique cohérente et logique. Par contre, le C.c.Q. repose sur des
règles juridiques homogènes et rationnelles dignes d'un système juridique évolué.
Cependant, il essuie plusieurs difficultés quant à l'interprétation et l'application de la
nouvelle notion, étant donné la nouveauté de la réforme.An analysis of the implementation of the notion of enterprise in the French Commercial Code and the Civil Code of Quebec is undertaken in this study. By adopting the concept of enterprise, both legislators wanted to overcome the obsolescence of the traditional principles of the commercial law and adjust their legislations to the modem economic and social mutations. Thus, this concept is currently referred to in France and in Quebec. However, it would be a flaw to accept the adoption and implementation of the concept of enterprise as the same in France and in Quebec. Indeed, in the Civil Code of Quebec, the enterprise concept replaced completely the concept of commerce to widen the realm of application of the rules applied in the business world. On the other hand, despite the adoption of this concept on most of the business regulations, the French legislator chose to preserve the commercial law. The emphasis in this thesis is to contrast the two paths taken by France and Quebec to adopt and implement the concept of enterprise and to highlight the advantages and disadvantages of each path. This study concludes that the two experiences are in contradiction with regard to the current state of law in France and in Quebec after adopting the notion of enterprise. By safeguarding the notion of commerce, the French legislator still profiting from stable juridical system derived essentially from the commercial law's doctrine and jurisprudence. However, this stability was maintained at the cost of a logical and coherent legal structure. On the other hand, the Civil Code of Quebec is based on rational and homogeneous rules that correspond to a modern legal system. Nevertheless, given the novelty of the legal reforms, many challenges arise when it cornes to the application and interpretation of the new concept of enterprise.
"Mémoire présenté à la faculté des études supérieures en vue de l'obtention du grade de maîtrise en droit des affaires LLM"
Książki na temat "French commercial code"
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France. The French commercial code in English. Wyd. 2. [United States?]: Oxford University Press, 2006.
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France. The French commercial code in English. Wyd. 2. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 2005.
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France. The French commercial code in English. Wyd. 2. New York, N.Y: Oxford University Press, 2008.
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France. The French commercial code in English. Wyd. 2. Dobbs Ferry, N.Y: Oceana Publications, 2004.
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France. The French commercial code in English, 2007. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
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Switzerland. Swiss penal code: Selected provisions relevant to business : English translation and official German, French and Italian texts. Wyd. 2. Zurich: Swiss-American Chamber of Commerce, in cooperation with Schulthess, 2008.
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Goirand, Léopold. The French Code of commerce and most usual commercial laws: With a theoretical and practical commentary and a compendium of the judicial organisation and of tile [i.e. the] course of procedure before the tribunals of commerce, together with the text of the law, the most recent decisions of the courts, and a glossary of French judicial terms. Holmes Beach, Fla: Gaunt, 1999.
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French Commercial Code in English 2006. Wyd. 2. Oxford University Press, USA, 2006.
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Raworth, Philip. The French Commercial Code In English 2004. Oceana Pubns, 2004.
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The French Commercial Code In English 2009. Oxford University Press, USA, 2010.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródłaCzęści książek na temat "French commercial code"
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"National Report for Brazil". W Commencement of Insolvency Proceedings, redaktorzy Rachel Sztajn, Paulo Fernando Campos Salles de Toledo i Fernando César Nimer Moreira da Silva. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199644223.003.0003.
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The first Brazilian insolvency legislation was part of the Commercial Code of 1850; before then, Portuguese Law had applied. The insolvency procedure was inspired by the French Commercial Code of 1807 (the so-called Napoleonic Code), and by the Portuguese Law of 1756. A cessation of payments was regarded as the sole basis for a declaration of bankruptcy.
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"On the Origins of the French Commercial Code: Vicissitudes of the Gorneau Draft". W Understanding the Sources of Early Modern and Modern Commercial Law, 350–63. Brill | Nijhoff, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004363144_016.
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"The Reception of the French Commercial Code in Nineteenth-Century Polish Territories: A Hollow Legal Shell". W Modernisation, National Identity and Legal Instrumentalism (Vol. I: Private Law), 143–63. Brill | Nijhoff, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004417274_007.
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Hardy, Lawrence Harold. "A History of Computer Networking Technology". W Encyclopedia of Multimedia Technology and Networking, Second Edition, 613–18. IGI Global, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-60566-014-1.ch082.
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The computer has influenced the very fabric of modern society. As a stand-alone machine, it has proven itself a practical and highly efficient tool for education, commerce, science, and medicine. When attached to a network—the Internet for example—it becomes the nexus of opportunity, transforming our lives in ways that are both problematic and astonishing. Computer networks are the source for vast amounts of knowledge, which can predict the weather, identify organ donors and recipients, or analyze the complexity of the human genome (Shindler, 2002). The linking of ideas across an information highway satisfies a primordial hunger humans have to belong and to communicate. Early civilizations, to satisfy this desire, created information highways of carrier pigeons (Palmer, 2006). The history of computer networking begins in the 19th century with the invention of the telegraph, the telephone, and the radiotelegraph. The first communications information highway based on electricity was created with the deployment of the telegraph. The telegraph itself is no more than an electromagnet connected to a battery, connected to a switch, connected to wire (Derfler & Freed, 2002). The telegraph operates very straightforwardly. To send a message (electric current), the telegrapher rapidly opens and closes the telegraph switch. The receiving telegraph uses the electric current to create a magnetic field, which causes an observable mechanical event (Calvert, 2004). The first commercial telegraph was patented in Great Britain by Charles Wheatstone and William Cooke in 1837 (The Institution of Engineering and Technology, 2007). The Cooke-Wheatstone Telegraph required six wires and five magnetic needles. Messages were created when combinations of the needles were deflected left or right to indicate letters (Derfler & Freed, 2002). Almost simultaneous to the Cooke-Wheatstone Telegraph was the Samuel F. B. Morse Telegraph in the United States in 1837 (Calvert, 2004). In comparison, the Morse Telegraph was decidedly different from its European counterpart. First, it was much simpler than the Cooke-Wheatstone Telegraph: to transmit messages, it used one wire instead of six. Second, it used a code and a sounder to send and receive messages instead of deflected needles (Derfler & Freed, 2002). The simplicity of the Morse Telegraph made it the worldwide standard. The next major change in telegraphy occurred because of the efforts of French inventor Emile Baudot. Baudot’s first innovation replaced the telegrapher’s key with a typewriter like keyboard. His second innovation replaced the dots and dashes of Morse code with a five-unit or five-bit code—similar to American standard code for information interchange (ASCII) or extended binary coded decimal interchange code (EBCDIC)—he developed. Unlike Morse code, which relied upon a series of dots and dashes, each letter in the Baudot code contained a combination of five electrical pulses. Eventually all major telegraph companies converted to Baudot code, which eliminated the need for a skilled Morse code telegrapher (Derfler & Freed, 2002). Finally, Baudot, in 1894, invented a distributor which allowed his printing telegraph to multiplex its signals; as many as eight machines could send simultaneous messages over one telegraph circuit (Britannica Concise Encyclopedia , 2006). The Baudot printing telegraph paved the way for the Teletype and Telex (Derfler & Freed, 2002). The second forerunner of modern computer networking was the telephone. It was a significant advancement over the telegraph for it personalized telecommunications, bringing the voices and emotions of the sender to the receiver. Unlike its predecessor the telegraph, telephone networks created virtual circuit to connect telephones to one another (Shindler, 2002). Legend credits Alexander Graham Bell as the inventor of the telephone in 1876. He was not. Bell was the first to patent the telephone. Historians credit Italian- American scientist Antonio Meucci as the inventor of the telephone. Meucci began working on his design for a talking telegraph in 1849 and filed a caveat for his design in 1871 but was unable to finance commercial development. In 2002, the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution recognizing his accomplishment to telecommunications (Library of Congress, 2007).
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Hardy, Lawrence Harold. "A History of Computer Networking Technology". W Networking and Telecommunications, 26–32. IGI Global, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-60566-986-1.ch003.
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The computer has influenced the very fabric of modern society. As a stand-alone machine, it has proven itself a practical and highly efficient tool for education, commerce, science, and medicine. When attached to a network—the Internet for example—it becomes the nexus of opportunity, transforming our lives in ways that are both problematic and astonishing. Computer networks are the source for vast amounts of knowledge, which can predict the weather, identify organ donors and recipients, or analyze the complexity of the human genome (Shindler, 2002). The linking of ideas across an information highway satisfies a primordial hunger humans have to belong and to communicate. Early civilizations, to satisfy this desire, created information highways of carrier pigeons (Palmer, 2006). The history of computer networking begins in the 19th century with the invention of the telegraph, the telephone, and the radiotelegraph. The first communications information highway based on electricity was created with the deployment of the telegraph. The telegraph itself is no more than an electromagnet connected to a battery, connected to a switch, connected to wire (Derfler & Freed, 2002). The telegraph operates very straightforwardly. To send a message (electric current), the telegrapher rapidly opens and closes the telegraph switch. The receiving telegraph uses the electric current to create a magnetic field, which causes an observable mechanical event (Calvert, 2004). The first commercial telegraph was patented in Great Britain by Charles Wheatstone and William Cooke in 1837 (The Institution of Engineering and Technology, 2007). The Cooke-Wheatstone Telegraph required six wires and five magnetic needles. Messages were created when combinations of the needles were deflected left or right to indicate letters (Derfler & Freed, 2002). Almost simultaneous to the Cooke-Wheatstone Telegraph was the Samuel F. B. Morse Telegraph in the United States in 1837 (Calvert, 2004). In comparison, the Morse Telegraph was decidedly different from its European counterpart. First, it was much simpler than the Cooke-Wheatstone Telegraph: to transmit messages, it used one wire instead of six. Second, it used a code and a sounder to send and receive messages instead of deflected needles (Derfler & Freed, 2002). The simplicity of the Morse Telegraph made it the worldwide standard. The next major change in telegraphy occurred because of the efforts of French inventor Emile Baudot. Baudot’s first innovation replaced the telegrapher’s key with a typewriter like keyboard. His second innovation replaced the dots and dashes of Morse code with a five-unit or five-bit code—similar to American standard code for information interchange (ASCII) or extended binary coded decimal interchange code (EBCDIC)—he developed. Unlike Morse code, which relied upon a series of dots and dashes, each letter in the Baudot code contained a combination of five electrical pulses. Eventually all major telegraph companies converted to Baudot code, which eliminated the need for a skilled Morse code telegrapher (Derfler & Freed, 2002). Finally, Baudot, in 1894, invented a distributor which allowed his printing telegraph to multiplex its signals; as many as eight machines could send simultaneous messages over one telegraph circuit (Britannica Concise Encyclopedia , 2006). The Baudot printing telegraph paved the way for the Teletype and Telex (Derfler & Freed, 2002). The second forerunner of modern computer networking was the telephone. It was a significant advancement over the telegraph for it personalized telecommunications, bringing the voices and emotions of the sender to the receiver. Unlike its predecessor the telegraph, telephone networks created virtual circuit to connect telephones to one another (Shindler, 2002). Legend credits Alexander Graham Bell as the inventor of the telephone in 1876. He was not. Bell was the first to patent the telephone. Historians credit Italian- American scientist Antonio Meucci as the inventor of the telephone. Meucci began working on his design for a talking telegraph in 1849 and filed a caveat for his design in 1871 but was unable to finance commercial development. In 2002, the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution recognizing his accomplishment to telecommunications (Library of Congress, 2007).
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Easley, Alexis. "Coda". W New Media and the Rise of the Popular Woman Writer, 1832-1860, 242–56. Edinburgh University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9781474475921.003.0008.
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In the conclusion, I reflect on the resonances of early and mid-Victorian popular media practices in our own time—the questions they raise as we consider the ways our experience of Victorian women’s writing is mediated, remediated, and cross-marketed in digital formats. My case studies for this investigation are Eliza Meteyard and Rose Ellen Hendriks. Writers like Meteyard and Hendriks were able to take advantage of changing media technologies—e.g., the expansion of cheap newspapers and transnational press networks—to promote the recirculation of their work in ways that made it seem continually fresh and relevant. For some, subsequent changes in media practices led to de-canonization, yet an exploration of their afterlife in new media of our own time demonstrates the temporary, contingent nature of any writer’s or textual object’s disappearance from the historical record or from public view. The recirculation and serendipitous recovery of Victorian women writers’ texts, portraits, book covers, and ephemera in social media de-contextualize and repurpose these materials for a variety of social, commercial, and artistic ends. An investigation of the afterlife of early and mid-Victorian women’s writing reminds us of the mobile, shifting relationship between popular writing and new media, both past and present.
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Berry, Christopher J. "6. Trading and spending". W Adam Smith: A Very Short Introduction, 79–99. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780198784456.003.0006.
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In Book IV of the Wealth of Nations, Smith identifies two faulty alternatives to his own explanation of the wealth of nations: the French Physiocrats, who argued that land is the sole source of wealth and revenue, and the mercantile system that aimed to achieve a favourable balance of trade by encouraging a surplus of exports over imports. ‘Trading and spending’ outlines the core of Smith’s system: free trade underlined by the principle of natural liberty. Smith believed that government in a commercial society has three duties: protection from external foes, maintenance of public works, and an ‘exact administration of justice’. How public expenses can be met through taxation and through borrowing is also explained.
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Martineau, Anne-Charlotte. "Chicotte". W International Law's Objects, 182–90. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198798200.003.0015.
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In the French language, especially as it is practised today in Africa, a chicotte designates a whipping or flogging object. Looking at the history of the chicotte through the lens of the ‘standard of civilization’, this chapter shows that the chicotte has been perceived, presented, and regulated by international law differently at different times. During the Leopoldian era, the infliction of the chicotte became the symbol of a ruthless commercial enterprise that, reformers urged, had to be stopped. When the Belgian state took over the colonial administration of the Congo, the chicotte was turned into a public-law device for ‘civilizing’ native subjects. More recently, in the postcolonial world, the chicotte has come to be seen in international law as a pre-modern artefact, a breach of human rights, the use of which calls for punishment and transformation.
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Baporikar, Neeta. "Critical Review of Entrepreneurship in Oman". W Entrepreneurship and Business Innovation in the Middle East, 147–74. IGI Global, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-2066-5.ch008.
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Entrepreneurship has assumed super importance for accelerating economic growth both in developed and developing countries. It promotes capital formation and creates wealth in country. It is hope and dreams of millions of individuals around the world. It reduces unemployment and poverty and it is a pathway to prosper. The word entrepreneur is of French origin and literally means the person that takes between – the middlemen; in a more free translation, the individual who pursues a commercial activity. In spite of various studies, defining entrepreneurship is still a major dispute among researchers and the word entrepreneur still has no common meaning among the academic community. So, espousing a very broad definition for entrepreneurship that incorporates business owners and self-employed individuals and adopting a grounded theory approach with in depth literature review of published documents and data, the core of this chapter is to review critically entrepreneurship in the Middle East with specific focus on Oman.
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McCann, Ben. "Late style". W Julien Duvivier. Manchester University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.7228/manchester/9780719091148.003.0007.
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This last chapter looks at Duvivier’s late style, and makes the case that his final films, before his death in 1967, retain the classicism of mise en scène, the evocative location shooting, and the core thematic concerns – deception, misanthropy, the fragility of the (male) group, the dangerous woman – that characterise Duvivier’s career. It will explore how Duvivier continued to return to source texts (Pot-Bouille [1957], Chair de poule [1963]), made chamber pieces (Marie-Octobre [1959], Diaboliquement vôtre [1967]) and Gothic noir (La Chambre ardente [1962]). This period also saw Duvivier re-imagine the coordinates of French noir and the fantasy film, two genres generally overlooked by most critics at the time. The chapter also evaluates Duvivier’s contributions to the look and logic of the ‘Tradition of Quality’ cinema. He continued to push at the rigid boundaries between commercial and auteur work, working with significant stars (Brigitte Bardot, Danielle Darrieux, Alain Delon and Jean-Pierre Léaud).
Streszczenia konferencji na temat "French commercial code"
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Paradot, N., C. Talotte, H. Garem, J. Delville i J. P. Bonnet. "A Comparison of the Numerical Simulation and Experimental Investigation of the Flow Around a High Speed Train". W ASME 2002 Joint U.S.-European Fluids Engineering Division Conference. ASMEDC, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/fedsm2002-31430.
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Numerical simulations of the turbulent flow surrounding a high speed train are carried out at SNCF (French Railways) using the commercial code Star CD. The numerical methodology developed consists in building the complete detailed topology of a train with basic blocks. The validation of the method is done through a comparison with wind tunnel experiments. A globally good agreement is found concerning the drag estimation of a short trainset. Predictions of mean streamwise velocity and turbulent kinetic energy show the quite satisfactory capabilities of the methodology.
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Goncalve`s, Eric, Regiane Fortes Patella, Julien Rolland, Benoit Pouffary i Guillaume Challier. "Thermodynamic Effect on a Cavitating Inducer in Liquid Hydrogen". W ASME 2009 Fluids Engineering Division Summer Meeting. ASMEDC, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/fedsm2009-78028.
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This study was led in collaboration with the French space agency (CNES) and the rocket engine division of Snecma. The main aims were the simulations and the analyses of cavitating flows in the rocket engine turbopump inducers, where the run fluids are LH2 and LOx under cryogenic conditions. A ρ(P,T) state law modeling the cavitation phenomenon was integrated by the laboratory LEGI in the commercial CFD code Fine/Turbo™, developed by Numeca International. Various 3D numerical results are given for an inducer geometry and comparisons are made with experimental data (head drop curves) obtained by NASA.
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Couso, Daniel, Jose´ Fano, Felicidad Ferna´ndez, Elena Ferna´ndez, Julio A. Guirao, Jose´ L. Lastra, Victor J. Marti´nez, Javier Ordieres i Iva´n Va´zquez. "Development of Codes and Standards for ITER In-Vessel Components". W ASME 2011 Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference. ASMEDC, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/pvp2011-57611.
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This paper describes the changes made to existing version of the Structural Design Criteria for In-vessel Components (SDC-IC) within the ITER project, as a result of the revision and update process carried out recently. Several ITER components, referred to as In-vessel Components, are located inside the ITER Vacuum Vessel: (a) Blanket System: shields the Vessel and Magnets from heat and neutron fluxes; (b) Divertor: extracts heat, helium ash and impurities from the plasma; (c) Fuelling: gas injection system to introduce fuel into the Vacuum Vessel; (d) Ion Cyclotron Heating & Current Drive System: transfers energy to the plasma by electromagnetic radiation; (e) Electron Cyclotron Heating & Current Drive System: uses radio waves to heat to the plasma; (f) Neutral Beam Heating & Current Drive System: accelerates Deuterium particles into the plasma; (g) Lower Hybrid Heating & Current Drive System: drives electric current into the plasma; (h) Diagnostics: measurement systems to control plasma performance, and further understand plasma physics; (i) Test Blankets: demonstrate techniques for ensuring tritium production within the tokamak. ITER In-vessel Components will be subjected to special operating and environmental conditions (neutron radiation, high heat fluxes, electromagnetic forces, etc.). The effects of irradiation on them, including embrittlement, swelling and creep, are not addressed in the existing commercial codes. These conditions are different from conditions in fission reactors and create challenging issues related to the design of these components. For this reason the Structural Design Criteria for ITER In-vessel Components (SDC-IC) [1] was developed for design purposes. SDC-IC was based mainly on the RCC-MR [2] code, and included rules for assessment of effect of neutron irradiation. In 2008 some issues were identified: (1) Some parts had not been fully prepared to cover all needed areas for design; (2) Some important topics needed to be improved; (3) New editions of codes on pressure equipment had been published; (4) No manufacturing rules were included, so consistency between manufacturing rules to be used and design rules in SDC-IC needed to be demonstrated; (5) Compliance with the ESP (French Decree concerning the Pressure Equipment Directive 97/23/EC for non-nuclear pressure vessels) [3] and ESPN (French Order applicable for pressure vessels intended for nuclear facilities) [4] needed to be addressed. The work carried out for Fusion For Energy (European Union’s Joint Undertaking for ITER) is: (a) Modification of design rules, incorporating rules from recently developed codes, and development of specific design rules to cover ITER specific issues and operational conditions; (b) Demonstration of consistency between design rules in SDC-IC and european standards used for manufacturing, in particular EN 13445 [5]; identifying areas where consistency is not provided; (c) Assessment of the compliance with the Essential Safety Requirements of the French Regulations (ESP and ESPN).
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Pouffary, Benoiˆt, Regiane Fortes Patella i Jean-Luc Reboud. "Numerical Simulation of 3D Cavitating Flows: Analysis of Cavitation Head Drop in Turbomachinery". W ASME 2005 Fluids Engineering Division Summer Meeting. ASMEDC, 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/fedsm2005-77356.
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The numerical simulation of cavitating flows in turbomachinery is studied at the Turbomachinery and Cavitation team of LEGI (Grenoble - France) in collaboration with the French space agency (CNES) and the rocket engine division of SNECMA Moteurs. A barotropic state law is proposed to model the cavitation phenomenon and this model has been integrated in the commercial CFD code Fine/TurboTM, developed and commercialized by Numeca International. The numerical aspects of the work are mainly focused on numerical stability and reliability of the algorithm, when introducing large density variations through the strongly non linear barotropic state law. This research conducted first to changes in the way preconditioning parameters are calculated. Internal flows in turbomachinery have been deeply investigated. A methodology allowing the numerical simulation of the head drop induced by the development of cavitation has been proposed on the basis of computations in inducers and centrifugal pumps. These simulations have allowed the characterization of the mechanisms leading to the head drop and the visualization of the effects of the development of cavitation on internal flows.
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D’hondt, Pierre, Peter Baeten, Leo Sannen, Daniel Marloye, Benoit Lance, Alfred Renard i Jacques Basselier. "The REBUS Experimental Programme for Burn-Up Credit". W 12th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering. ASMEDC, 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/icone12-49164.
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An international programme called REBUS for the investigation of the burn-up credit has been initiated by the Belgian Nuclear Research Centre SCK-CEN and Belgonucle´aire with the support of EdF and IRSN from France and VGB, representing German nuclear utilities and NUPEC, representing the Japanese industry. Recently also ORNL from the U.S. joined the programme. The programme aims to establish a neutronic benchmark for reactor physics codes in order to qualify the codes for calculations of the burn-up credit. The benchmark exercise investigates the following fuel types with associated burn-up: reference fresh 3.3% enriched UO2 fuel, fresh commercial PWR UO2 fuel and irradiated commercial PWR UO2 fuel (54 GWd/tM), fresh PWR MOX fuel and irradiated PWR MOX fuel (20 GWd/tM). The experiments on the three configurations with fresh fuel have been completed. The experiments show a good agreement between calculation and experiments for the different measured parameters: critical water level, reactivity effect of the water level and fission-rate and flux distributions. In 2003 the irradiated BR3 MOX fuel bundle was loaded into the VENUS reactor and the associated experimental programme was carried out. The reactivity measurements in this configuration with irradiated fuel show a good agreement between experimental and preliminary calculated values.
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Jaouen, Frederick, Arjen Koop i Guilherme Vaz. "Predicting Roll Added Mass and Damping of a Ship Hull Section Using CFD". W ASME 2011 30th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering. ASMEDC, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/omae2011-49085.
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In this paper, the flow around a forced rolling body is analyzed with MARIN in-house CFD code ReFRESCO. The objective is to assess if the code can correctly predict the added mass and damping coefficients of a rolling vessel. After a description of code and numerical methods, the results for the flow computed around a 2D rolling hull section are presented. Sharp and rounded bilges are investigated for three roll amplitudes and three roll periods. The influence of grid and time discretisation and iterative errors are analyzed. The CFD results with Re-FRESCO are compared to experiments and to results obtained with the commercial CFD package CFX. The results shown here indicate that ReFRESCO is capable of accurately predicting the added mass and damping coefficients. However, it is also shown that fine grids and time-steps are required to obtain a grid and time-step converged solution.
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Pohorˇelsky´, Ludeˇk, Philippe Obernesser, Jirˇi Va´vra, Vojteˇch Kli´r i Jan Macek. "1-D Model and Experimental Tests of Pressure Wave Supercharger". W ASME 2007 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. ASMEDC, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/imece2007-43427.
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In this contribution, a pressure wave supercharger (PWS) is investigated both at diesel engine and at combustion chamber test bench using 1-D simulation and experimental measuring. Moreover, a combustion engine supercharged by PWS has been compared using 1-D simulation to turbocharged one at steady state and transient operations. A pressure wave supercharger is simulated using a detailed model based on the partial differential equations capturing non-linear effects of gas dynamics. The work has been performed using the commercial 1-D code GT-Power. A concept of modeling used enables to integrate the PWS model with all other models which are already created in the commercial codes (like more precise model of combustion, vehicle model, etc.). The PWS takes advantage of the direct pressure and enthalpy exchange between exhaust gases and fresh air in narrow channels to provide boost pressure. Due to the direct contact between exhaust gas and fresh air, a mixing occurs. Nevertheless, this internal recirculation of exhaust gas can be used for lowering of NOx emissions, but at the same time it could deteriorate engine power as the result of a lack of oxygen. The internal mixing has been investigated using 1-D simulation and different possibilities to avoid mixing have been tested. The PWS has showed during the simulation work behavior it could fulfill demand on a modern car propulsion system. Finally, PWS measurements with a combustion chamber have been undertaken and compared to the 1-D simulation results. Using the results of PWS measurement at the test bench and the 1-D simulation the usage of PWS in fuel cell applications is discussed, as well. This work results from the collaboration between Josef Bozˇek Research Center and Renault SA.
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Pascal, J. P., J. Berger, F. Bondon, C. Clerc i S. Teppe. "Coupling OCREC Contact Code With ADAMS: Simulations of One Coach at 130mph". W ASME 2009 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and Information in Engineering Conference. ASMEDC, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/detc2009-87240.
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This paper presents the Online Calculation of Railway Elastic Contacts (OCREC), a dynamic railway calculation tool based on an advanced contact kernel, and its coupling with the MSC ADAMS multi-body commercial software. The OCREC contact kernel is used as a subroutine of multi-body codes in order to calculate contact forces between wheelsets and rails. The OCREC method is “online” as it not only redefines new contact parameters at each time step but also determines all simultaneous contacts on each wheel as allowed by Hertz Elasticity theory. From the normal forces and relative velocities given by the Hertz theory, Tangential Forces are calculated using Kalker’s FASTSIM (modified for elliptical pressure distribution). After a description of the OCREC theory, the paper presents the linkage between OCREC and MSC ADAMS software. OCREC calculates contact forces within a Frenet frame (oxyz) following the track layout where ox is tangent to the track; oy is horizontal and oz normal to oxy. As ADAMS calculates inside a different frame, and as it has no built-in track system, it was necessary to develop a program capable of connecting 3 different frames: the ‘dummy’ track frame, the Frenet frame and the fixed ADAMS frame. Note that the ‘dummy’ frame is directly calculated from railway track curvature measurements recorded in so-called ‘space curves’. The OCREC ADAMS link is first validated by a bogie rolling on a dummy track. With the equations of the OCRECYM code established directly within the “dummy” frame, the OCREC-ADAMS results are compared to a specific OCRECYM validation code. Then, the results from an actual railway case are presented: behavior of one coach is calculated on a real measured track including curves and defaults. During the following step, the OCREC-ADAMS results are compared to OCRECYM results. After some model updating for adjustment to physical properties of elastic joints (helicoidal springs), a good correlation is obtained between the codes. The analysis of the different force and displacement components proves this kind of numerical tool’s capabilities of assessing the railway vehicle’s dynamic behavior. Especially, the Y/Q safety ratio is well calculated. Thus, the OCREC contact kernel, which is powerful for complex contact topologies such as conformal contacts, and necessary for high speed safety calculation, can be used as a subroutine of standard multi-body software, giving it high capabilities for dynamic railway calculation.
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D’hondt, Pierre, Klaas van der Meer, Peter Baeten, Daniel Marloye, Benoit Lance i Jacques Basselier. "The REBUS Experimental Programme for Burn-Up Credit". W 10th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering. ASMEDC, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/icone10-22022.
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An international programme called REBUS (REactivity tests for a direct evaluation of the Burn-Up credit on Selected irradiated LWR fuel bundles) for the investigation of the burn-up credit has been initiated by the Belgian Nuclear Research Center SCK•CEN and Belgonucle´aire with the support of USNRC, EdF from France, VGB, representing German nuclear utilities and NUPEC, representing the Japanese industry. The programme aims to establish a neutronic benchmark for reactor physics codes. This benchmark will qualify the codes to perform calculations of the burn-up credit. The benchmark exercise investigates the following fuel types with associated burn-up: • Reference 3.3% enriched UO2 fuel; • Fresh commercial PWR UO2 fuel; • Irradiated commercial PWR UO2 fuel (51 GWd/tM); • Fresh PWR MOX fuel; • Irradiated PWR MOX fuel (20 GWd/tM). Reactivity effects are measured in the critical facility VENUS. Fission rate and flux distributions in the experimental bundles will be determined. The accumulated burn-up of all rods is measured non-destructively in a relative way by gross gamma-scanning, while some rods are examined by gamma-spectrometry for an absolute determination of the burn-up. Some rods will be analyzed destructively with respect to accumulated burn-up, actinides content and TOP-19 fission products (i.e. those non-gaseous fission products that have most implications on the reactivity). Additionally some irradiated rods have undergone a profilometry and length determination. The experimental implementation of the programme has started in 2000 with major changes in the VENUS critical facility. Gamma scans, profilometry, length determination and gamma-spectrometry measurements on the MOX fuel have been performed. In the course of October 2001 the first fresh fuel configuration will be investigated. In the same period the commercial irradiated fuel will arrive at the SCK•CEN hot cells and will be refabricated into fuel rodlets of 1 meter length.
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Molie`re, Michel, Philippe Cozzarin, Se´bastien Bouchet i Philippe Rech. "Catalytic Detection of Fuel Leaks in Gas Turbine Units: 2 — Gas Fuels Containing Hydrogen, Carbon Monoxide and Inert". W ASME Turbo Expo 2006: Power for Land, Sea, and Air. ASMEDC, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/gt2006-90290.
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The detection of explosive gas and vapors is a critical safety function in Gas Turbines (GT) units. On one hand, this subject is being revisited by the GT community and safety organizations with a main focus on conventional gas fired power units. On the other hand one sees currently an increasing use of alternative primary energies for GT units including both gaseous and liquid fuels such as LPG, naphtha, syngas and a wide series of low and medium BTU gas fuels. This has prompted GE Energy to undertake a comprehensive evaluation of commercial catalytic detectors that are of common use in the detection of gas leaks. In particular, the multiple announcements of coal-based project (IGCC) represented a strong motivation to launch this program that ambitioned to cover both hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon fuels, i.e. the largest CnHm/ CO/ H2/ N2(CO2) spectrum. This evaluation program has been jointly devised with and performed by the laboratory of INERIS, a French Institute devoted to safety and environment. Particular emphasis has been placed on the capability to detect combustible species at levels as low as 5% LEL (Lower Explosion Limit) that result from recent safety codes. The overall program has been break down into two parts. The response of catalytic detectors to hydrocarbon gas leaks (natural gases and naphtha vapors) has been addressed in 2004 and the corresponding results have been already published (ASME paper 2005GT68875). This first work phase has shown a satisfactory response of selected catalytic bead sensors towards the hydrocarbon paraffin series up to C8. The second phase (2005) tackled the detection of CH4/ CO/ H2/ N2(CO2) mixtures. In the authors’ knowledge, there was a lack of data in the current literature as to the performances of catalytic detection for this specific class of fuels. A wide range of mixtures was tested to cover the extensive spectrum of medium and low BTU gas fuels, including: “weak natural gas”, coal derived process gas (coke oven, blast furnace gas; COREX gas; etc.) and syngas. CO2 and N2 were used as inert components in concentrations from 20 to 80% vol. This paper summarizes the results of this second evaluation phase. A satisfactory response to the different CH4/ CO/ H2/ N2(CO2) mixtures has been obtained in terms of sensitivity, accuracy and detection limits which satisfies the requirements of current codes and standards. The overall program confirms the possibility to use catalytic bead sensors as a single detection technology for covering virtually all the gas turbine applications, This includes, apart from natural gas: LPG, light distillates (naphtha; gas condensates and NGL), “weak” natural gas, Medium & Low BTU fuels (Coke Oven; Blast Furnace), hydrogen-rich fuels (refinery) and the syngas segments with however the notable exclusion of middle distillates (gasoil, kerosene).