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1
Yap, C. T., i Younan Hua. "Principal Component Analysis of Chinese Porcelains from the Five Dynasties to the Qing Dynasty". Zeitschrift für Naturforschung A 47, nr 10 (1.10.1992): 1029–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/zna-1992-1004.
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AbstractThis is a study of the possibility of identifying antique Chinese porcelains according to the period or dynasty, using major and minor chemical components (SiO2 , Al2O3 , Fe2O3 , K2O, Na2O, CaO and MgO) from the body of the porcelain. Principal component analysis is applied to published data on 66 pieces of Chinese procelains made in Jingdezhen during the Five Dynasties and the Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is shown that porcelains made during the Five Dynasties and the Yuan (or Ming) and Qing Dynasties can be segregated completely without any overlap. However, there is appreciable overlap between the Five Dynasties and the Song Dynasty, some overlap between the Song and Ming Dynasties and also between the Yuan and Ming Dynasties. Interestingly, Qing procelains are well separated from all the others. The percentage of silica in the porcelain body decreases and that of alumina increases with recentness with the exception of the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, where this trend is reversed.
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Nyanchen, Zhen. "THE USE AND ARTISTIC FEATURES OF XUANZI POLYCHROME PAINTING IN THE MING AND QING DYNASTIES". Scientific and analytical journal Burganov House. The space of culture 16, nr 3 (10.09.2020): 134–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.36340//2071-6818-2020-16-3-134-144.
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In the field of the pictorial decoration of Chinese architecture, the decor of the period of the Ming and Qing dynasties is considered the most outstanding since, at that time, the technique was perfect, and the methods of decoration were rich in their diversity, which was not possible in previous eras. The polychrome painting of official buildings during the Ming and Qing dynasties’ reign is quite different from the Song dynasty’s polychrome painting. The transition from the Song dynasty’s polychrome painting to the Ming and Qing dynasties’ polychrome painting was completed during the Yuan dynasty’s reign. Due to the decrease of dougong in size in the Ming dynasty, polychrome painting began to be placed on beams. Xuanzi polychrome painting, which originated from painting beams under the Yuan dynasty, became the primary type. By the Qing dynasty, Hexi polychrome painting and Suzhou polychrome painting, which evolved from the folk polychrome painting of the Jiangnan region of the Ming dynasty, appeared. The Xuanzi type was one of the three main polychrome painting types in the Qing dynasty. It was fully developed compared to the Hexi type as it was used more widely. The article explains the development of the artistic features of the various decorative parts of Xuanzi polychrome painting during the Ming and Qing dynasties, the characteristics of each gradation, and the method of distinguishing it, as well as its place of application.
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Wang, Tongxin. "History of Chinese Classical Gardens". International Journal of Education and Humanities 4, nr 3 (27.09.2022): 235–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.54097/ijeh.v4i3.1814.
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From the beginning of Shang Dynasty to the end of Qing Dynasty the development of Chinese classical landscape gardens went through five periods: the formation period of Shang, Zhou, Qin and Han Dynasties, the transition period of Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the heyday of Tang Dynasty, the maturity period of Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties, and the middle and end of Qing Dynasty. Five thousand years of glorious Chinese culture makes Chinese classical gardens different from Western gardens and Islamic gardens. The unique garden system and style give rise to the unique and profound Chinese classical garden system in world history. Based on the history of Chinese classical gardens, the paper focuses on the historical background of the development of the Song garden, the characteristics of typical gardens and literati gardens in the two Song dynasties, in order to understand the development process of the Song garden more deeply. Under the condition of learning and understanding, the method and concept characteristics of classical garden design in Song Dynasty are inherited and applied to modern garden planning and design.
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Yuan, Chuanchuan, i Mu Jiang. "Migration and Land Exploitation from Yuan to Qing Dynasties: Insights from 252 Traditional Villages in Hunan, China". Sustainability 15, nr 2 (5.01.2023): 1001. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su15021001.
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This paper investigates 252 traditional villages in Hunan, China, and uses ArcGIS and Geodetector to analyze village expansion and land exploitation from the Yuan dynasty to the Qing dynasty caused by factors such as migration during China’s middle and late imperial periods. This article demonstrates the development of land by the earlier settlers of ancient Chinese villages and shows the progression from easily exploited flatlands to more difficult-to-exploit mountainous areas. It also shows that early settlers relied more on natural factors when establishing their villages during the Yuan Dynasty but relied more on factors such as transportation due to the migration policies introduced during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. This paper will help us to determine the migration dynamics of ethnic groups and the distribution of settlements in the region (Hunan region) during the Yuan, Ming, and Qing eras.
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Ziyu, Lju. "述补结构与处置式发展关系初探". Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale 36, nr 2 (2007): 187–218. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/19606028-90000170.
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This article investigates the development of verb complement structures and the disposal form in terms of their combination and interaction, from the Six Dynasties to the Qing dynasty. The process of grammaticalization of the disposal form began in the Six Dynasties, developed throughout the Tang and Song Dynasties and gradually took shape during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, finally being completed in the Qing Dynasty. It is suggested that the emergence of the verb complement structure accelerated the process of grammaticalization of the disposal construction in its present form, testified by its frequency in later periods.
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Yap, C. T., i Younan Hua. "Raw Materials for Making Jingdezhen Porcelain from the Five Dynasties to the Qing Dynasty". Applied Spectroscopy 46, nr 10 (październik 1992): 1488–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1366/000370292789619386.
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This is a study of 66 pieces of Jingdezhen porcelain bodies and their relation to 13 raw materials, three of which are kaolin and the rest porcelain stones from Jingdezhen. For Jingdezhen porcelains, the results show that the alumina content increases and silica content decreases as a function of time, except during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, when this trend was reversed. For raw materials, although kaolin could never be used alone for porcelain production, four of the porcelain stones could be used alone for this purpose during the Five Dynasties and part of the Song Dynasty. However, all porcelains made thereafter have varying amounts of kaolin added to the porcelain stone. Except for a reversal during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, we found that the amount of kaolin added was a function of time, reaching as high as about 60% during the Qing Dynasty.
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Chen, Andrea. "Silk Road Influences on the Art of Seals: A Study of the Song Yuan Huaya". Humanities 7, nr 3 (15.08.2018): 83. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/h7030083.
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Song Yuan Huaya (the Huaya of the Song and Yuan Dynasties) is a type of seal featuring figurative patterns and sometimes decorated with ciphered or ethnic characters. Their origins are the Song and Yuan Dynasties, although their influence extends to the Ming (1368–1644 CE) and Qing (1644–1912 CE) Dynasties. Although it is based on the Chinese Han seal tradition, Song Yuan Huaya exhibits various elements from the influence of the Silk Road. This is thought to be the first time in Han seal history that the Steppe culture can be seen so abundantly on private seals. This paper takes an interdisciplinary approach to analyse, probably for the first time in the field, some cases of Song Yuan Huaya, in which a dialogue between the Han seal tradition and Silk Road culture occurs. The findings will hopefully advance the understanding of the complicated nature of the art history, society, peoples, and ethnic relationships in question, and will serve as the starting point for further studies of intercultural communication during specific historical periods.
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Wang, Shutong. "The evolution of the coloristic of Chinese painting of the Tang, Song and Yuan periods (VII-XIV centuries) — from color to ink". Культура и искусство, nr 12 (grudzień 2024): 56–67. https://doi.org/10.7256/2454-0625.2024.12.72405.
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The article examines changes in the coloristic of Chinese painting during the Tang, Song, and Yuan dynasties, highlighting the influence of these dynastic shifts on the development of the painting palette. The focus of the research is on the tools used to study the coloristic of Chinese painting throughout its historical evolution, specifically during the Tang, Song, and Yuan periods. A significant connection exists between the subject and object of the study, evident in the transition from color to ink in Chinese painting. The study aims to explore the evolution of coloristic in these three periods and identify their main characteristics. Initially, the prehistoric palette was limited to five primary colors. However, with the rise of the Wei and Jin dynasties and the influence of Buddhist art, the palette expanded, impacting techniques such as Qinliu. The Tang dynasty represented the pinnacle of color usage, while the Song period shifted focus toward mascara and brushstroke variations. In contrast, the Yuan period showcased a refined application of mascara, favoring subtle shades over bright colors. Research methods include historical periodization and art historical attribution to analyze color scheme changes from the 7th to the 14th centuries. The scientific novelty of this research adds to theoretical frameworks regarding color use in Chinese art. Each era contributed uniquely to the development of fine art, with constant evolution in color schemes during the Tang, Song, and Yuan dynasties. The subsequent Ming and Qing dynasties emphasized black, reflecting inner emotions and signifying a shift from floral colors to ink. This transition correlates with political, economic, and cultural transformations, as well as philosophical influences. The findings have both theoretical and practical significance, applicable in educational contexts and future research.
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Song, Hui, Qingwen Meng i Chenyang Wang. "Spatial Distribution Characteristics and the Evolution of Buddhist Monasteries in Xi’an City Area". Religions 14, nr 9 (22.08.2023): 1084. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel14091084.
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Buddhist monasteries have played important roles in the development of both the culture of and urban planning in ancient Chinese cities. In this paper, the Buddhist monasteries in the city of Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, during the Song (宋), Yuan (元), Ming (明), and Qing (清) dynasties are collated from historical documents. The characteristics of the spatial distribution of Buddhist monasteries are analyzed by using kernel density estimation (KDE), and the evolution of that spatial distribution is explored by documentary analysis. The results show that Buddhist monasteries are closely surrounded by cultural buildings and warehouses, discretely surrounded by administrative buildings. The spatial distribution evolution of Buddhist monasteries has evolved evenly during the expansion of the Xi’an city area, through the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties. This study provides a reference for the preservation of Buddhist monastery spaces in the historical context of Xi’an city area.
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WANG, Mengkun. "The cultural thought of the new era is explained by the inheritance and development of strange novels in the Wei, Jin and the Southern and Northern Dynasties". Region - Educational Research and Reviews 5, nr 5 (29.12.2023): 249. http://dx.doi.org/10.32629/rerr.v5i5.1518.
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China's strange novels have gone through several stages from the strange stories of the Wei, Jin and the Southern and Northern Dynasties inherited from ancient myths, pre-Qin books, unofficial stories, folk stories, etc. to the prosperity and development of the Wei and Jin Dynasties, the legends of the Tang Dynasty, the vernacular books of the Song and Yuan Dynasties. And then Ming and Qing novels have made the strange stories reach their peak. The inheritance and development of China's novels in Wei, Jin and the Northern and the Southern Dynasties coincided with the new policy of promoting, developing and innovating the excellent traditional culture of China. In order to meet the needs of the times, Marxism should also keep pace with the times, continue to inherit, develop, innovate and change in combination with China's national conditions. From the inheritance and development of strange novels in the Wei, Jin and the Southern and the Northern Dynasties, this article explains the similarities with the thought of cultural inheritance and development in the new era.
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Jia, Dan, Yikai Li i Xiuqi Fang. "Complexity of factors influencing the spatiotemporal distribution of archaeological settlements in northeast China over the past millennium". Quaternary Research 89, nr 2 (22.02.2018): 413–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/qua.2017.112.
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AbstractRelic archeological settlement is used to indicate the development of agriculture. We extracted 8865 relic archeological settlements from theAtlas of Chinese Cultural Relicsto analyze how the spatiotemporal distribution of archaeological settlements was influenced by temperature changes and social factors during the last millennium. During the Liao dynasty (AD 916–1125) and Jin dynasty (AD 1115–1234) in the Medieval Warm Period (MWP), a large number of settlements indicated the development of agriculture as far north as 47°N. The warm climate of the MWP provided sufficient heat resources to promote the implication of positive policies of the Liao and Jin dynasties to develop agriculture and settlements. By contrast, during the dynasties of Yuan (AD 1279–1368), Ming (AD 1368–1644), and Qing (AD 1644–1911) in the Little Ice Age (LIA), the number of settlements declined drastically, and the northern boundary of the settlement distribution retreated by 3–4 degrees of latitude to modern Liaoning Province. Although the southward retreat of the settlements and related agriculture occurred in the cold climate of the LIA, it could not be completely explained by the drop in temperature. Social factors including nomadic customs, ethnic policies, and postal road systems played more important roles to the northern boundaries of the settlement distributions during the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties.
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Dong, Xinlin. "The Shangjing norm of the Liao dynasty and the Dongjing mode of the Northern Song dynasty". Chinese Archaeology 20, nr 1 (25.11.2020): 179–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/char-2020-0017.
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AbstractAfter the downfall of the Tang dynasty, the Khitan-Liao empire, the Five Dynasties, and Northern Song dynasty formed the second “northern and southern dynasties” confrontation in the history of China. Also in this period, two systems appeared in the capital city planning: the “Shangjing norm” of the Liao dynasty characterized by the 日-shaped plan view and the “Dongjing mode” of the Northern Song dynasty characterized by the 回-shaped plan view. The “Shangjing norm” is the materialization of the political system of “ruling by the customs of the peoples being ruled” applied by the nomadic rulers from the northern steppes when they were managing the empire with the Han people as the majority. This seemingly reflected the ethnic discrimination of the nomadic ruling class at the beginning of the establishment of their empire. The capital designing ideas of the Jin, Yuan, and Qing dynasties were all following this norm at the beginnings of their rules. “Dongjing mode” of the Northern Song dynasty is the materialization of the “imperial sovereignty” idea emphasized by the empires founded by the Han rulers, which seems reflecting the bureaucrat system with the centralization as the characteristics. The designs of the Liao Zhongjing (Central Capital) and the Jin Zhongdu were both simulations of that of Dongjing, which showed the trends of ethnic convergence and unification. Moreover, Dadu of the Yuan dynasty and Beijing of the Ming and Qing dynasties were the symbols of the formation of the unified multiethnic empire of China.
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Wan, Yao, i Thawascha Dechsubha. "A Survey of Traditional Chinese Drinking Games". Technium Social Sciences Journal 31 (9.05.2022): 728–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.47577/tssj.v31i1.6274.
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China has a long history of wine-brewing. Traditional Chinese drinking games are a unique and mysterious part of the Chinese drinking culture. In this paper, we deal with the development of Chinese wine first, and then we take big events as reference to uncover the history of the traditional Chinese drinking games chronologically. After introducing the representative drinking games from each dynasty, it could help people understand the general development of the traditional Chinese drinking games. The results show: (1) the Chinese wine-brewing origins from the saccharomycetes, matures in Tang and Song Dynasties, and popularizes in Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties. (2) The first traditional Chinese drinking game is pitch-pot, and it emerges in the later of Spring and Autumn Period. Its system grows mature in the Tang Dynasty. The Qing Dynasty is a united period for the collection of traditional Chinese drinking games.
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Maoting, Cao, i Boon Dar Ku. "CRAFTING STABILITY IN SICHUAN: MIGRATION STRATEGIES AND REGIONAL GOVERNANCE UNDER HONGWU (1368-1398) AND KANGXI (1661-1722)". SEJARAH 33, nr 2 (31.12.2024): ———. https://doi.org/10.22452/sejarah.vol33no2.1.
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This study explores the divergent migration policies of the Ming and Qing dynasties in Sichuan, a region grappling with severe population decline and land barrenness during the late Yuan and early Ming periods, as well as the late Ming and early Qing eras. The study compares the contrasting approaches of the Ming Dynasty under Hongwu and the Qing Dynasty under Kangxi, focusing on their strategies for managing population relocation and land reclamation. Under Hongwu, the Ming Dynasty adopted a strict and punitive approach to migration. The “Zhongdian Zhiguo” (strict governance) and the “Weisuo Zhidu” (guardhouse system) were implemented to relocate criminals and military personnel to Sichuan. These measures aimed to enforce order and control, reflecting Hongwu’s broader strategy of maintaining authority through coercion and rigorous oversight. In contrast, the Qing Dynasty under Kangxi favoured a more supportive and incentivising approach. The 1690 “Regulations on Naturalisation in Sichuan” offered land reclamation incentives to homeless individuals, promoting voluntary migration and integration. This policy sought to stabilise and develop Sichuan by encouraging settlement and land cultivation through positive reinforcement rather than punitive measures. The research provides a comparative analysis of these strategies, illustrating how the Ming Dynasty’s focus under Hongwu on control and punishment differed from the Qing Dynasty’s emphasis under Kangxi on support and incentives. This examination reveals the impact of differing governance ideologies on regional development and offers insights into the evolution of migration policies and their effects on Sichuan’s long-term stability and growth.
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李美燕, 李美燕. "琴論中「韻」的文獻解讀與美學意涵研究—以宋元明清時期為主". 藝術評論 47, nr 47 (lipiec 2024): 001–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.53106/101562402024070047001.
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<p>本文旨在透過琴論中「韻」的文獻解讀，以考察與研究其意涵的發展與流變──以宋元明清時期為主。「韻」代表中國文藝美學的風格與意境的最高成就，舉凡詩論的「神韻」、書畫論的「氣韻」都有特定的意義。然而，樂論中的「韻」卻散見於不同的古籍文獻中，缺少給予一個形成、發展與流變的說明。事實上，審諸歷代樂論來看，「韻」字幾乎都集中在「琴論」中，故本文擬針對這個課題加以研究，除了前言與結論外，內容主要在探討琴論中的「韻」在琴論中產生與流變的歷程為何。透過本文之研究，一方面讓琴論中「韻」的觀念能獲得釐清與建構；另一方面本文將指出在唐朝之前，琴論中論及「韻」者僅零星可見，直到宋代才出現「聲韻」與「氣韻」二者作為琴論中「韻」的美學要旨，前者是古琴音律與美學上的基本要求，乃是清代以前的琴論中論「韻」的重點，乃在以聲韻清雅為美；後者則在清代以後才成為古琴音樂美學的審美觀，所謂的「氣韻」強調彈琴與人之身體呼吸相契合，且又結合人之修養工夫的實踐，落實於吟猱綽注之指法運用，以成就琴韻之美的最高境界。</p> <p> </p><p>This research investigates the aesthetic significance of “yun” in ancient guqin theory. The “yun” represents the highest achievement of the style and artistic conception of Chinese literary and artistic aesthetics. Moreover, “yun” has well-defined meanings in many aspects of Chinese cultures, such as poetic theory, painting theories, and calligraphy. However, “yun” lacks a clear definition in guqin music theory. Historical records of “yun” in guqin music theory scatter over different ancient book collections. Therefore, the author intends to investigate further “yun” in guqin music theory and research how the process of generation and implementation of it. Through the above research, the concept of “yun” in ancient guqin theories can be clarified and constructed; on the other hand, the author points out that the idea of “clear yun” （清韻）and “elegant guqin” （雅琴）was only sporadically visible in the guqin theory before the Tang Dynasty. It was not until the Song Dynasty that “sound-yun” （ 聲韻） and “qi-yun” （ 氣韻）appeared as the aesthetic essence of “yun” in guqin music theory. The former is the essential requirement of guqin rhythm and aesthetics; the focus of yun in the guqin theory before the Qing Dynasty, that is, the beauty of “sound-yun” is clarity and elegance. Rhythmic vitality became the brilliant aspect of guqin music aesthetics onlyafter the Qing Dynasty. Whether from fingering, composition, etc., presenting the beauty of the yun of guqin music emphasizes the harmony with the guqin player’s body breathing. It combines the practice of human cultivation. Once the spiritual realm of the guqin player is continuously improved, he/she will achieve the highest state of the beauty of the guqin yun.</p> <p> </p>
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Wang, Dong. "Kangxi's Governance Strategy for the Mongolian Region from Kangxi Qi Ju Zhu". Korean Association for Mongolian Studies 73 (30.06.2023): 213–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.17292/kams.2023.73.213.
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When discussing Kangxi’s policy of governance in Mongolia, people mostly select Qing Shi Lu,Qin Ding Da Qing Hui Dian, Li Fan Yuan Ze Li and other historical materials, and pay little attention to Kang Xi Qi Ju Zhu, but its historical value cannot be ignored.Especially in the implementation of the Qing Dynasty system, such as the reward of Mongolian princes and the handling of penalty cases in the Mongolian region, which is rarely mentioned in other historical materials, it has great significance for studying the Qing Dynasty’s border policies, Manchu Mongolian relations, and the Qing Dynasty’s Mongolian social system. This article starts with the historical materials of the Mongolian region in the Kangxi Qi Ju Zhu,and explores the ruling measures, containment policies, and management measures of the Kangxi period towards the Mongolian region. Emperor Kangxi’s grace and authority were implemented simultaneously, which not only consolidated the rule, promoted the development of agriculture, animal husbandry, and animal husbandry in the Mongolian region, but also strengthened exchanges with the Mongolian region, promoting ethnic integration.
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Han, Xin. "The Boundedness of Adjectival Predication in Chinese: From Diachronic Perspective". International Journal of Education and Humanities 5, nr 2 (19.10.2022): 41–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.54097/ijeh.v5i2.1988.
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By means of diachronic comparative analysis, this paper investigates the boundedness of adjectival predication from a historical perspective. Remarkable differences are observed to exist between modern Mandarin and classic Chinese: firstly, some adjectival-predicates had underwent changes from unmarked to marked form, accompanied by an increase of the number of adjectival-predicate markers; secondly, some adjectival-predicate markers are found in both classic and modern Chinese, however, their different usage in different periods indicates a tendency towards increasing bounded degree; in contrast, there are also some markers that could modify adjectival-predicate independently in early period but lost this function gradually. These diachronic evidences suggest the boundarization of adjectival predication in Chinese. Corpus data and statistic analysis are also used to examine when the boundedness of adjectival predication was established. It is shown that the boundarizing process began in the middle ancient times, then developed rapidly in Song and Yuan Dynasties, and finally completed in Ming and Qing Dynasties.
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D., Naran. "Бээжин дэх төрийн хөвгүүдийн сургууль болон Монголын түүхэнд холбогдох нэгэн чулуун хөшөөний бичээсийн тухай". Mongolian Journal of Foreign Languages and Culture 20, nr 450 (2.03.2023): 93–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.22353/mjflc.v20i450.2871.
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The Beijing Guozijian located at the Guozijian street in Beijing, China, was the imperial academy during the Yuan, Ming ,and Qing dynasties, and the last Guozijian of China. The Guozijian was first built in 1306 during the 24th year of Zhiyuan Reign of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, and was reconstructed and renovated on a large scale during Yongle and Zhengtong reigns of the Ming Dynasty. This article focused on study of inscription on stele erected inside Imperial Academy (Gozijian. There were three Mongol graduates names scarfed in traditional Chinese characters, fortunately remained in well condiition from 13th century. In this article the author made attempt to restore their names in Mongolian, to determine who were these people,the time of erection of this stele monument.
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Shao, Nan. "The Influence of Politics in Different Chinese Dynasties on the Central Axis of Beijing". Communications in Humanities Research 5, nr 1 (14.09.2023): 461–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.54254/2753-7064/5/20230370.
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The Beijing central axis is an iconic feature of the citys urban layout, stretching from the Drum Tower in the north to the Forbidden City in the south. It has played an essential role in shaping Beijings urban landscape and reflects the citys political, cultural, and social history. This academic essay centers on the impact of political factors on the development and design of the central axis in Beijing and its advantages and drawbacks for the city, utilizing a cohesive narrative of dynastic transitions. Since the Yuan dynasty established Beijing as the capital, urban layout focused on symmetry and set the groundwork for the central axis construction in later dynasties. As imperial power grew stronger during the Ming and Qing dynasties, the central axis development continued, particularly with the construction and expansion of the Forbidden City, demonstrating the significant impact of political factors on urban planning. This influence persisted into the modern era with Beijing remaining the political and cultural centre of China. The contemporary planning of the central axis has prioritised the integration of historical and cultural preservation with modern development, exemplifying the harmony between the past and present.
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Yan, Gui, Zhang Tianju i Han Liebao. "The Study of Chui Wan, a Golf-like Game in the Song, Yuan, and Ming Dynasties of Ancient China". Journal of Sport History 39, nr 2 (1.07.2012): 283–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/jsporthistory.39.2.283.
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Abstract Chui wan was a game that was once very popular in the Song, Yuan, and Ming Dynasties of ancient China. It bore a strong resemblance to the game of golf. According to the records, chui wan originated from the ancient polo game in the Song Dynasty, and its development culminated in the Yuan Dynasty and Ming Dynasty but then it disappeared sometime in the Qing Dynasty. Wan Jing, the first monograph about chui wan in Chinese history, described the game in detail. This article introduces the history of chui wan and also the site choice, equipment, rules, strategies, and etiquette of the game as described in the book, Wan Jing. The authors hope it will help with future studies and research on the potential relations between chui wan and golf.
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Cai, Rui. "A Preliminary Study on the Main Ridge Decoration of Buildings in Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties in Guanzhong Area". Journal of Architectural Research and Development 6, nr 3 (31.05.2022): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.26689/jard.v6i3.3815.
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The function of roof ridge ornament is irreplaceable in the facade modeling of traditional Chinese architecture. Taking the ornament in the Ming and Qing Dynasties in Guanzhong area as an example, this paper summarizes and analyzes the appearance characteristics, and internal cultural connotation of the ornament that is currently present in the Guanzhong area from the aspects of its decorative content, color, and grade indication. Further, make relevant discussions, hoping to supplement the research of ancient ornament.
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Cao, Zhenghan. "Centralization and decentralization of power structure: A theory of ruling risks and empirical evidence from Chinese history". Chinese Journal of Sociology 4, nr 4 (październik 2018): 506–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2057150x18789048.
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In Chinese history, the power relationship between the central and local governments has undergone perennial and critical changes. These changes have given rise to three questions: First, why did some dynasties adopt feudalism at an early stage, merely to curtail the local authority in times of stability? Second, why did the Yuan and Ming dynasties employ a native chieftain system, while the Qing dynasty struggled to bureaucratise the native officers in ethnic minority areas? Third, why were the dynasties of Han ethnicity so hesitant to set up a provincial government while nomadic societies did not view this as a dilemma? Furthermore, why was the Qing dynasty, which was ethnically Han, able to break down these contradictions and create a stable provincial government and provincial state? This paper demonstrates that these changes may be explained by the propensity of the rulers to minimise the ruling risks and constraints that they encountered. Specifically, the ruler’s decision to centralise or decentralise power was constrained by certain challenges, such as fiscal and administrative costs, military technology limitations and political competition. These constraints impelled the ruling class to deviate from the system of prefectures and countries. Under these circumstances, the central government was forced to endure higher social risks and also the potential delegation of power. However, it would reduce the social and delegate risks provided that the constraints were loosened, which triggered the evolution of a power structure between the central and local governments. Another potential driving force behind the changes in the power structure was the dynamic between the social and agency risks. When these risks increased, the central government would readjust the centralisation and decentralisation of power at different government levels to control the rising risks.
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Han, Xin. "A Comparative Study on Unmarked Adjectival Predication and Boundedness in Modern Mandarin and Classic Chinese". International Journal of Education and Humanities 5, nr 3 (16.11.2022): 165–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.54097/ijeh.v5i3.2796.
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Conceptualization according to boundedness and unboundedness is a universal characteristic of human cognition. By a comparative analysis on unmarked adjectival predication in modern Mandarin and classic Chinese, this paper aims to investigate the boundedness of adjectival predication from a historical perspective. It is revealed that in classic Chinese unmarked adjectival-predicates were more complicated, and adjectives were able to function as predicates much more freely without the support of functional elements. It is also worth noting that the unmarked adjectival predication in modern Chinese are are actually boundarized at the context level from pragmatic perspective. In addition, corpus data and statistic analysis are also used to examine the changes of unmarked adjectival-predicates in different historical period. It can be clearly seen that the use of unmarked adjectival-predicates began to decline in the middle ancient times, then decreased continuously in Song and Yuan Dynasties, and become very restricted and rare in Ming and Qing Dynasties.
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Ding, Juncheng, i Xin Luo. "Exploring the reasons for the rise and fall of Taoism from the perspective of historical development: Taking several key periods as examples". SHS Web of Conferences 185 (2024): 02008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/202418502008.
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The paper delves into the historical development of Taoism, analyzing its rise and fall across various Chinese dynasties. It begins with the Eastern Han dynasty, emphasizing Zhang Ling’s role in establishing Taoism as a significant religious force. The paper highlights the strategic expansion of Taoist influence under Zhang Lu in Sichuan. During the South North Dynasty, the focus shifts to Tao Hongjing’s efforts in integrating Taoist, Buddhist, and Confucian ideas, thereby creating a comprehensive deity system. The contributions of Ge Hong, especially in alchemy and the concept of ’inner alchemy’, are noted in the context of the Danding School. The peak of ancient Taoism is traced back to the Song and Yuan dynasties, underscoring the pivotal support of emperors and the roles of figures like Zhang Zhengsui and Zhang Jixian in promoting Taoism. However, the Ming and Qing dynasties saw Taoism’s decline due to the suppression of religious practices and its reduction to a mere cultural aspect for the royal family and aristocracy. The paper concludes by proposing a future path for Taoism, emphasizing the need for adaptation to modern society. It suggests that Taoism should lower barriers to entry and increase its relevance to contemporary life, learning from other religions like Christianity, to sustain its growth and significance in the modern era.
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Tang, Shiyin. "The Influence of Language Contact on the Usages of xən35 in Duyun Dialect". Journal of Language Teaching and Research 14, nr 5 (1.09.2023): 1320–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/jltr.1405.20.
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Duyun has been a multi-ethnic area since ancient times, and its grammar has been influenced by both Chinese and local minority languages. This paper is intended to compare the usages of the hen-family in Duyun dialect, Mandarin, and minority languages from the perspective of language contact, and to trace the origin of xən35 in Duyun dialect by examining the evolution of hen in Chinese. It is proposed that the prepositive usage of xən35 is a historical continuation of hen in Chinese during the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, while the postpositive usage of xən35 is influenced by the local minority languages. The distinctive usages of xən35 in Duyun dialect are due to language contact.
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Wu, J., P. L. Leung, J. Z. Li, M. J. Stokes i Mike T. W. Li. "EDXRF studies on blue and white Chinese Jingdezhen porcelain samples from the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties". X-Ray Spectrometry 29, nr 3 (maj 2000): 239–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-4539(200005/06)29:3<239::aid-xrs423>3.0.co;2-v.
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Du, P., i X. Zheng. "City drainage in ancient China". Water Supply 10, nr 5 (1.12.2010): 753–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2010.112.
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This paper gives an overview of the evolution of city drainage in ancient China, and analyzes the achievement of drainage of such cities as Pingliangtai in Henan province, Xibo of Shang Dynasty, Linzi, the capital of the State of Qi, Chang'an, the capital of Han and Tang Dynasties, Kaifeng, the Eastern Capital of Northern Song Dynasty, Ganzhou, Dadu, the capital of Yuan Dynasty; and Beijing, the capital of Ming and Qing Dynasties. This paper also sums up the characteristics and the management experiences of the drainage facilities of ancient Chinese cities, including drainage system management methods, rules and laws about drainage in different eras, and overall principles of ancient city water systems. At present, most major cities in China are facing issues relating to drainage systems and city water systems. These cities are often bothered by floods and other water-related problems. Learning from the ancestors' experience would be important and necessary for modern planners and decision makers. Therefore this paper may be used for reference in modern city planning and construction.
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Colomban, Philippe, Gulsu Simsek Franci, Jacques Burlot, Xavier Gallet, Bing Zhao i Jean-Baptiste Clais. "Non-Invasive On-Site pXRF Analysis of Coloring Agents, Marks and Enamels of Qing Imperial and Non-Imperial Porcelain". Ceramics 6, nr 1 (3.02.2023): 447–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ceramics6010026.
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On-site pXRF analysis in various French collections (Musée du Louvre, Musée national des Arts asiatiques-Guimet, Paris) of porcelains decorated with painted enamels from the Qing Dynasty, in particular porcelains bearing an imperial mark, identifies the types of enamels/glazes, the ions and coloring phases or the opacifier. The study of the elements associated with cobalt (nickel, manganese, arsenic, etc.) and of the impurities of the silicate matrix (yttrium, rubidium and strontium) differentiates the use of ‘Chinese/Asian’ raw materials from ones imported from Europe by the initiative of the European missionaries (chiefly Jesuits) present at the Court (Beijing). Particular attention is paid to the analysis of the blue color of the marks and to the elements associated with the use of gold or copper nanoparticles as well as to the compositions of the pyrochlore phases (tin yellow, Naples yellow). The comparison is extended to pXRF and Raman microspectroscopy measurements previously made on other Qing imperial porcelains as well as on Cantonese productions (on porcelain or metal) from different Swiss and French museums and blue-and-white wares of the Ming and Yuan Dynasties (archaeological and private collections).
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Zhang, Shuaiqi, i Hongyu Sun. "Mobility to Other Locations: A Study on the Spread of the Cult of Lord Yan from Jiangxi to Hubei in the Ming–Qing Era". Religions 14, nr 5 (1.05.2023): 593. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel14050593.
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In the Yuan Dynasty, Lord Yan 晏公 was worshipped by the people of Jiangxi 江西 as a water god, but there was no consensus on the identity of the god and the process of his deification. During the transitional period between the Yuan and Ming dynasties, the cult of Yan Gong was increasingly popular among different social groups in the Qingjiang 清江 region. Later, thanks to a combination of officials, merchants, and immigrants, its spatial scope was extended to Hubei 湖北 Province. During the Hongwu 洪武 (r. 1368–1398) period, the cult of Lord Yan in Hubei was so prevalent that multiple groups of people were enthusiastically involved in the construction of Lord Yan temples; thus, many temples shot up along lakes and the main tributaries of the Yangtze River, constituting a geographical distribution pattern with a concentration in the central and eastern parts and a scarcity in the west. The reason for this was the multidimensional interaction of migration activities, the cross-regional economic activities of merchants, and the promotion of folk beliefs by local officials since the Ming–Qing era, which encompasses the historical evolutionary features of actors competing for the cult of gods and control of regional social power.
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Jo, wie. "Research on Property Management of Sunghwei Academy in Ming and Qing Dynasties". Institute of Korean Cultural Studies Yeungnam University 82 (31.12.2022): 139–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.15186/ikc.2022.12.31.07.
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Chinese academies developed to the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and new changes gradually took place in the way of property management. The provincial capital academies built by provincial officials in the Ming Dynasty were established spontaneously by the localities, and it was difficult to obtain stable financial support from the central or local governments. Therefore, their property management continued. The traditional funding model for school fields since the Song and Yuan Dynasties is to obtain stable land rent income through the purchase of school fields. After the Yong zheng Dynasty of the Qing Dynasty implemented the financial reform of “returning consumption and envy to the public” and the official promulgation of the provincial capital academies system, each province had its own public funds for public expenditure, and the provincial capital academies became the expenditure items of local funds, and its funding structure became diversified. , new chang es also took place in the way of property management, the mode of funding for school fields tended to decline, and capital lending and earning interest became the main source. Since then, the funds of the provincial capital academy have become more abundant, and the status of the cultural and educational center of the province has been established, laying the foundation for the reform of the educational system in the 19th century. foundation.
중국 서원은 명청 시기까지 발전을 이루면서 그 재정 경영 방식 또한 새로운 발전을 거듭하였다. 명대 성급(省級) 관원들이 건설한 성회 서원은 지방에서 자발적으로 설립한 유형에 속하며, 중앙, 지방 정부로부터 안정적인 재정경비 지원을 획득하기 어려웠다. 이 때문에 그 재정 경영은 송(宋), 원(元) 이래로 전통적인 학전(學田) 경비 양식을 지속하였으며, 학전 설치를 통해 안정적인 조세 수입을 거두고 있었다. 청대 옹정(雍正) 연간에 ‘모선귀공(耗羨歸 公)’이라 불리는 재정 개혁 및 성회 서원 제도의 정식 시행 공포가 이루어진후, 각 성에서는 스스로 관리하는 공동 경비를 공공 지출에 운용하게 되었다. 성회 서원은 지방 경비 지출 대상이 되었으며, 그 경비 구조가 다양해지면서재산 경영 방식도 변화를 이루었다. 학전 경비 양식은 점점 미약해졌고, 자본대출 이윤이 그 주요 경비 재원이 되었다. 이에 의해, 성회 서원의 경비는 더욱 풍족해졌으며, 이에 한 성의 문화 교육의 중심지로서의 지위를 확립하게되었다. 나아가 19세기 교육 체제 개혁에 기초를 마련하였다.
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Hu, Yiyan. "Identity and Preservation of Traditional Culture in the Context of Urbanization in China". Studies in Art and Architecture 2, nr 3 (wrzesień 2023): 86–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.56397/saa.2023.09.10.
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China’s rapid urbanization and societal advancement have resulted in the gradual neglect of traditional culture, despite the nation’s profound sense of pride in its economic, political, and scientific achievements. This paper explores the historical roots of these evolving attitudes by tracing them back to past migrations and the impact of minority rule during the Yuan and Qing dynasties. Drawing inspiration from Japan’s gradual transition and France’s experiences with urban renewal, this paper underscores the pivotal role of government policies and the imperative for public engagement in preserving traditional culture. Furthermore, the paper introduces a fresh perspective on preserving traditional architecture within the context of urbanization. It highlights the potential of 5G technology to rekindle interest in traditional culture while alleviating urban pressures. This underscores the importance of adapting traditional architecture to harmonize with urban environments and utilizing technology to ignite enthusiasm for traditional culture.
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Schäfer, Dagmar, Shih-pei Chen i Qun Che. "What is Local Knowledge? Digital Humanities and Yuan Dynasty Disasters in Imperial China's Local Gazetteers". Journal of Chinese History 4, nr 2 (lipiec 2020): 391–429. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jch.2020.31.
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AbstractThis paper focuses on the historical politics of disaster records in Chinese local gazetteers (difangzhi 地方志). Using records of mulberry crop failures as examples, the authors ask how gazetteer editors collated Yuan disaster records—initially collected to help prevent disasters and authorize the legitimacy of dynastic rule—in gazetteers and, in so doing, made them into ‘local’ knowledge. Digital humanities methods allow for both qualitative and quantitative analyses, and the authors deploy them to demonstrate how, in structured texts like the Chinese local gazetteers, they could help combine close reading of specific sections and larger-scale analysis of regional patterns. In the first part, the authors show how disasters were recorded in a Yuan Zhenjiang gazetteer to facilitate taxation and disaster prevention locally—a strategy rarely traceable in subsequent gazetteers until the Qing. In the second part, the authors shifted their perspective to the historical accumulation of data and what that reveals about the reception of Yuan disasters: whereas local gazetteers from the north generate long chronologies of mulberry disasters from the Ming to the Qing, others depict the south as disaster-free.
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Yun, Hyeji, i Byunghye Hong. "A Brief Analysis of Singing Girls’ Poetry in the Complete Collection of Song Ci Poetry". Korean Society of Culture and Convergence 45, nr 7 (31.07.2023): 261–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.33645/cnc.2023.07.45.07.261.
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This study explores the characteristics of 28 singing girls and their 33 Ci works in the “Complete Collection of Song Ci Poetry”. These singing girls were mainly active in the Xishu (西蜀) and Wuyue(吳越) regions, and their works were recorded in the writings and novels of the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties. The prevalent poetic structure used was 4, 5, 6, and 7-word verses suitable for singing. Their works can be categorized into for responding to literati's poetry, expressing sorrow in parting, and composed for specific individuals or in response to requests from local officials. Although the number of works left by the singing girls of the Song Dynasty is not large, they contributed to the development of Ci poetry and created a space for enjoying this literary genre. Through their performances and collaborations with literati, they integrated the beauty of common people into mainstream Ci poetry, shaping a distinctive and influential style.
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Zhu, Tianshu. "Lute, Sword, Snake, and Parasol—The Formation of the Standard Iconography of the Four Heavenly Kings in Chinese Buddhist Art". Religions 14, nr 6 (16.06.2023): 798. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel14060798.
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The Four Heavenly Kings, Sida Tianwang 四大天王, are the guardians of the four quarters of the world in Buddhism. They are among the most frequently represented protective deities in Buddhist art across different traditions. In their standard iconographies developed in China popular during the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1911), they wear full armor, and each holds exclusive attributes—lute (pipa 琵琶), sword, snake, and parasol—from the east, south, west, to the north respectively. There is no direct textual base in the Chinese cannon for such iconographies. Neither can we find prototypes in India or central Asia. Indeed, how did this iconographic group develop in China? In the past, since the standard iconographies of the Four Heavenly Kings are clear, and identification is no problem, comprehensive in-depth study on this is lacking. Actually, those attributes came from a Tantric tradition related to Tibetan Buddhism filtered through the Xi Xia (1036–1227) and Yuan (1206–1368). What revealed in the development of this iconography is the complex relationship among the Tibetan, Tanguts, Mongols, and Chinese Buddhism.
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Lim, Sugiato. "中国易学发展史概要". Journal International Lingua Mandarin (JILIN) 2, nr 1 (30.06.2022): 18. http://dx.doi.org/10.26418/jilin.v2i1.55640.
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《周易》由《易》古经（卦爻辞）及《易传》组成。从孔子及其后学作《易传》开始，《周易》从卜筮之书逐渐转变为哲学著作。其发展阶段主要可分为：先秦时期——文本形成与流派确立的时期；两汉魏晋时期——理论学说与流派诠释兴起的时期；唐宋时期——学说标新与理论的高度阐发时期；元明清时期——易学的继往与开来。在发展过程中，各朝代的易学家从不同角度阐发《周易》的奥秘。让《周易》的知识体系逐渐庞大，形成易学的两派六宗，涉及占卜、象数、训诂、史学、哲学、文学、玄学、宗教学等诸多跨学科领域。几千年来《周易》一直被视为中国哲学和思想的源头。 The Book Of Changes is composed of the ancient scripture (divinatory symbols) and interpretation scripture of The Book Of Changes (Yi Zhuan). Since the Yi Zhuan written by Confucius and his later scholars, The Book Of Changes gradually changed from a book of divination to a philosophical work. Its development stages can be divided into: Pre Qin period - the period of text formation and school establishment; Han, Wei and Jin Dynasties - the period when theories and school interpretations rose; Tang and Song Dynasties - a period of theoretical innovation and high elucidation; Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties -- the continuation anddevelopment of Yi studies. In the process of development, the Yi scholars of various dynasties expounded the mysteries of The Book Of Changes from different perspectives. Let the knowledge system of The Book Of Changes gradually expand, forming two factions and six sects in the field of Yi studies, involving divination, symbols and number, exegesis, history, philosophy, literature,metaphysics, religion and many other interdisciplinary fields. For thousands of years, The Book Of Changes has been regarded as the source of Chinese philosophy and thought.
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Zhao, Jiejing, i Yan Li. "Historical Study of the Development of the Chinese Guqin". Journal of Education and Educational Research 10, nr 1 (10.09.2024): 178–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.54097/e0dvs221.
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As one of the oldest plucked instruments in the world, the Chinese guqin carries rich historical and cultural connotations. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the development history of the guqin, analyze its position in Chinese traditional culture, as well as the artistic characteristics and aesthetic ideas of guqin music. Firstly, this paper combs through the development history of guqin from its origin to modern times in detail, including the early development, the characteristics and achievements of each period such as Spring and Autumn and Warring States, Qin and Han, Wei, Jin and North and South Dynasties, Sui, Tang and Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing. Secondly, it analyzes the style of guqin music, playing techniques and musical scores, and expounds the close connection between guqin music and the arts of poetry, painting, calligraphy and so on. It further elaborates on the profound aesthetic ideas embedded in guqin music, including mood, flavor and connotation. In addition, the paper also discusses the spread and influence of guqin culture, its influence at home and abroad, and the status and role of guqin in modern society. Through the study of the development history of the guqin, we can better understand the profound heritage of guqin culture and its important position in Chinese traditional culture. At the same time, for the modern society, the aesthetic thought and artistic value contained in guqin music still have important revelation significance.
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Wang, Tongze, Yanlong Zhao i Hua Chen. "Watertight Compartment Fujian Ancient Ship Art Value and Extended Development Take the "Hei Bo Wu Qing An" ship type as an example". Advances in Education, Humanities and Social Science Research 3, nr 1 (29.12.2022): 114. http://dx.doi.org/10.56028/aehssr.3.1.114.
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As the "Cultural Capital of East Asia" and one of the starting points of the Maritime Silk Road, Quanzhou has nurtured a long-standing maritime culture, and the prosperity of maritime trade cannot be achieved without exquisite shipbuilding techniques.In July 2021, "Quanzhou: China's World Maritime Trade Center in the Song and Yuan Dynasties" was successfully declared a World Heritage Site. More and more local intangible cultural heritage in Quanzhou is being paid attention to and protected, and the watertight, compartmentalized Fujian ancient ship is one of them. The Fujian ancient boat is the Quanzhou people's contribution to maritime culture, with deep cultural heritage, a major invention of China's ancient shipbuilding technology, high artistic and aesthetic value, and a unique connotation; we must excavate and protect it as part of our intangible cultural heritage. In order to better understand the connotation of watertight compartment Fujian ancient ships, the author conducted several field studies in Fengwei Town and Quanzhou City, the birthplace of watertight compartment Fujian ancient ships. This paper explores the artistic value of Fujian's ancient boats in Quanzhou, Fujian, and their extended development from the perspective of art design.
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F, F. "Research on the Color Evolution and Brush Development of Landscape Painting". Global Knowledge and Convergence Association 6, nr 2 (31.12.2023): 31–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.47636/gkca.2023.6.2.31.
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Landscape painting was independent from figure painting in the Sui Dynasty of China. At first, it was “Blue-and-Green Landscape” which was characterized with color expression. It matured in the Tang Dynasty and developed in the Song Dynasty. Then, the literati painters in the Tang Dynasty pioneered literati painting, with “Light Crimson Landscape” or “Ink Landscape” to lead landscape painting from realism to freehand, and established a combination of poetry, calligraphy, painting and seal. Then the literati in the Song Dynasty lent sparkle to the replacement of heavy green color with light crimson ink painting, and that became the mainstream of landscape painting. On this basis, the Yuan Dynasty painters developed a complete landscape painting formula, pushing the landscape expression to the peak. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, imitating the ancient style dominated the landscape painting world. At the same time, some painters pursued originality, forming the situation that the two forces were opposed in the same literati painting category. In modern times, due to the influence of Western culture, the traditional landscape painting has undergone great changes, and the new social life has prompted major changes in the content, form and method of landscape painting creation. Traditional techniques are combined with scientific modeling while ink and color complement each other, and the development of landscape painting has presented a diversified, rich, positive and prosperous appearance.
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Liu, Yuqing. "A New Model in the Study of Chinese Mythology". Journal of Chinese Humanities 3, nr 1 (8.02.2017): 1–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/23521341-12340040.
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Chinese mythology [shenhua 神話] does not exist independently as a cultural medium like mythology does in the West but, rather, comprises ideological and narrative forms that emerge according to historical and cultural trends. Not only have myths withstood humanity’s conquest of nature, but they have drawn and continue to draw on the mysteries of scientific development for new content. It is possible to identify three highpoints of creativity in the history of Chinese mythology, each corresponding to shifts in the function and nuance of myths. The first highpoint occurred very early on in China’s ancient history, in the period of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors [wudi sanwang 五帝三王], when myths were a way to articulate history—that is, history as myth. The second highpoint occurred in the period from the Qin through Jin dynasties, when mythology mainly expounded on philosophy and theory—that is, philosophy as myth. The third highpoint occurred during the Yuan and Ming dynasties, when the narrative content of mythology turned toward the religious—that is, religion as myth.
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Liu, Puning. "The Adoption of Neo-Confucianism in Discussing Legitimacy Dispute". Asian Culture and History 10, nr 1 (8.12.2017): 43. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ach.v10n1p43.
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Lipset (1960) denotes legitimacy as “the capacity of the system to engender and maintain the belief that the existing political institutions are the most appropriate ones for the society.” All political powers, including Chinese dynasties in history, needed legitimacy to ensure their governance. In general, Western thinkers who discuss political legitimacy could be identified into two groups (Habermas, 1979). The “empiricists”, likes Max Weber, studies legitimacy in an empirical method, focusing on the types, constitutions, functions, and evolutions of legitimacy. The second group consists of “normativists”, such as Plato and John Rawls, who tend to base legitimacy on various normative values such as justice or democracy. Pre-modern Chinese views on political legitimacy have the similar approaches like west. The first one pays attention to different empirical factors of legitimacy. For instance, the pre-Qin philosopher Zou Yan (305-240 BCE), and Western Han thinker Liu Xin (50 BCE-23 CE) view a dynasty’s legitimate by its adoption of rightful dynastic phase (Wang 2006). The Song Dynasty (960–1279) historian Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072) argues that the just position and the unification of China make a legitimate dynasty (Rao 1996). The second approach bases legitimacy on normative values. For example, Confucius (551-479 BCE) indicates that the rightfulness of a ruler relies on his properly practicing both “benevolence” (ren ), and “rites” (li ). Many present scholars give us their studies on the legitimacy in Chinese history. For instance, Rao Zong (1996) provides the general overviews of legitimacy in the Chinese tradition, with an extensive collection of relevant primary sources. Hou Deren (2009) introduces most relevant present-day Chinese studies on that issue. For English readers, general studies of traditional Chinese views on legitimacy can be found in the writings of Hok-lam Chan (1984) and Richard Davis (1983). Nevertheless, it is notable that the question of legitimacy became pressing from the 13th century onwards in China, when China was ruled by non-Chinese ruling houses, such as the Yuan Dynasty 元 (1272-1368) and Qing Dynasty (1889-1912). Scholars during that period showed a great interest in discussing the question of what makes a legitimate ruler of China. In general, these scholars approached that question in two ways; they introduced the prevailing Neo-Confucianism to define the virtuous rule as the principal value of legitimacy (Bol, 2009), or they defined a Chinese ruled dynasty as legitimate. To reveal these scholars’ distinct views on legitimacy, this paper investigates two of them, the Yuan literatus Yang Weizhen (1296-1370) and the Ming (1368-1644) scholar-official Fang Xiaoru (1357-1402). For English readers, only Richard Davis (1983) gives a brief introduction on Yang Weizhen’s views on legitimacy. Few studies focus on Fang Xiaoru’s relevant views. Following the text analysis way, this article proves that Yang Weizhen and Fang Xiaoru acted as two representatives of scholars in the late imperial China. Both of them adopted Neo-Confucianism to discuss legitimacy, viewing the discussion of legitimacy as a moral evaluation of the dynasty and monarch. They also shared the idea that Chinese ruled dynasty should be viewed as legitimate.
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Li, Huayong, Yuxue Jing, Hucai Zhang, Xuanxuan Shang, Lizeng Duan, Huayu Li, Donglin Li i Zhuohan Li. "Human-Altered Water and Carbon Cycles in the Lake Yangzong Basin since the Yuan Dynasty". Water 16, nr 9 (29.04.2024): 1271. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w16091271.
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Due to the dual influence of climate change and human activities, the water cycle patterns in the lakesheds of the Yunnan karst plateau are undergoing significant changes, leading to increasingly prominent ecological issues. In the history of Lake Yangzong, an artificial water-diversion channel was excavated, altering the lake basin structure. Human activities have intensified, posing severe challenges to water resource supply and water security in recent decades. To investigate the significant increase in human activities, the temporal and phase changes, and the resulting transformation of the water and carbon cycles in the Lake Yangzong basin, we applied X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) to scan elements continuously in a 10.2 m sediment core from this lake. By combining correlation analysis, principal component analysis (PCA), core chronology, and total organic carbon (TOC) content, we reconstructed the historical sequence of geochemical element contents in the Lake Yangzong catchment over the past 13,000 years. The results show that PC1 and PC2 contribute 78.4% and 10.3%, respectively, suggesting that erosion intensity is the main factor influencing the lake sedimentation process. From 13,400 to 680 cal a BP (calibrated years before the present), the sedimentation process in Lake Yangzong was mainly controlled by climatic conditions, with vegetation degradation during cold periods and relatively high erosion intensity in the watershed. During the Yuan dynasty, a province was established by the central government in Yunnan, promoting settlement and attracting a large number of immigrants from other provinces to Yunnan. Human activities in the Lake Yangzong basin began to intensify, surpassing natural changes and becoming the dominant force influencing the sedimentation process. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, the population and cultivated land area in Yunnan further increased, resulting in the significant exacerbation of erosion and soil loss in the watershed due to vegetation destruction. In the year 1388, the Tangchi Canal was excavated, transforming Lake Yangzong to an outflow lake, causing Ca2+ to be lost through the Tangchi Canal and preventing the formation of precipitation due to oversaturation. The research results indicate that human activities in the Lake Yangzong area have intensified since the Yuan dynasty, leading to increased erosion intensity. The excavation of the outflow canal transformed Lake Yangzong from an inland lake basin into an outflow state, simultaneously generating a significant transformation in the water and carbon cycling patterns in the watershed.
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Jiang, Xiaochenyang, Yanjun Weng, Xiaohong Wu, Jianfeng Cui, Hongshu Lyu, Jianxin Jiang, Guodong Song, Hetian Jin, Dashu Qin i Changsui Wang. "Early globalized industrial chain revealed by residual submicron pigment particles in Chinese imperial blue-and-white porcelains". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, nr 12 (2.03.2020): 6446–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1916630117.
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The success of early Chinese blue-and-white porcelains relied heavily on imported cobalt pigment from the West. In contrast to art-historical concept, which contains both typological evidence and literature records, it is assumed that imported Sumali blue was completely superseded by domestic Chinese asbolane ore based on the analytical results of the Fe/Mn ratio in imperial productions from the Xuande reign (1426 to 1435 CE) onward. Using a focused ion beam transmission electron microscopy technique to reassess this hotly debated question, we have identified two classes of residual submicron pigment particles in the blue glaze with diagnostic differences in morphology, chemical composition, and distribution behavior. Compared with the microstructural features of the blue-and-white porcelains of the Yuan and Qing dynasties, we show that a mixture of imported and domestic cobalt pigments was used for aesthetic reasons, indicating that the overseas supply chain of imported pigment remained consistent and adequate even though the authorities had terminated official trade and tributary activities after the death of Admiral Zheng He. This discovery further suggests that the globalized trading network and cross-regional industrial chain had been extensively established in the 15th century. Moreover, we provide analytical evidence against the fundamental assumption of the current Fe/Mn provenancing criteria, implying that the failures of previous chemical analyses can be attributed to elemental differentiation between the silicate glaze and the arsenic pigment. We propose an innovative method for directly assessing original mineralogic information from submicron residual pigment particles that provides a more reliable way to trace cobalt circulation and holds great promise for provenance studies.
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Jiao, Lu, Yifei Wu, Kailun Fang i Xiaotian Liu. "Typo-Morphological Approaches for Maintaining the Sustainability of Local Traditional Culture: A Case Study of the Damazhan and Xiaomazhan Historical Area in Guangzhou". Buildings 13, nr 9 (15.09.2023): 2351. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/buildings13092351.
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This paper studies the spatial forms and cultural sustainability of the Damazhan and Xiaomazhan historical area, the only area that reflects the development of the assembled-clan hall culture in Guangzhou. In the face of modernization and reconstruction, traditional culture plays an increasingly crucial role in modern cities, determining the expression of architectural uniqueness and continuous development that adapts to social needs. Therefore, preserving cultural characteristics is more relevant than ever. This study combines historical literature research with typo-morphological analysis to establish analytical strategies that link cultural sustainability with spatial evolution from the perspective of sustainable development. The analytical framework consists of three parts: First of all, through historical literature research, a thorough analysis is conducted on the cultural and social influencing factors from the Dynasties of Song, Yuan, Ming, Qing and the Republic of China to the reform and opening up period. Secondly, feature elements of the location are extracted, and a typo-morphological approach is used to analyze the sustained changes in spatial forms. Finally, the relationship between changes in block form and building types and the inheritance and development of traditional culture are demonstrated. The analytical results indicate that the continuity of cultural characteristics is embodied in the continuity of the block and architectural spatial characteristics, while cultural transformation and man-made social factors affect the changes in spatial forms. This paper combines the perspective of cultural sustainability analysis with the traditional typo-morphological approaches of urban spatial analysis, supplementing the existing typo-morphological methodology. In addition, guiding the development of urban morphology from the perspective of cultural sustainability is of prominent practical significance.
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Kharitonova, Anna. "The Sinologist A.O. Ivanovsky and his Study of Materials on the Peoples in Southwestern China". Vostok. Afro-aziatskie obshchestva: istoriia i sovremennost, nr 5 (2022): 205. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s086919080019290-6.
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The article is devoted to the Russian researcher of China and Manchuria Alexei Osipovich (Iosifovich) Ivanovsky (1863–1903) and his “Materials for the History of Native Tribes in Southwestern China” (in three books) published in 1887 and 1889. The article describes the historical context, which motivated the creation of encyclopedias and albums with information about the aboriginal peoples living in different areas of the Chinese empire and beyond. Life and work of A.O. Ivanovsky have been studied insufficiently; therefore, the article describes his biography with detailed indication of sources concerning life and contribution of this researcher. It is concluded that throughout his scientific career the researcher was engaged in collecting and classifying various knowledge related to China: he wrote a dictionary and biographical articles for large encyclopedias, during his trip to China he collected samples of the Solon and Dahurian languages, studying the peoples of southwestern China he also adhered to the principle of accumulating the maximum possible number of sources on the subject under study. The article analyzes his monograph "Materials for the History of Native Tribes in Southwestern China" in two aspects: 1) Used key sources (Chinese encyclopedias, geographical descriptions, dynastic histories, local gazetteers); 2) Described peoples, generally termed by names “Mani” and “Liao”, as well as using names derived from these two terms. The structure of the text is characterized by heterogeneity, such as: 1) the first volume uses chronological principle, it covers the period from antiquity to the end of the Song dynasty; the third volume covers the period of the three dynasties (Yuan, Ming and Qing). 2) the second volume uses the territorial principle, the second book is divided into 3 chapters, each is discussing the provinces Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan. The publication of the text itself and its content were affected by the financial and organizational difficulties experienced by the author. The article is accompanied by a table compiled to illustrate the work of A.O. Ivanovsky with one of the Chinese sources, “miao album” illustrating peoples of Yunnan "Illustrated Description of the Peoples of the South and West of Yunnan Province" (preface 1837), republished by Saint-Petersburg University Press in 2020.
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李美燕, 李美燕. "莊臻鳳〈蝶庵琴聲十六法〉對徐谼〈谿山琴況〉之承襲與轉化". 藝術評論 44, nr 44 (styczeń 2023): 001–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.53106/101562402023010044001.
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<p>明末清初以來的古琴曲譜中保留有兩篇重要的音樂美學著作，一是徐谼的〈谿山琴況〉（收錄於《大還閣琴譜》），乃中國古琴音樂美學的顛峰之作，其以二十四況論述彈琴的演奏技巧及美感意境論，通篇是儒、道、佛思想調和的作品，體現著琴以載道的教化精神。二是莊臻鳳的〈蝶庵琴聲十六法〉（收錄於《琴學心聲諧譜》），這兩篇論著皆是以「一字評」的方式作為品評琴樂之美的範疇，同為中國古琴音樂美學的並蒂之作。然而，〈蝶庵琴聲十六法〉的內容有不少篇幅與〈谿山琴況〉雷同，兩者之說究竟孰前孰後？因此，關於〈蝶庵琴聲十六法〉的作者與版本的考異也就成為一個值得探討的問題。前人或以為〈蝶庵琴聲十六法〉的作者是元末明初的冷謙，或以為是清初的莊臻鳳，頗有爭議，故本文先釐清其中的疑義，再看〈蝶庵琴聲十六法〉除了對〈谿山琴況〉有所承襲外，其不同於〈谿山琴況〉的觀點為何？由此來給予〈蝶庵琴聲十六法〉在琴學中的定位。</p> <p> </p><p>Two key works on the aesthetics of Chinese guqin music have been preserved in the Guqin tablatures of the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. One work is ‟Xishan Qin kwuan”（24 Epithets on Guqin Music) collected in Dahuange Qinpu (Qin Handbook from the Chamber of Great Returning) written by Xu Hong. It is the pinnacle of Chinese Guqin musical aesthetics, discussing Guqin playing skills and aesthetic conception in twenty-four aspects. Although the details of the twenty-four aspects differ, the whole article is a harmonious amalgamation of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, which embodies the enlightenment spirit of Tao. The other work is ‟Diean Sixteen Rules for the Tones of Qin” collected in Qinxue Xinsheng Xiepu (Qin Studies Heartfelt Sounds Harmonious Tablature), written by Zhuang Zhenfeng. Both of these works are based on the “one-character review” as the criterion for appraising the beauty of Guqin music. However, there is a lot of overlap in the content of these two works, which raises the question of which one was written first. This paper discusses the ‟Sixteen Rules for the Tones of Qin” and its author, focusing on two key considerations: First, who is the real author of the ‟Sixteen Rules for the Tones of Qin” -- Leng Qian in the late Yuan and early Ming dynasty, or Zhuang Zhenfeng in the early Qing dynasty? Second, the research compares and contrasts ‟Sixteen Rules for the Tones of Qin” with ‟Xishan Qin kwuan” and reveals how the guqin aesthetics of the former were inherited and changed after the publication of the latter. Following on from this, the author discusses the true authorship of ‟Sixteen Rules for the Tones of Qin” and its inheritance and evolution from ‟Xishan Qin kwuan” (24 Epithets on Guqin Music).</p> <p> </p>
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毛帝勝, 毛帝勝. "修水道教清微道宗天師科派的經籙傳承與發展初探：以《天醫寶籙》為例". 人文研究學報 57 (październik 2023): 113–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.53106/241195042023105700004.
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<p>道教內有所謂的符、籙二宗，其中「籙」的部分又包含以經典為主體的經籙與以術法為核心的法籙，這一方面為傳統道教信仰中相當重視以「師徒」為媒介的傳承，另一方面從宋、元、明三代以來，均為龍虎山正一天師道的天師教主（通稱為「張天師」）會依照道士的能力而有所頒授經籙。然而，經籙當中，除了正一天師道的職位經籙之外，其實民間道派仍流傳許多經籙，且都具有相當特色。本文所探討之江西道教清微道宗天師科派的修水普濟道院傳承《藥王會上歷代聖師功效護身天醫寶籙》（以下簡稱「天醫寶籙」）便是其一。本文即是以《天醫寶籙》所屬道派傳承背景探究，並嘗試建構該經籙的形成原因，以及其在中國大陸、臺灣兩地的傳承狀況。</p> <p> </p><p>There are two sects of so-called talisman and registers in Taoism, and the part of the “lu 經籙” also includes Taoist Scriptures and Ritual Method. Since the Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties, the Heavenly Master (commonly known as “Zhang Tian-shi 張天師”), the pope of Taoist, who has been the orthodox Heavenly Master will give the lu according to the ability of the Taoist priest. However, among the scriptures, apart from the scriptures for the position of the Heavenly Master. In fact, there are still many scriptures handed down by the folk Taoist school, and all of them have quite unique characteristics. This article discusses the inheritance of the Xiu-shui Puji Taoist School 修水普濟道院 of the Qing-wei sect of Jiangxi Taoism 江西道教清微道宗.This article was to explore the inheritance background of the Taoist school to which Tianyibaolu 天醫寶籙 belongs, and try to construct the reasons for the formation of the scriptures, as well as its inheritance status in mainland China and Taiwan.</p> <p> </p>
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Zhang, Kexin. "Analysis of Zhu Xi's Inheritance and Development of Confucianism and Its Transformation and Innovation". Communications in Humanities Research 4, nr 1 (17.05.2023): 570–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.54254/2753-7064/4/20220877.
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Confucius founded Confucianism in the late Spring and Autumn periods, and Mencius and Xunzi emerged during the Warring States period to develop Confucianism from their perspectives. However, Confucianism in this period had not yet achieved a stable social status, and even tended to decline after the war, and was once strongly threatened by the rising Buddhism and Taoism. It was not until the emergence of Zhu Xi, a Southern Song scholar who made a new interpretation of Confucianism and Mencius, that he built a new Confucianism with the core of science. It was then that Confucianism established its unshakeable dominance in the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties for nearly seven hundred years. In this paper, we study the inheritance and innovation of Song Confucianism to pre-Qin Confucianism, and we study Zhu Xi's philosophy, which not only developed the ideas of his predecessors but also transformed Confucian values into his true spiritual pillars. We find that Zhu Xi truly achieved the greatness of science and created the new Confucianism, namely Zhu Xi's philosophy. In Zhu Xi's view, "the preservation of heavenly reason, and the extinction of human desire" is the essence of Confucianism. Zhu Xi also established the mind-only theory of "reason and qi dualism". He believes that "reason" is the basis and root of the material world, which is also the law of natural operation, while "qi" is the element of all things He believes that "reason" is the basis and root of the material world, and is also the law of natural operation; while "qi" is the element of all things, "reason" and "qi" are not separate, but "reason first, qi second. In addition to this, Zhu Xi also attaches great importance to education. Zhu Xi believes that if there is no education, even if personal achievements can exceed those of their predecessors, the impact is too small to have much value. He pointed out that if Confucianism could be invested in education, then the spirit of Confucianism could be extended to the whole country, and the achievement of doing so would be incomparable. We see that Confucius' transmission of the Six Classics has become a cultural paradigm. And Zhu Zi's teaching of the Four Books has also achieved uninterrupted success. The teachings of Confucius and Zhu Zi were successively reflected, the former in the pre-Qin Dynasty, the latter in the Southern Song Dynasty, even though a hundred years apart, but Zhu Xi has well taken up the spirit of Confucianism and transformed it into the creation of Neo-Confucianism, which is Zhu Xi's philosophy.
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Hong, Sungmin. "Historical Meaning of Rewitings of the Songshi 宋史 Based on an Analysis of “Liao Biography 遼傳” of the Eojeong Songsa jeon 御定宋史筌 : Joseon-type Sinocentrism in the Compilation of Chinese Historical Records". Korean Society of the History of Historiography 47 (30.06.2023): 141–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.29186/kjhh.2023.47.141.
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Eojeong Songsa jeon 御定宋史筌 is a rewriting edition of Songshi 宋史 compiled by King Jeongjo and his Gyujanggak subjects in Joseon dynasty. Songsa jeon is characterized by (1) the creation of the imperial biographies of Danzong and Modi, the last emperors of the Southern Song dynasty, (2) the inclusion of Liao, Jin, and Mongol dynasties in its' biographies, (3) the creation of an independent Wuxian Biography for the five Neo-Confucianism scholars from Zhou Dunyi to Zhu Xi, and (4) the creation of Yimin Biography to honor those who had been loyal to the Song dynasty. However, it is difficult to say that the authenticity, which is one of the backgrounds of the compilation of Songsa jeon, has been fully considered. This article compares Liao Biography 遼傳 in Songsa jeon with Liao Biography in Songshi Xinbian 宋史新編 to determine the significance of Songsa jeon's compilation. As can be seen from the legend of Songsa jeon, Joseon dynasty defined Liao and Jin as 'the vulgar ethnic groups in the northeast' and 'the subject states of Goryeo dynasty', and did not recognize Mongol empire as 'authenticity' even after completely destroyed Song. In addition, Goryeo Biography is placed at the top of the biographies of the foreign states to express the criticism, and Liao, Xixia, Jin, and Mongol dynasties are arranged in the order of their founding. The characteristics of Liao Biography in Songsa jeon are as follows. First, Songsa jeon takes the form of the biography more strictly than Songshi Xinbian. Second, Songsa jeon is more thoroughly orthodox than Songshi Xinbian, including the use of Song's reign title. And in terms of content, the records of Qidan Guozhi 契丹國志 cited in Songsa jeon are basically quoted from Xu zizhi tongjian gangmu 續資治通鑑綱目. Furthermore, to express respect for Song, the Battle of Gaoliang River and the Battle of Qigou Pass, in which the Song were greatly defeated from Liao, are described very briefly. In addition, the articles from the Goryeo dynasty were recorded without omission, reflecting the position of Joseon dynasty, the bearer of the compilation. Finally, all the records on Civil Service Examination, Confucianism, and book editings are included in Songsa jeon. Its purpose is to represent the lessons. This indicates the intention that if even Liao, as the barbarian, had developed the rituals and the rites, then Joseon, as 'the inheritor of Chinese culture,' should work even harder to promote the rituals and the rites. Furthermore, considering the arrangement of the biographies of foreign states in Songsa jeon, the placement of Goryeo Biography at the top implies that Goryeo had a more advanced the rituals and the rites than Liao, Jin, Xixia, and Yuan. I think it is the ultimate intention of Joseon dynasty to express from the biographies of foreign states in Songsa jeon. On the other hand, the scholars of Qing Dynasty also tried to revise Songshi, but all of them were not completed. In this sense, the completion of Songsa jeon has historiographical significance.
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Tian, Tian. "The historical evolution and characteristics of ancient pipa playing postures". OOO "Zhurnal "Voprosy Istorii" 2023, nr 8-2 (1.08.2023): 110–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.31166/voprosyistorii202308statyi42.
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Pipa is one of the most popular musical instruments in ancient China. This article first analyzes the historical development of the pipa, including its origins, evolutionary process and types. This is followed by an in-depth analysis of pipa playing postures in the Han and Tang dynasties, Song and Yuan dynasties, and Ming and Qing dynasties.
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Król, Anna. "Bamboo Paintings of the Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties". Roczniki Humanistyczne 63, nr 9 (2015): 75–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.18290/rh.2015.63.9-6.
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