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1
মিস্ত্রী, প্রমথ. "সংস্কৃত ব্যাকরণে পাণিনীয় সংস্করণ". Arts Faculty Journal 13, nr 18 (31.01.2024): 43–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.62296/kop20241318004.
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The structure of every language on grammar. For this, grammer is called the constitution of language. While the constitution contains the laws and regulations of a country, the grammar contains the laws and regulations of the language. Grammer identifies the rules of varios elements of language (sandhi, prefixes, suffixes, case, samās etc). The Paninian version of Sanskrit grammar has the same function. Here Panini has simultaneously highlighted the constitution and the grammar both of the Vedic and Sanskrit languages. Our topic is the Paninian version of Sanskrit grammar. However, from this edition, not only the grammar of the Sanskrit language but also the grammar of Bengla, Hindi, Prakrit and so on. are known. The Bengala language is one of them. For these reasons the Paninian version is given the status of proper “Vedāṅga” grammar in Sanskrit grammare. Even today, many scholars consider the Paninian grammar (Aṣṭādhyāẏī) to be a “wonder of the human brain”. So, the main objective of the present stady is to show how we can easily know Sanskrit grammar through the Paninian version of Sanskrit grammar.
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Nitay, Dolav, Dana Fisman i Michal Ziv-Ukelson. "Learning of Structurally Unambiguous Probabilistic Grammars". Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 35, nr 10 (18.05.2021): 9170–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v35i10.17107.
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The problem of identifying a probabilistic context free grammar has two aspects: the first is determining the grammar's topology (the rules of the grammar) and the second is estimating probabilistic weights for each rule. Given the hardness results for learning context-free grammars in general, and probabilistic grammars in particular, most of the literature has concentrated on the second problem. In this work we address the first problem. We restrict attention to structurally unambiguous weighted context-free grammars (SUWCFG) and provide a query learning algorithm for strucuturally unambiguous probabilistic context-free grammars (SUPCFG). We show that SUWCFG can be represented using co-linear multiplicity tree automata (CMTA), and provide a polynomial learning algorithm that learns CMTAs. We show that the learned CMTA can be converted into a probabilistic grammar, thus providing a complete algorithm for learning a strucutrally unambiguous probabilistic context free grammar (both the grammar topology and the probabilistic weights) using structured membership queries and structured equivalence queries. We demonstrate the usefulness of our algorithm in learning PCFGs over genomic data.
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Hartwell, Patrick. "Grammar, Grammars, and the Teaching of Grammar". College English 47, nr 2 (luty 1985): 105. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/376562.
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Hartwell, Patrick. "Grammar, Grammars, and the Teaching of Grammar". College English 47, nr 2 (1.02.1985): 105–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.58680/ce198513293.
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Koupil, Ondřej. "Jungmann a čeští gramatici". Acta Musei Nationalis Pragae – Historia litterarum 69, nr 1-2 (2024): 5–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.37520/amnpsc.2024.002.
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The study deals with Josef Jungmannʼs relation to grammar. Part I shows that Jungmann switched from the term mluvník, the purist equivalent of the Latin word grammatica (‘grammarʼ), to the term mluvnice, which had been mainly promoted by Václav Hanka. Part II examines the inspirational sources of Jungmannʼs views on the Czech language (Kopitar, Jahn) and shows that Jungmann changed from a reformer of Czech orthography into an authority opposing changes in Czech orthography. He focused on lexicography and fully recognised the authority of Josef Dobrovský in the field of Czech grammar. Part III observes Jungmannʼs explicit statements about the grammars of the Czech language throughout history. Jungmann respected, for example, the works of Laurentius Benedictus Nudozierinus and Venceslaus Joannes Rosa (both written in Latin). Nevertheless, in his eyes, all historical grammars were surpassed by the grammar of Josef Dobrovský
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Rice, Keren. "A typology of good grammars". Perspectives on Grammar Writing 30, nr 2 (31.03.2006): 385–415. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/sl.30.2.10ric.
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Writing a grammar is an exhilarating and exhausting experience. All grammars must meet high expectations. This paper reports on a study of qualities sought in grammars based on a survey of reviews of grammars. The study reveals that linguists expect a grammar to be comprehensive, clear, and accessible to all. It should also contain careful argumentation and a wealth of data that is appropriate, authentic, and meticulously checked. Writers of grammars must ask themselves a variety of questions before they begin, including what the goal of the grammar is, who the audience for the grammar is, how much time there is to write the grammar, and what the language reveals about its grammar. The paper then discusses and evaluates specific examples of good grammars of various types.
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Li and, Xin, Linda C. Schmidt, Weidong He,, Lixing Li, and i Yuanmei Qian. "Transformation of an EGT Grammar: New Grammar, New Designs". Journal of Mechanical Design 126, nr 4 (1.07.2004): 753–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.1758256.
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True design with grammars lies in the creation of the grammar rules, not in the application of the rules to generate design alternatives. Existing grammars can be modified to describe new languages of designs [1–4]. Studying an epicyclic gear train graph grammar leads to purposeful relaxation of grammar rules and subsequent discovery of new designs. A revised new EGT grammar is presented, which is designed to generate a wider selection of valid EGTs.
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Ham, Sanda. "Croatian Shtokavian grammar books". St open 1 (2020): 1–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.48188/so.1.10.
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This paper describes the criteria for the systematic periodization of Croatian grammar books. These criteria are exclusively linguistic and take into account the phonological and morphological structure described in these grammar books; where the grammar books contain a dictionary, the lexical organization has been taken into consideration as well. Based on these criteria, all Croatian grammar books may be systematized into four periods: I. 1604 – 1836 (old Croatian grammars), II. 1836 – 1899 (Croatian grammars from the Illyrian Movement to the end of the 19th century, with two parallel subgroups: grammars by the Zagreb School and Croatian Vukovians), III. 1899 – 1986 (with three successive subgroups: Croatian grammars from the beginning of the 20th century to 1940, Croatian grammars from 1940 to 1945, Croatian grammars from 1945 to the 1970s), IV. contemporary Croatian grammars. All these grammars clearly reveal the continuity of the Croatian literary language. This language is recognizable and comprehensible in all grammars, primarily owing to its Shtokavian stylization – and not to any kind of “organic basis”.
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Kolln, Martha. "A Comment on "Grammar, Grammars, and the Teaching of Grammar"". College English 47, nr 8 (grudzień 1985): 874. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/376626.
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Williams, Joe, Richard D. Cureton, Carole Moses i Edward A. Vavra. "Four Comments on "Grammar, Grammars, and the Teaching of Grammar"". College English 47, nr 6 (październik 1985): 641. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/377166.
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Huckin, Thomas N. "A Comment on "Grammar, Grammars, and the Teaching of Grammar"". College English 48, nr 4 (kwiecień 1986): 397. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/377267.
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Ozaki, Satoru. "A phonotactic-tonotactic grammar for Tokyo Japanese that clusters by lexical strata offers a good trade-off between model size and likelihood". Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America 9, nr 1 (15.05.2024): 5725. http://dx.doi.org/10.3765/plsa.v9i1.5725.
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The Japanese lexicon is typically classified into at least three etymological strata: native, Sino-Japanese and foreign words. In Tokyo Japanese, nouns from different strata are known to have different phonotactic as well as tonotactic properties. Should one analyze Tokyo Japanese nouns using a non-clustering grammar that generates all nouns using the same phonological grammar, or should one analyze them using a clustering grammar that generates nouns from different strata using different grammars? In this study, I address this question from a probabilistic and a model selection perspective: the better probabilistic grammar is one that better balances fit to data and the number of parameters in the grammar. Using the UCLA Phonotactic Learner, I train two kinds of MaxEnt grammars that correspond to non-clustering and clustering grammars. I compare the two kinds of grammar using the Bayesian Information Crierion (BIC), and show that the non-clustering grammars make a better trade-off between fit to data and model size than non-clustering grammars. Consequently, different etymological strata of the Tokyo Japanese nominal lexicon are better analyzed as being generated from different MaxEnt grammars than from the same MaxEnt grammar.
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Andersen, Vibeke. "Nye tiltag i grammatikundervisningen". HERMES - Journal of Language and Communication in Business 15, nr 29 (3.03.2017): 187. http://dx.doi.org/10.7146/hjlcb.v15i29.25703.
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The author discusses the disadvantages of traditional grammar teaching from a didactic and learning perspective. Traditional grammar teaching is typically based on a theoretical introduction by means of system-orientated grammars, followed by product-orientated training. Due to the disadvantages of traditional grammar teaching, the author suggests replacing system-orientated grammars with holistic grammars and product-orientated training with comprehension-orientated training. A holistic grammar integrates systemic and pragmatic linguistic description with a view to making grammar relevant and interesting to the learner, while comprehension-oriented training moves focus away from production and on to comprehension for the purpose of promoting learning.
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KUKLUK, JACEK P., LAWRENCE B. HOLDER i DIANE J. COOK. "INFERENCE OF EDGE REPLACEMENT GRAPH GRAMMARS". International Journal on Artificial Intelligence Tools 17, nr 03 (czerwiec 2008): 539–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218213008004047.
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We describe an algorithm and experiments for inference of edge replacement graph grammars. This method generates candidate recursive graph grammar productions based on isomorphic subgraphs which overlap by two nodes. If there is no edge between the two overlapping nodes, the method generates a recursive graph grammar production with a virtual edge. We guide the search for the graph grammar based on the size of the grammar and the portion of the graph described by the grammar. We show experiments where we generate graphs from known graph grammars, use our method to infer the grammar from the generated graphs, and then measure the error between the original and inferred grammars. Experiments show that the method performs well on several types of grammars, and specifically that error decreases with increased numbers of unique labels in the graph.
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Fong, Wan Heng, Aqilahfarhana Abdul Rahman, Nor Haniza Sarmin i Sherzod Turaev. "Static Watson-Crick Context-Free Grammars". International Journal of Online and Biomedical Engineering (iJOE) 15, nr 10 (27.06.2019): 65. http://dx.doi.org/10.3991/ijoe.v15i10.10878.
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Sticker systems and Watson-Crick automata are two modellings of DNA molecules in DNA computing. A sticker system is a computational model which is coded with single and double-stranded DNA molecules; while Watson-Crick automata is the automata counterpart of sticker system which represents the biological properties of DNA. Both of these models use the feature of Watson-Crick complementarity in DNA computing. Previously, the grammar counterpart of the Watson-Crick automata have been introduced, known as Watson-Crick grammars which are classified into three classes: Watson-Crick regular grammars, Watson-Crick linear grammars and Watson-Crick context-free grammars. In this research, a new variant of Watson-Crick grammar called a static Watson-Crick context-free grammar, which is a grammar counterpart of sticker systems that generates the double-stranded strings and uses rule as in context-free grammar, is introduced. The static Watson-Crick context-free grammar differs from a dynamic Watson-Crick context-free grammar in generating double-stranded strings, as well as for regular and linear grammars. The main result of the paper is to determine the generative powers of static Watson-Crick context-free grammars. Besides, the relationship of the families of languages generated by Chomsky grammars, sticker systems and Watson-Crick grammars are presented in terms of their hierarchy.
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Reichardt, Johannes. "Deterministic grammars and grammar morphisms". Acta Informatica 23, nr 5 (wrzesień 1986): 567–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00288470.
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Siouffi, Gilles. "Grammaire françoise. French Grammar". French Studies 69, nr 4 (8.08.2015): 576. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/fs/knv183.
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Abdul Rahman, Aqilahfarhana, Wan Heng Fong, Nor Haniza Sarmin, Sherzod Turaev i Nurul Liyana Mohamad Zulkufli. "Static Watson-Crick regular grammar". Malaysian Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences 14 (25.10.2018): 457–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.11113/mjfas.v14n0.1282.
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DNA computing, or more generally, molecular computing, is a recent development at the interface of computer science and molecular biology. In DNA computing, many computational models have been proposed in the framework of formal language theory and automata such as Watson-Crick grammars and sticker systems. A Watson-Crick grammar is a grammar model that generates double stranded strings, whereas a sticker system is a DNA computing model of the ligation and annealing operations over DNA strands using the Watson-Crick complementarity to form a complete double stranded DNA sequence. Most of the proposed DNA computing models make use of this concept, including the Watson-Crick grammars and sticker systems. Watson-Crick grammars and their variants can be explored using formal language theory which allows the development of new concepts of Watson-Crick grammars. In this research, a new variant of Watson-Crick grammar called a static Watson-Crick regular grammar is introduced as an analytical counterpart of sticker systems. The computation of a sticker system starts from a given set of incomplete double stranded sequence to form a complete double stranded sequence. Here, a static Watson-Crick regular grammar differs from a dynamic Watson-Crick regular grammar in generating double stranded strings: the latter grammar produces each strand string “independently” and only check for the Watson-Crick complementarity of a generated complete double stranded string at the end, while the former grammar generates both strand strings “dependently”, i.e., checking for the Watson-Crick complementarity for each complete substring. In this paper, computational properties of static Watson-Crick regular grammars are investigated to correlate with the Chomsky hierarchy and hierarchy of the families of dynamic Watson-Crick regular languages. The relationship between families of languages generated by static Watson-Crick regular grammars with several variants of sticker systems, Watson-Crick regular grammars and Chomsky grammars are presented by showing the hierarchy.
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LAROCHE, P., M. NIVAT i A. SAOUDI. "CONTEXT-SENSITIVITY OF PUZZLE GRAMMARS". International Journal of Pattern Recognition and Artificial Intelligence 08, nr 02 (kwiecień 1994): 525–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218001494000279.
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We study some properties of array grammars, called puzzle grammars, introduced in Ref. 7. We give a new method, using puzzle grammar, for generating the set of rectangles. We prove that the emptiness problem for puzzle grammar is undecidable. We show that the non-overlapping problem for puzzle grammar is decidable.
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LEE, EDWARD T., SHANG-YONG ZHU i PENG-CHING CHU. "GENERATING RECTANGLES USING TWO-DIMENSIONAL GRAMMARS WITH TIME AND SPACE COMPLEXITY ANALYSES". International Journal of Pattern Recognition and Artificial Intelligence 03, nr 03n04 (grudzień 1989): 321–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218001489000267.
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A two-dimensional grammar for generating all possible rectangles is presented and illustrated by examples. The time and space complexity analyses of this grammar together with a parallel context-free array grammar and a free grammar are also presented. Generating pictures using two-dimensional grammars appear to be a fertile field for further study. The study of two-dimensional grammars has useful applications in region filling. pattern recognition. robotics, pictorial information system design and related areas.
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Smolej, Mojca. "Forgotten Memory of Numerous Synchronous Grammar Editions?" Ars & Humanitas 13, nr 1 (20.08.2019): 97–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.4312/ars.13.1.97-110.
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The contribution focuses on the historical overview of the publication of Slovenian grammars and on the emergence of the “one-grammar” state of affairs in grammatography. The turning point in writing and publishing grammar books is 1854. It was then that Anton Janežič’s Slovenska slovnica s kratkim pregledom slovenskega slovstva ter z malim cirilskim in glagoliškim berilom za Slovence was published and introduced to grammar writing, at least on the level of grammatography, the concept of monopoly and with it the primacy of the one and only grammar. Janežič’s grammar maintained its influence until as late as 1916 (more than half a century), when Breznik’s Slovenska slovnica za srednje šole was published. The latter had the role of the leading (and only) grammar until as late as 1956, when the so-called grammar of the four was published. From 1976 to today, again nearly half a century, the role of the one and only grammar has been performed by Jože Toporišič’s grammar. Prior to 1854 the situation was entirely different. In some ways it was much freer or more plural in the sense of the number of published grammars. In the first half of the 19th century, a teacher of Slovenian could pick from as many as ten different grammars. The contribution focuses, then, on the occurrence of the transition from a (forgotten) state of grammar numerousness to today’s predominant state of the “one and only correct” grammar.
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Smolej, Mojca. "Forgotten Memory of Numerous Synchronous Grammar Editions?" Ars & Humanitas 13, nr 1 (20.08.2019): 97–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.4312/ah.13.1.97-110.
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The contribution focuses on the historical overview of the publication of Slovenian grammars and on the emergence of the “one-grammar” state of affairs in grammatography. The turning point in writing and publishing grammar books is 1854. It was then that Anton Janežič’s Slovenska slovnica s kratkim pregledom slovenskega slovstva ter z malim cirilskim in glagoliškim berilom za Slovence was published and introduced to grammar writing, at least on the level of grammatography, the concept of monopoly and with it the primacy of the one and only grammar. Janežič’s grammar maintained its influence until as late as 1916 (more than half a century), when Breznik’s Slovenska slovnica za srednje šole was published. The latter had the role of the leading (and only) grammar until as late as 1956, when the so-called grammar of the four was published. From 1976 to today, again nearly half a century, the role of the one and only grammar has been performed by Jože Toporišič’s grammar. Prior to 1854 the situation was entirely different. In some ways it was much freer or more plural in the sense of the number of published grammars. In the first half of the 19th century, a teacher of Slovenian could pick from as many as ten different grammars. The contribution focuses, then, on the occurrence of the transition from a (forgotten) state of grammar numerousness to today’s predominant state of the “one and only correct” grammar.
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Handzhiyski, Nikolay, i Elena Somova. "Tunnel Parsing with Ambiguous Grammars". Cybernetics and Information Technologies 23, nr 2 (1.06.2023): 34–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/cait-2023-0012.
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Abstract The article proposes an addition to the tunnel parsing algorithm that enables it to parse grammars having countable repetitions and configurations of grammar elements generating empty words without refactoring the grammar. The equivalency of trees built by the use of ambiguous grammar is discussed. The class of the ε-ambiguous grammars is defined as a subclass of the ambiguous grammars relative to these trees. The ε-deterministic grammars are then defined as a subclass of the ε-ambiguous grammars. A technique for linearly parsing on the basis of non-left recursive ε-deterministic grammars with the tunnel parsing algorithm is shown.
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Imssalem, Nuwara. "Teaching Grammar Pedagogically and Communicatively". International Journal of Arabic-English Studies 7, nr 1 (1.01.2006): 179–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.33806/ijaes2000.7.1.11.
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Pedagogical grammars have always been a mirror reflection of descriptive grammars. This situation has led to different degrees of emphasis placed on grammar in language teaching. The position of grammar in language teaching has swung from grammar driven audio-lingual methods to communicative approaches which consider grammar as something peripheral. The purpose of this paper is to outline briefly the historical development which has led to this situation and suggest 'a framework for teaching new grammatical items pedagogically and communicatively..
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Su, Hang, i Naixing Wei. "“I’m really sorry about what I said”". Pragmatics. Quarterly Publication of the International Pragmatics Association (IPrA) 28, nr 3 (27.08.2018): 439–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/prag.17005.su.
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Abstract This paper extends the concept of local grammar to speech act studies, focusing specifically on apologising in English. It aims primarily to demonstrate the usefulness of a local grammar approach to account for speech acts and ultimately to contribute to the on-going development of corpus pragmatics. Apology expressions in a corpus of scripted TV conversations are first automatically extracted and then manually examined in order to make sure that all remaining instances have the illocutionary force of apologising and thus qualify for further analysis. The subsequent local grammar analyses facilitate the establishment of a local grammar of apology, comprising 14 local grammar patterns. The analyses show that it is promising to develop a set of local grammars to account more adequately for speech acts in general. The relationship between local grammars, functional grammars, and general grammars is further discussed, which suggests that local grammars can be an alternative approach to functional-pragmatic studies of language and discourse. Directions for future research are outlined; and implications and applications are briefly discussed.
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BELAJ, Branimir, i Goran TANACKOVIĆ FALETAR. "TO WHAT EXTENT ARE CONSTRUCTION GRAMMARS A UNI-TARY THEORETICAL MODEL?" Lingua Montenegrina 9, nr 1 (1.06.2012): 51–84. https://doi.org/10.46584/lm.v9i1.264.
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The topic of this paper are the cognitive linguistic approaches to grammar which can be covered by the term construction grammars. In the first part of the paper construction grammars are situated within the framework of functional approaches to grammar. This is followed by the discussion of how they square with the basic tenets of the so-called traditional functionalism, that is, functional grammars, and how they compare to generative grammar. The second part of the paper focuses on the analysis of the different construction grammars themselves, and proposes their classification into construction grammars in the narrow sense, which would include, among others, the theoretical models of A. Goldberg (1995, 2006) and W. Croft (2001), and construction grammars in the broader sense. The latter would then include, in addition to the former, Langacker’s Cognitive Grammar (1987, 1991), which shares some of the basic assumptions with construction grammars narrowly defined, but includes a number of specific features which set it apart from them.
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Assist. Inst. Ahmed Hamid Abdulrazzaq. "Generative Phonology Models of Universal Grammar: Constraint-Based Optimality Theory as Opposed to the Rule-Based SPE Model". ALUSTATH JOURNAL FOR HUMAN AND SOCIAL SCIENCES 62, nr 2 (15.06.2023): 428–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.36473/ujhss.v62i2.2069.
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Current linguistic theory presumes languages to be essentially similar because individuals have a genetic inclination to acquire language. Linguists strive to create a model of this abstract universal grammar that captures the core commonalities among different languages while allowing room for all the subtle differences that naturally occur in human speech. This all-encompassing theory of universal grammar would accurately distinguish between possible grammars and impossible grammars. This paper examines the main tenets of the two major generative phonology models of universal grammar: SPE’s Generative Phonology theory representing rule-based, derivational universal grammar models, and Optimality Theory as a representative of constraint-based models of universal grammar.
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Strobbe, Tiemen, Sara Eloy, Pieter Pauwels, Ruben Verstraeten, Ronald De Meyer i Jan Van Campenhout. "A graph-theoretic implementation of the Rabo-de-Bacalhau transformation grammar". Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing 30, nr 2 (18.04.2016): 138–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0890060416000032.
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AbstractShape grammars are rule-based formalisms for the specification of shape languages. Most of the existing shape grammars are developed on paper and have not been implemented computationally thus far. Nevertheless, the computer implementation of shape grammar is an important research question, not only to automate design analysis and generation, but also to extend the impact of shape grammars toward design practice and computer-aided design tools. In this paper, we investigate the implementation of shape grammars on a computer system, using a graph-theoretic representation. In particular, we describe and evaluate the implementation of the existing Rabo-de-Bacalhau transformation grammar. A practical step-by-step approach is presented, together with a discussion of important findings noticed during the implementation and evaluation. The proposed approach is shown to be both feasible and valuable in several aspects: we show how the attempt to implement a grammar on a computer system leads to a deeper understanding of that grammar, and might result in the further development of the grammar; we show how the proposed approach is embedded within a commercial computer-aided design environment to make the shape grammar formalism more accessible to students and practitioners, thereby increasing the impact of grammars on design practice; and the proposed step-by-step implementation approach has shown to be feasible for the implementation of the Rabo-de-Bacalhau transformation grammar, but can also be generalized using different ontologies for the implementation.
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Steels, Luc. "Basics of Fluid Construction Grammar". Constructions and Frames 9, nr 2 (30.12.2017): 178–225. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/cf.00002.ste.
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Abstract Fluid Construction Grammar (FCG) is a fully operational computational platform for developing grammars from a constructional perspective. It contains mechanisms for representing grammars and for using them in computational experiments and applications in language understanding, production and learning. FCG can be used by grammar writers who want to test whether their grammar fragments are complete and coherent for the domain they are investigating (for example verb phrases) or who are working in a team and have to share grammar fragments with others. It can be used by computational linguists implementing practical language processing systems or exploring how machine learning algorithms can acquire grammars. This paper introduces some of the basic mechanisms of FCG, illustrated with examples.
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Teichmann, Markus. "Regular Approximation of Weighted Linear Context-Free Tree Languages". International Journal of Foundations of Computer Science 28, nr 05 (sierpień 2017): 523–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0129054117400056.
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We show how to train a weighted regular tree grammar such that it best approximates a weighted linear context-free tree grammar concerning the Kullback–Leibler divergence between both grammars. Furthermore, we construct a regular tree grammar that approximates the tree language induced by a context-free tree grammar.
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McCORMACK, JAY P., i JONATHAN CAGAN. "Designing inner hood panels through a shape grammar based framework". Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing 16, nr 4 (wrzesień 2002): 273–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s089006040216402x.
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A framework for a design tool based on shape grammars is presented as an effective means for supporting the early stages of design. The framework uses a shape grammar interpreter to implement parametric shape grammars, allowing the grammar to be used interactively by a designer or optimization routine. A shape grammar to design inner hood panels of vehicles is introduced as an example of a parametric engineering shape grammar, and it is used with the framework to create standard and novel designs made possible by rules that take advantage of shape emergence.
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DEVRIESE, DOMINIQUE, i FRANK PIESSENS. "Finally tagless observable recursion for an abstract grammar model". Journal of Functional Programming 22, nr 6 (10.07.2012): 757–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0956796812000226.
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AbstractWe define a finally tagless, shallow embedding of a typed grammar language. In order to avoid the limitations of traditional parser combinator libraries (no bottom-up parsing, no full grammar analysis or transformation), we require object-language recursion to be observable in the meta-language. Since existing proposals for recursive constructs are not fully satisfactory, we propose new finally tagless primitive recursive constructs to solve the problem. To do this in a well-typed way, we require considerable infrastructure, for which we reuse techniques from the multirec generic programming library. Our infrastructure allows a precise model of the complex interaction between a grammar, a parsing algorithm and a set of semantic actions. On the flip side, our approach requires the grammar author to provide a type- and value-level encoding of the grammar's domain and we can provide only a limited form of constructs like many. We demonstrate five meta-language grammar algorithms exploiting our model, including a grammar pretty-printer, a reachability analysis, a translation of quantified recursive constructs to the standard one and an implementation of the left-corner grammar transform. The work we present forms the basis of the grammar-combinators parsing library1, which is the first to work with a precise, shallow model of abstract context-free grammars in a classical (not dependently typed) functional language and which supports a wide range of grammar manipulation primitives. From a more general point of view, our work shows a solution to the well-studied problem of observable sharing in shallowly embedded domain-specific languages and specifically in finally tagless domain-specific languages.
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Carlucci, Lorenzo, John Case i Sanjay Jain. "Learning correction grammars". Journal of Symbolic Logic 74, nr 2 (czerwiec 2009): 489–516. http://dx.doi.org/10.2178/jsl/1243948324.
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AbstractWe investigate a new paradigm in the context of learning in the limit, namely, learningcorrection grammarsfor classes ofcomputably enumerable (c.e.)languages. Knowing a language may feature a representation of it in terms oftwogrammars. The second grammar is used to make corrections to the first grammar. Such a pair of grammars can be seen as a single description of (or grammar for) the language. We call such grammarscorrection grammars. Correction grammars capture the observable fact that peopledocorrect their linguistic utterances during their usual linguistic activities.We show that learning correction grammars for classes of c.e. languages in theTxtEx-mode(i.e., converging to a single correct correction grammar in the limit) is sometimes more powerful than learning ordinary grammars even in theTxtBc-model (where the learner is allowed to converge to infinitely many syntactically distinct but correct conjectures in the limit). For eachn≥ 0. there is a similar learning advantage, again in learning correction grammars for classes of c.e. languages, but where we compare learning correction grammars that maken+ 1 corrections to those that makencorrections.The concept of a correction grammar can be extended into the constructive transfinite, using the idea of counting-down from notations for transfinite constructive ordinals. This transfinite extension can also be conceptualized as being about learning Ershov-descriptions for c.e. languages. Forua notation in Kleene's general system (O, <o) of ordinal notations for constructive ordinals, we introduce the concept of anu-correction grammar, whereuis used to bound the number of corrections that the grammar is allowed to make. We prove a general hierarchy result: ifuandvare notations for constructive ordinals such thatu<ov. then there are classes of c.e. languages that can beTxtEx-learned by conjecturingv-correction grammars but not by conjecturingu-correction grammars.Surprisingly, we show that—above “ω-many” corrections—it is not possible to strengthen the hierarchy:TxtEx-learningu-correction grammars of classes of c.e. languages, whereuis a notation inOforanyordinal, can be simulated byTxtBc-learningw-correction grammars, wherewis any notation for the smallest infinite ordinalω.
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Payne, Thomas E. "A grammar as a communicative act". Perspectives on Grammar Writing 30, nr 2 (31.03.2006): 367–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/sl.30.2.09pay.
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A descriptive grammar is a document that is intended to communicate important and complex patterns of knowledge within a speech community. Previous conceptions of linguistic grammars have emphasized a metaphor in which the internal grammar of a language is perceived as a “machine” that transforms thoughts into language structure. Written grammars were conceived as schematic representations of such machines. The present paper argues for a different metaphor. Because a grammar is primarily an act of communication, a good grammar possesses qualities known to hold of other communicative acts. The paper invokes recent work in linguistic pragmatics to help potential grammar writers conceptualize and present their work as an efficient and engaging act of communication.
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Sygal, Yael, i Shuly Wintner. "Towards Modular Development of Typed Unification Grammars". Computational Linguistics 37, nr 1 (marzec 2011): 29–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/coli_a_00035.
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Development of large-scale grammars for natural languages is a complicated endeavor: Grammars are developed collaboratively by teams of linguists, computational linguists, and computer scientists, in a process very similar to the development of large-scale software. Grammars are written in grammatical formalisms that resemble very-high-level programming languages, and are thus very similar to computer programs. Yet grammar engineering is still in its infancy: Few grammar development environments support sophisticated modularized grammar development, in the form of distribution of the grammar development effort, combination of sub-grammars, separate compilation and automatic linkage, information encapsulation, and so forth. This work provides preliminary foundations for modular construction of (typed) unification grammars for natural languages. Much of the information in such formalisms is encoded by the type signature, and we subsequently address the problem through the distribution of the signature among the different modules. We define signature modules and provide operators of module combination. Modules may specify only partial information about the components of the signature and may communicate through parameters, similarly to function calls in programming languages. Our definitions are inspired by methods and techniques of programming language theory and software engineering and are motivated by the actual needs of grammar developers, obtained through a careful examination of existing grammars. We show that our definitions meet these needs by conforming to a detailed set of desiderata. We demonstrate the utility of our definitions by providing a modular design of the HPSG grammar of Pollard and Sag.
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Khan, Sumbul, i Scott C. Chase. "Strategic style change using grammar transformations". Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing 30, nr 4 (26.02.2016): 488–506. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0890060416000135.
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AbstractNew styles can be created by modifying existing ones. In order to formalize style change using grammars, style has to be formally defined in the design language of a grammar. Previous studies in the use of grammars for style change do not give explicit rationale for transformation. How would designers decide which rules to modify in a grammar to generate necessary changes in style(s) of designs? This paper addresses the aforementioned issues by presenting a framework for strategic style change using goal-driven grammar transformations. The framework employs a style description scheme constructed by describing the aesthetic qualities of grammar elements using adjectival descriptors. We present techniques for the formal definition of style in the designs generated by grammars. The utility of the grammar transformation framework and the style description scheme is tested with an example of mobile phone design. Analyses reveal that constraining rules in grammars is a valid technique for generating designs with a dominance of desired adjectival descriptors, thus aiding in strategic style change.
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Zwartjes, Otto. "The description of the indigenous languages of Portuguese America by the Jesuits during the colonial period". Historiographia Linguistica 29, nr 1-2 (12.08.2002): 19–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/hl.29.1.06zwa.
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Summary The paper explores three grammars of two indigenous languages of Brazil written in Portuguese during the colonial period: two grammars of the Tupi language composed by José Anchieta (1534–1597) in 1595 and Luís Figueira (1575–1643) in 1621 (2nd ed., 1687), and one grammar of the Kiriri language, written by Luis Vincêncio Mamiani (1652–1730) in 1699. Although most studies agree that these grammars were based on a Latin framework, they usually do not specify which grammar in particular served as a model. It is known, however, that the Latin grammar by Manuel Álvares (1526–1582), first published in 1572, became the main Latin school grammar for Jesuits all over the world. This article tries to give answers to questions such as why did the Jesuits favour this grammar, which grammars were used by them before 1572, how did the Portuguese missionaries in Brazil adapt or copy Álvares’ model, which parts of speech did they particularly use, and which definitions did they select and which elements did they discuss, add or omit?
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Novotný, Miroslav. "Reducing Operators for Generalized Grammars". Fundamenta Informaticae 13, nr 3 (1.07.1990): 237–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/fi-1990-13302.
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Theory of reducing operators elaborated for pure generalized grammars in [5] is transferred to normed generalized grammars. There exists a reducing operator ρ such that. for any normed generalized grammar G the normed generalized grammars G, ρ(G) generate the same languages; furthemore: ρ(G) is a normed grammar if and only if there exists a normed grammar G ′ such that G and G ′ generate the same language and G ′ is in a certain sense smaller than or equal to G. The reducing operator ρ is used to characterize the so called harmonic languages.
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NAKAMURA, AKIRA, i KUNIO AIZAWA. "RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN COORDINATE GRAMMARS AND PATH CONTROLLED GRAPH GRAMMARS". International Journal of Pattern Recognition and Artificial Intelligence 03, nr 03n04 (grudzień 1989): 445–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218001489000334.
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We define a graph grammar called node-replacement graph grammar with path controlled embedding (nPCE grammars) which use a sequence of edges instead of the single edge to embed a newly replaced graph into the host graph, then show some relationships between two-dimensional "coordinate grammars" and nPCE grammars. We also suggest an extension of PCE grammars to describe "disconnected coordinate languages".
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DASSOW, JÜRGEN, RUDOLF FREUND i GHEORGHE PĂUN. "COOPERATING ARRAY GRAMMAR SYSTEMS". International Journal of Pattern Recognition and Artificial Intelligence 09, nr 06 (grudzień 1995): 1029–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218001495000420.
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The aim of this paper is to elaborate the power of cooperation in generating pictures by array grammars. As it is expected, the generative capacity of cooperating array grammar systems (with a fixed number, with a number greater than a given threshold, or with the maximal number of derivation steps in each component when it is enabled) is strictly greater than that of context-free array grammars. Yet the same result is also obtained in the case of systems with regular components, which contradicts the corresponding result for string grammar systems. In fact, some more results for array grammar systems are obtained which either contradict the results for the corresponding string grammar systems or are not even known for these string grammar systems. Various non-context-free sets of arrays which can be generated in a simple way by cooperating array grammar systems are presented and show the power of the mechanism of cooperation for picture descritpion.
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Gong, Qingyu, Jingzhu Li, Tong Liu i Na Wang. "Generating urban fabric in the orthogonal or non-orthogonal urban landscape". Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science 47, nr 1 (22.03.2018): 25–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2399808318761667.
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Urban designers find it virtually impossible to (re)construct self-organising urban fabric formed by a synthesis of various builders. Here we show how generic, bottom-up grammars represent historic urban fabric in a unique context, and how shape rules are embedded in the evolutionary context. This paper generalises and formalises a context-free grammar and a context-sensitive grammar to describe and design two broadly categorised (i.e. orthogonal and non-orthogonal) urban patterns. Both grammars are constructive and employ morphological parameters to govern the patterning towards a desired form. The context-free grammar describes the density and aggregation of built forms while the context-sensitive grammar represents the interactions between streets and plots. Both grammars were applied to preserve the figure-ground relationship and proved effective in designing complex urban fabric.
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Zwartjes, Otto. "The description of the indigenous languages of Portuguese America by the jesuits during the colonial period: The impact of the latin grammar of Manuel Álvares". Historiographia Linguistica International Journal for the History of the Language Sciences 29, nr 1-2 (2002): 19–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/hl.29.1-2.06zwa.
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SUMMARY The paper explores three grammars of two indigenous languages of Brazil written in Portuguese during the colonial period: two grammars of the Tupi language composed by José Anchieta (1534–1597) in 1595 and Luís Figueira (1575–1643) in 1621 (2nd ed., 1687), and one grammar of the Kiriri language, written by Luis Vincêncio Mamiani (1652–1730) in 1699. Although most studies agree that these grammars were based on a Latin framework, they usually do not specify which grammar in particular served as a model. It is known, however, that the Latin grammar by Manuel Álvares (1526–1582), first published in 1572, became the main Latin school grammar for Jesuits all over the world. This article tries to give answers to questions such as why did the Jesuits favour this grammar, which grammars were used by them before 1572, how did the Portuguese missionaries in Brazil adapt or copy Álvares’ model, which parts of speech did they particularly use, and which definitions did they select and which elements did they discuss, add or omit?RÉSUMÉ Cet article étudie trois grammaires de deux langues indigènes du Brésil écrites en portugais durant l’époque coloniale: deux grammaires de la langue des Tupi ont été composées par Anchieta (1534–1597) en 1595 et Luís Figueira (1575–1643) en 1621 (2e éd. en 1687) et une grammaire de la langue des Kiriri, écrite par Luis Vincêncio Mamiani (1652–1730) en 1699. Bien que la plupart des études s’accordent pour dire que ces grammaires étaient fondées sur des structures latines, d’habitude elles ne fournissaient davantage de détails quant aux sources possibles. La grammaire latine de Manuel Álvares (1526–1582) fut publiée en 1572 pour la première fois et devint la grammaire scolaire latine des Jésuites dans le monde entier. Cet article tente d’apporter une réponse aux questions suivantes: pourquoi avaient-ils choisi cette grammaire, quelles grammaires étaient utilisées avant 1572, comment les missionnaires portugais au Brésil ont-ils adapté ou copié le modèle des Álvares, dans quelle mesure cette grammaire a-t-elle été particulièrement utilisée, quelles définitions ont-ils choisi et de quels éléments ont-ils discuté, et lesquels a-t-on ajouté ou omis?ZUSAMMENFASSUNG In dem Beitrag werden drei Grammtiken der Kolonialzeit analysiert, welche zwei Eingeborenensprachen Brasiliens beschreiben: zwei Grammatiken des Tupí, eine 1595 von José Anchieta (1534–1597) verfaßte und eine 1621 von Luís Figueira redigierte (2. Aufl., 1687), sowie eine Grammatik des Kiriri, die Luis Vincêncio Mamiani (1652–1730) 1699 erstellt hat. Auch wenn man üblicherweise davon ausgeht, daß diese Grammatiken auf dem Gedankengut lateinischer Grammatiken basieren, so wird doch nie präzisiert, welche lateinische Grammatik konkret als Modell gedient hat. Man weiß allerdings auch, daß die lateinische Grammatik von Manuel Álvares (1526–1582), welche 1572 zum erstenmal erschien, zur Standardgrammatik der Jesuiten in der ganzen Welt wurde. In diesem Beitrag wird versucht, Fragen zu beantworten wie: Warum favorisierten die Jesuiten diese Grammatik? Welche Grammatiken wurden von ihnen vor 1572 benutzt? Wie haben die Jesuiten Brasiliens die Grammatik von Álvares adaptiert bzw. kopiert? Welche Redeteile waren von besonderer Wichtigkeit für sie, welche Definitionen wählten sie aus und welche Details diskutierten sie vorrangig, bzw. welche ergänzten sie oder ließen sie ganz weg?
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AKUMBU, Pius. "Reflections on a community-based approach to writing grammars of endangered African languages". STUDIES IN AFRICAN LANGUAGES AND CULTURES, nr 54 (10.12.2020): 71–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.32690/salc54.3.
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Increasingly, there have been proposals for grammar writers to take into account the realities and needs of the community in order to produce grammars that can serve the interests of the native speakers (e.g. Kadanya 2006, Rehg 2014). Obviously, a grammar of an endangered language should, among other things, lead to the maintenance and/or revitalization of the language. However, grammars that are comprehensive and clear (Noonan 2007, Payne 2014, Rice 2006), and yet focus on and meet the needs of the target community, are still rare. This paper provides a reflection, from a community linguist’s perspective, on how a community-based grammar could be conceived and written in the African context. It is based on an exploration of the existing grammars written the by native and non-native speakers, as well as on the feedback from the native speakers. The paper points out some practical challenges involved (e.g. with data collection, and actual use of the grammars), and upholds that a grammar that is based on community mobilization, sensitization, and training requires a greater involvement and follow-up by the grammar writer, especially after publication.
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Crepinsek, Matej, Tomaz Kosar, Marjan Mernik, Julien Cervelle, Rémi Forax i Gilles Roussel. "On automata and language based grammar metrics". Computer Science and Information Systems 7, nr 2 (2010): 309–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/csis1002309c.
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Grammar metrics have been introduced to measure the quality and the complexity of the formal grammars. The aim of this paper is to explore the meaning of these notions and to experiment, on several grammars of domain specific languages and of general-purpose languages, existing grammar metrics together with the new metrics that are based on grammar LR automaton and on the language recognized. We discuss the results of this experiment and focus on the comparison between grammars of domain specific languages as well as of general-purpose languages and on the evolution of the metrics between several versions of the same language.
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Königseder, Corinna, i Kristina Shea. "Systematic rule analysis of generative design grammars". Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing 28, nr 3 (22.07.2014): 227–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0890060414000195.
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AbstractThe use of generative design grammars for computational design synthesis has been shown to be successful in many application areas. The development of advanced search and optimization strategies to guide the computational synthesis process is an active research area with great improvements in the last decades. The development of the grammar rules, however, often resembles an art rather than a science. Poor grammars drive the need for problem specific and sophisticated search and optimization algorithms that guide the synthesis process toward valid and optimized designs in a reasonable amount of time. Instead of tuning search algorithms for inferior grammars, this research focuses on designing better grammars to not unnecessarily burden the search process. It presents a grammar rule analysis method to provide a more systematic development process for grammar rules. The goal of the grammar rule analysis method is to improve the quality of the rules and in turn have a major impact on the quality of the designs generated. Four different grammars for automated gearbox synthesis are used as a case study to validate the developed method and show its potential.
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Hoisl, Frank, i Kristina Shea. "An interactive, visual approach to developing and applying parametric three-dimensional spatial grammars". Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing 25, nr 4 (12.10.2011): 333–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0890060411000205.
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AbstractSpatial grammars are rule based, generative systems for the specification of formal languages. Set and shape grammar formulations of spatial grammars enable the definition of spatial design languages and the creation of alternative designs. Since the introduction of the underlying formalism, they have been successfully applied to different domains including visual arts, architecture, and engineering. Although many spatial grammars exist on paper, only a few, limited spatial grammar systems have been computationally implemented to date; this is especially true for three-dimensional (3-D) systems. Most spatial grammars are hard-coded, that is, once implemented, the vocabulary and rules cannot be changed without reprogramming. This article presents a new approach and prototype implementation for a 3-D spatial grammar interpreter that enables interactive, visual development and application of grammar rules. The method is based on a set grammar that uses a set of parameterized primitives and includes the definition of nonparametric and parametric rules, as well as their automatic application. A method for the automatic matching of the left hand side of a rule in a current working shape, including defining parametric relations, is outlined. A prototype implementation is presented and used to illustrate the approach through three examples: the “kindergarten grammar,” vehicle wheel rims, and cylinder cooling fins. This approach puts the creation and use of 3-D spatial grammars on a more general level and supports designers with facilitated definition and application of their own rules in a familiar computer-aided design environment without requiring programming.
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Meduna, Aleksander, i Petr Vurm. "Multisequential Grammars with Homogeneous Selectors". Fundamenta Informaticae 48, nr 1 (styczeń 2001): 55–60. https://doi.org/10.3233/fun-2001-48104.
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This paper deals with selective substitution grammars. It concentrates on multisequential grammars with homogeneous selectors that have all their activated parts identical. The present paper reduces the number and size of selectors in these grammars. Indeed, it demonstrates that for every phrase-structure grammar, there exists an equivalent multisequential grammar having two homogeneous selectors, either of which has only two activated parts.
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Tzakosta, Marina, i Anthi Revithiadou. "A Grammar Inclusion Hypothesis of child language variation". Journal of Greek Linguistics 7, nr 1 (2006): 49–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/jgl.7.04tza.
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AbstractThis paper examines variation in language development based on production data from three Greek-speaking children. Variation suggests that children employ more than one grammar during the acquisition process. This naturally raises the question of how ‘unwanted’ grammars gradually give way to the one that relates to the adult/target grammar. To account for variation, we implement partial ordering (Anttila 1997a, 1997b) to Tzakosta’s (2004) Multiple Parallel Grammars model of language development. More specifically, we propose that, in the intermediate stage of acquisition, constraint permutation of the initial Markedness » Faithfulness ranking leads to grammar explosion. We view the resulting grammars as partial orders that contain sets of totally ranked grammars (subgrammars). The pivotal claim is that only those subgrammars that are typologically closer to the target one will eventually survive. This is stated as the Grammar Inclusion Hypothesis. The theoretical gain of the proposed model is that it provides a principled basis to define developmental paths and also to distinguish between smart and non-smart paths. The latter are partial orders that do not contain the target grammar as a total order and hence are doomed to extinction. The former, on the other hand, are partial orders that contain at least one total order that relates to the target grammar and, crucially, connect the running state of acquisition with the end state of language development. Our hypothesis finds empirical support by both inter-child and intra-child language acquisition data.
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KLEMPIEN-HINRICHS, RENATE. "Normal forms for context-free node-rewriting hypergraph grammars". Mathematical Structures in Computer Science 12, nr 2 (kwiecień 2002): 135–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0960129501003528.
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Confluent node-rewriting hypergraph grammars represent the most comprehensive known method for defining sets of hypergraphs in a recursive way. For a large natural subclass of these grammars, we show that the maximal rank of hyperedges indispensable for generating some set of hypergraphs equals the maximal rank of the hyperedges occurring in the hypergraphs of that set. Moreover, if such a grammar generates a set of graphs, one can construct from that grammar a C-edNCE graph grammar generating the same set of graphs.
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R.Pathrakumar i M.Rajasekar. "Fuzzy Conjunctive Grammar". International Journal of Fuzzy Mathematical Archive 12, nr 02 (2017): 93–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.22457/ijfma.v12n2a6.
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