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Autor: Grafiati

Data publikacji: 3 czerwca 2025

Data aktualizacji: 31 lipca 2025

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1

National Collaborating Centre for Chronic Conditions (Great Britain). Stroke: National clinical guideline for diagnosis and initial management of acute stroke and transient ischaemic attack (TIA). Royal College of Physicians, 2008.

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2

Ferguson, A. The clinical and cost-effectiveness of computed tomography in the management of transient ischaemic attack and stroke. Trent Institute for Health Services Research, 1997.

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Peter, Sandercock, National Co-ordinating Centre for HTA (Great Britain), and Health Technology Assessment Programme, eds. A Systematic review of the effectiveness, cost-effectiveness and barriers to implementation of thrombolytic and neuroprotective therapy for acute ischaemic stroke in the NHS. NCCHTA, 2002.

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Tatlisumak, Turgut, and Lars Thomassen, eds. Ischaemic Stroke in the Young. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198722366.001.0001.

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Stroke in the young is different, complex, and challenging. This book delivers a comprehensive review of the different aspects of young ischaemic stroke. Incidence, risk factors, and aetiology differ notably from those seen in the elderly. There is an increased prevalence of traditional risk factors already at a young age, but the book also focuses on special risk factors in young stroke patients. In many young stroke patients, aetiology remains unclear. The book outlines an extensive diagnostic workup and a stroke subtype classification adapted for young strokes. Gender differences are preval

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5

Patarroyo, Sully Xiomara Fuentes, and Craig Anderson. Management of ischaemic stroke. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0236.

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Ischaemic stroke is the most common cause of stroke around the world. It is a complex disease with a range of causes, manifestations, outcomes, and treatments. As the therapeutic time window to rescue or ‘protect’ the brain from ischaemic damage is extremely short, effective treatment requires coordinated systems of care, which commence in the prehospital paramedical setting and continue through the emergency department into the critical care environment, neurology ward, rehabilitation, and re-settlement back home. Successful outcomes from ischaemic stroke can be achieved through the effective

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6

Markus, Hugh, Anthony Pereira, and Geoffrey Cloud. Ischaemic stroke: common causes. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198737889.003.0008.

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This chapter on common causes of ischaemic stroke reviews the major pathologies underlying ischaemic stroke, namely large-artery disease, cardioembolism, and small-vessel disease. Large-vessel extra- and intracranial atherosclerotic cerebrovascular disease is covered. Cardioembolic aetiologies of stroke including atrial fibrillation and valvular heart disease are discussed. Small-vessel disease causing lacunar stroke and possible heterogonous pathologies underlying this subtype are covered. Dolichoectasia of arteries as a potential cause of stroke and the newer concept of embolic stroke of und

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7

Leys, Didier, Charlotte Cordonnier, and Valeria Caso. Stroke. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0067.

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Stroke is a major public health issue. Many are treatable in the acute stage, provided patients are admitted soon enough. The overall incidence of stroke in Western countries is approximately 2400 per year per million inhabitants, and 80% are due to cerebral ischaemia. The prevalence is approximately 12 000 per million inhabitants. Stroke is associated with increased long-term mortality, handicap, cognitive and behavioural impairments, recurrence, and an increased risk of other types of vascular events. It is of major interest to take the heterogeneity of stroke into account, because of differ

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8

Leys, Didier, Charlotte Cordonnier, and Valeria Caso. Stroke. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0067_update_001.

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Stroke is a major public health issue. Many are treatable in the acute stage, provided patients are admitted soon enough. The overall incidence of stroke in Western countries is approximately 2400 per year per million inhabitants, and 80% are due to cerebral ischaemia. The prevalence is approximately 12 000 per million inhabitants. Stroke is associated with increased long-term mortality, handicap, cognitive and behavioural impairments, recurrence, and an increased risk of other types of vascular events. It is of major interest to take the heterogeneity of stroke into account, because of differ

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9

Leys, Didier, Charlotte Cordonnier, and Valeria Caso. Stroke. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0067_update_002.

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Stroke is a major public health issue. Many are treatable in the acute stage, provided patients are admitted soon enough. The overall incidence of stroke in Western countries is approximately 2400 per year per million inhabitants, and 80% are due to cerebral ischaemia. The prevalence is approximately 12 000 per million inhabitants. Stroke is associated with increased long-term mortality, handicap, cognitive and behavioural impairments, recurrence, and an increased risk of other types of vascular events. It is of major interest to take the heterogeneity of stroke into account, because of differ

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10

Delcourt, Candice, and Craig Anderson. Diagnosis and assessment of stroke. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0235.

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Approximately 20 million strokes occur in the world each year and over one-quarter of these are fatal. This makes stroke the second most common cause of death, after ischaemic heart disease, and strokes are responsible for 6 million deaths (almost 10% of all deaths) annually. Stroke has major consequences in terms of residual physical disability, depression, dementia, epilepsy, and carer burden. Moreover, around 20% of survivors experience a further stroke or serious vascular event within a few years of the index event. Ischaemic stroke contributes the greatest share of the impact of stroke, w

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11

Thomassen, Lars, and Turgut Tatlisumak. Ischaemic Stroke in the Young. Oxford University Press, 2018.

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12

G.J. del Zoppo (Editor) and M. Hirschberg (Editor), eds. Thrombolytic Therapy in Acute Ischaemic Stroke. Springer-Verlag Berlin and Heidelberg GmbH & Co. K, 1991.

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13

Alarcón, Gonzalo, Marian Lazaro, and Antonio Valentín. Migraine, stroke, and cerebral ischaemia. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199688395.003.0033.

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This chapter reviews the electroencephalographic changes associated with migraine, stroke and cerebral ischaemia, and their interpretation to aid in their differential diagnosis. The incidence of stroke and cerebral ischaemia is increasing with population aging. They are some of the most common problems faced in emergency medicine, and their diagnosis can be puzzling. This chapter describes and illustrates the patterns seen in such conditions, such as slowing, frontal intermittent delta activity (FIRDA), periodic lateralized epileptiform discharge (PLED), generalized periodic lateralized epile

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14

Fromm, Annette. Vascular aetiology. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198722366.003.0004.

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Vascular aetiology of young ischaemic stroke covers a broad spectrum of causes. It includes the risk factor-mediated causes considered more common among the elderly on one hand, and a large number of rather rare disorders and conditions typical for younger ages on the other hand. This chapter is focused on atherosclerotic aetiology and comorbidity, small vessel disease and arterial dissection, which account for a majority of young ischaemic strokes worldwide, are treatable, and need to be considered as overall or contributing causes early during investigation. Specific and rare causes of young

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15

Rothwell, Peter. Cerebrovascular diseases. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198569381.003.0767.

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This chapter is concerned with those diseases of the cerebral and ocular circulation that cause ischaemia or infarction of the brain and eye or spontaneous haemorrhage into or around the brain. The main clinical manifestations of these diseases are transient ischaemic attack and stroke.

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16

Turc, Guillaume, David Calvet, and Jean-Louis Mas. Cardiac aetiology. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198722366.003.0005.

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Cardiac aetiology accounts for approximately 20% of strokes in young adults. Although atrial fibrillation is a leading cause of stroke in the general population, it is uncommon in young adults. In such patients, more diverse causes of ischaemic stroke are observed, including valvular heart diseases, infective endocarditis, Libman–Sacks endocarditis, dilated cardiomyopathies, congenital heart diseases, myocardial infarction, and intracardiac tumours. Patent foramen ovale is commonly observed in young adults with ischaemic stroke, but this association may be incidental in a sizeable proportion o

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17

Warlow, Charles, and Jan van Gijn. Stroke. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199658602.003.0005.

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This chapter includes ten influential papers in the development of ideas about the causes and management of stroke. These are papers that have changed medical thinking or practice, or both simultaneously, and they cover the following topics: the carotid artery; angiography; carotid endarterectomy; embolism from the heart and atrial fibrillation; ruptured intracranial aneurysms recognized during life; intracranial venous thrombosis; thrombolysis in acute ischaemic stroke; and transient ischaemic attacks. The problematic issue of how to measure the severity of disease is addressed; and the histo

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18

Delcourt, Candice, and Craig Anderson. Epidemiology of stroke. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0234.

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Approximately 20 million strokes occur in the world each year and over one-quarter of these are fatal. This makes stroke the second most common cause of death, after ischaemic heart disease, and strokes are responsible for 6 million deaths (almost 10% of all deaths) annually. Stroke has major consequences in terms of residual physical disability, depression, dementia, epilepsy, and carer burden. Moreover, around 20% of survivors experience a further stroke or serious vascular event within a few years of the index event. The economic and societal costs of stroke are enormous. With ongoing demog

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19

Bowker, Lesley K., James D. Price, Ku Shah, and Sarah C. Smith. Stroke. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198738381.003.0008.

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This chapter provides information on definition and classification, predisposing factors, acute assessment, investigations, acute management, stroke units, thrombolysis, intra-arterial therapies, ongoing management, complications, longer-term issues, and transient ischaemic attack clinics.

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20

Haunton, Victoria, Aung Sett, Amit Mistri, and Martin Fotherby. Stroke. Edited by Patrick Davey and David Sprigings. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.003.0227.

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The World Health Organization defines stroke as ‘a clinical syndrome consisting of rapidly developing clinical signs of focal (at times global) disturbance of cerebral function lasting greater than 24 hours (or leading to death) with no apparent cause other than that of vascular origin’. Transient ischaemic attack (TIA) is defined as a rapid presentation of neurological deficit with complete recovery within 24 hours of the onset of symptoms. However, the 24-hour cut-off is arbitrary, has no biological basis, and is of limited use clinically. A shorter duration is now regarded as more appropria

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21

Christine, Roffe. Stroke care: what is in the black box? Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199689644.003.0014.

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Key points• Most improvements in stroke care to date have been driven by research.• Immediate access to advanced imaging allows fast decision making, is cost-effective, and improves outcome.• Hyperacute interventions for acute ischaemic and haemorrhagic stroke can prevent permanent brain damage and reduce disability.• Strokes and stroke complications do not just happen during working hours: 24/7 working is essential for effective stroke management.• High quality nursing care is essential and has been shown to have a major impact on survival.• Pneumonia is the most common post-stroke complicati

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22

Morrison, Karen. Prevention of cerebrovascular disease. Edited by Patrick Davey and David Sprigings. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.003.0348.

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Stroke is the main cause of neurological morbidity in adults and the third most common cause of death worldwide after ischaemic heart disease and cancer (all forms combined). It is more common in older people, with three-quarters of strokes occurring in people over 65 years of age, and estimates are that overall stroke morbidity will double by the early 2020s. The worldwide figure of increasing incidence of stroke detection masks the fact that mortality from stroke has actually been falling in developed countries since the latter half of the twentieth century while the mortality has continued

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23

Pezzini, Alessandro. Genetics. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198722366.003.0011.

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Ischaemic stroke is a heterogeneous multifactorial disorder. Although epidemiological data from twin and family studies provide substantial evidence for a genetic basis for stroke, the contribution of genetic factors identified so far is small. Large progress has been made in single-gene disorders associated with ischaemic stroke, particularly at young age. By contrast, little is known about the genes associated with multifactorial stroke. The reported genome-wide association studies of ischaemic stroke have shown that no single common genetic variant imparts major risk, but data on early-onse

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24

Alonso Salinas, Gonzalo Luis, Marina Pascual Izco, Covadonga Fernández-Golfín, Luigi P. Badano, and José Luis Zamorano. Ischaemic heart disease: acute coronary syndrome. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198726012.003.0029.

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Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) is a non-invasive and accessible tool that should be widely used in the evaluation of patients with suspected or known acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Its role is crucial in the management of patients with suspected ACS without electrocardiographic changes or elevation of cardiac markers, allowing the formulation of differential diagnosis between cardiac and extracardiac aetiologies. If the ACS is confirmed, initial assessment of regional and global left and right ventricle contractile function is fundamental in establishing the management strategy and may h

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25

Krupinski, Jerzy. The molecular biology of ischaemic stroke and the role of angiogenesis. 1997.

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Markus, Hugh, Anthony Pereira, and Geoffrey Cloud. Acute stroke treatment. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198737889.003.0009.

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In this chapter the use of thrombolysis and the more recent application of thrombectomy in acute ischaemic stroke are covered. Organized stroke unit care has a major impact on both reducing mortality and improving outcome, and the chapter describes the evidence for this. It also covers other components of supportive acute stroke care, including the importance of instituting measures to avoid complications and to prevent early recurrent stroke.

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Jood, Katarina, and Turgut Tatlisumak. Special aetiologies. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198722366.003.0006.

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The chapter ‘Special aetiologies of ischaemic stroke in young adults’ provides an overview of the broad spectrum of non-conventional causes of ischaemic stroke. It reviews the more common of these unusual conditions categorized as non-atherosclerotic non-inflammatory arteriopathies, non-atherosclerotic inflammatory arteriopathies, vasospastic syndromes, haematological disorders, genetic disorders, and miscellaneous disorders. It discusses strategies for aetiological diagnosis in young ischaemic stroke, provides a detailed overview of useful clinical clues obtained from patient history and phys

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Markus, Hugh, Anthony Pereira, and Geoffrey Cloud. Imaging in stroke. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198737889.003.0007.

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Imaging plays a key role in the investigation in stroke, both to confirm the diagnosis and rule out other causes, and also to determine the underlying aetiology. This chapter covers the different imaging techniques which are commonly used in stroke care. It discusses the use of computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging in diagnosis of both ischaemic and haemorrhagic stroke. It also covers the various angiographic imaging techniques that can be used to identify the presence of extra- and intracranial stenoses.

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29

M'Guard, Sarah La. Ischaemic Stroke Workbook : Isch[ア]emic Stroke Workbook: Scalpel Skills Series. a Base Elements Kanji Study Pedagogy. Independently Published, 2021.

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Fink, Mitchell P. Ischaemia-reperfusion injury in the critically ill. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0308.

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Ischaemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury contributes to the pathogenesis of many common clinical conditions, including stroke, myocardial damage after percutaneous intervention for acute coronary artery occlusion, primary graft dysfunction after solid organ transplantation. The mechanisms that are responsible for I/R injury remain incompletely understood, but damage caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species clearly is important. A number of therapeutic approaches, such as administration of ROS scavengers, are effective in animal models of I/R injury, but for the most part

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Saeed, Sahrai, and Eva Gerdts. Echocardiography. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198722366.003.0010.

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Current guidelines recommend extensive cardiovascular imaging in patients who experience ischaemic stroke or a transient ischaemic attack to prevent recurrent stroke. High-quality echocardiography is crucial for detection of the wide range of cardiac and proximal aortic conditions that can predispose to cerebral embolism. These conditions may be classified as major, minor, or uncertain risk sources of embolism. Although both transthoracic (TTE) and transoesophageal echocardiography (TOE) have substantial clinical utility in patients with cryptogenic stroke, these methods offer complementary in

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Lancellotti, Patrizio, and Bernard Cosyns. Cardiac Source of Embolism (SOE) and Cardiac Masses. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198713623.003.0014.

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Embolism of cardiac origin accounts for around 15–30 per cent of ischaemic strokes. The diagnosis of a cardio-embolic source of stroke is frequently uncertain and relies on the identification of a potential cardiac source of embolism in the absence of significant cerebrovascular occlusive disease. In this respect, echocardiography (both transthoracic and/or transoesophageal) serves as a cornerstone in the evaluation, diagnosis, and managementof these patients. A clear understanding of the various types of cardiac conditions associated with cardio-embolic stroke and their intrinsic risk is ther

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Markus, Hugh, Anthony Pereira, and Geoffrey Cloud. History-taking in the stroke patient. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198737889.003.0004.

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In this history-taking in the stroke patient chapter, general principles of how to approach history taking are outlined. Clinical definitions of both stroke and transient ischaemic attack are discussed, and pointers given as to how to diagnose stroke mimic conditions. Symptoms and signs associated with anterior and posterior circulation stroke are covered as well as how to systematically assess the underlying aetiological cause of stroke in an individual patient.

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Rantanen, Kirsi, and Karoliina Aarnio. Stroke in women. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198722366.003.0012.

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Young women who suffer from stroke face multiple challenges regarding child rearing, future pregnancies, and ability to return to work or education. Women in general have a higher lifetime risk of stroke than men (1 in 5 vs 1 in 6), which is partly explained by longer life expectancy in the female population. The incidence of ischaemic stroke in non-pregnant women aged 15–44 years has been around 5 per 100,000 women-years. Women have lower stroke mortality than men except in the older age groups. Women have unique stroke risk factors such as oral contraception, pregnancy, puerperium, and menop

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Henzi, Bettina, and Maja Steinlin. Stroke in children. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198722366.003.0013.

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Stroke in children is a rare, but terrifying disease and its lifelong sequelae weigh heavy on patients and families. It is also increasingly recognized as a socioeconomic burden, ongoing for many years after the acute manifestation. There is a significant delay in diagnosis of childhood stroke. This is caused by several factors: lack of awareness among the public and professionals, childhood-specific manifestations, numerous stroke mimics, and last but not least, limited access to emergency neuroimaging for children. Fast stroke recognition tools need adaption to the special needs in children.

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Munshi, Sunil K., and Rowan Harwood, eds. Stroke in the Older Person. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198747499.001.0001.

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Stroke in the Older Person will inform the readers about every aspect of stroke disease and traverses the entire stroke pathway. It explores all aspects of stroke and in particular those singular features of stroke that afflict older people. Nearly three-quarters of all strokes occur in people over the age of sixty-five. Each chapter is a synthesis of up-to-date work and practical approaches, relevant to stroke physicians, geriatricians, neurologists, researchers, doctors of all grades, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, speech and language therapists, advanced nurse practitioners, and

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Stacey, Victoria. Neurology. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592777.003.0011.

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The unconscious patient - Headache - Migraine - Subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH) - Epilepsy - Status epilepticus - Acute stroke - Transient ischaemic attack - Motor weakness - Falls in older people - SAQs

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Markus, Hugh, Anthony Pereira, and Geoffrey Cloud. Cerebral haemorrhage. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198737889.003.0013.

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This chapter covers the several types of cerebral haemorrhage: extradural, subdural, subarachnoid, and intracerebral. Subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH) is an important cause of neurological disability and mortality, although only occasionally present with focal stroke symptoms. Intracerebral haemorrhage usually presents with a stroke, which can only be reliably distinguished from ischaemic stroke by brain imaging. The chapter discusses the diagnosis, investigation, and management of both SAH and intracerebral haemorrhage.

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Gattringer, Thomas, Christian Enzinger, Stefan Ropele, and Franz Fazekas. Brain imaging (CT/MRI). Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198722366.003.0007.

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In the acute phase of a suspected stroke, timely brain imaging with rapid and qualified interpretation is a crucial diagnostic step to inform patient management. While brain computed tomography is usually sufficient to indicate thrombolysis within the approved time window (by rapidly excluding intracranial haemorrhage), it often fails to show the actual site and extent of infarction as well as other pathologies, which may mimic a stroke. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has a much higher sensitivity and specificity for ischaemic vascular brain changes and thus allows direct demonstration of th

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40

Jansa, Jelka. An evaluation of the use of the extended Barthel index with acute ischaemic stroke patients. UEL, 1997.

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Nageshwaran, Sathiji, Heather C. Wilson, Anthony Dickenson, and David Ledingham. Cerebrovascular disease. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199664368.003.0004.

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This chapter on cerebrovascular disease discusses the evidence-based management of acute stroke, transient ischaemic attacks (TIAs), and secondary stroke prevention (antiplatelet therapy, risk factor modification, atrial fibrillation (AF), carotid and vertebral artery dissection, and symptomatic carotid artery disease). Drug treatment of intracerebral haemorrhage, subarachnoid haemorrhage, and cerebral venous sinus thrombosis are also discussed.

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42

Driving after stroke: How to get back behind the wheel if you have had a stroke or transient ischaemic attack (TIA). Stroke Association in co-operation with the UK Forum of Mobility Centres, 1997.

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Möllie, Holley. Isch[ア]emic Stroke Workbook : Nurse Me Gently Edition: Ischaemic Stroke Workbook for Students, Medical Professional and Non-Professionals Like Japanese. Independently Published, 2021.

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Ferro, José M., and Ana Catarina Fonseca. Secondary prevention. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198722366.003.0015.

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There are no specific guidelines regarding secondary stroke prevention in young adult stroke patients. Recommendations for secondary prevention are mainly extrapolated from data obtained from older individuals, because young adults were excluded or under-represented in most secondary stroke prevention clinical trials. Secondary stroke prevention includes (a) screening and control of vascular risk factors, that is, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidaemia, atrial fibrillation, hormonal contraception, infections, trauma, physical inactivity, obesity, poor nutrition, smoking, alcohol, and

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Ekker, Merel Sanne, and Frank-Erik de Leeuw. Epidemiology. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198722366.003.0001.

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Epidemiology can be used to reveal new causes of ischaemic stroke in young adults. Each year, about 2 million patients worldwide suffer a young stroke between the ages of 18 and 49 years. The overall stroke incidence is decreasing; however, an increase in the incidence of young stroke has been witnessed, possibly due to better awareness, new imaging techniques, and the increased prevalence of traditional risk factors already at a young age. Nevertheless, not all young stroke patients have cardiovascular risk factors. The proportion of patients with arterial dissection, cardioembolic stroke, an

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Putaala, Jukka, and Nicolas Martinez-Majander. Risk factors. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198722366.003.0002.

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Risk factors in young-onset stroke include both traditional and unconventional as well as both chronic and temporal ones. In young patients, unconventional risk factors such as oral contraceptive use, antiphospholipid antibodies, genetic thrombophilia, acute infections, illicit drug use, and migraine may play a greater role than in elderly patients. However, recent large studies have challenged this traditional view suggesting that young adult stroke would occur mostly due to such unconventional risk factors. These studies have shown a high prevalence of in particular modifiable behavioural ri

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Gattringer, Thomas, Christian Enzinger, Stefan Ropele, and Franz Fazekas. Vascular imaging (CTA/MRA). Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198722366.003.0008.

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Non-invasive computed tomography angiography (CTA) and magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) constitute an integral part of the diagnostic workup of stroke patients, which—among the various techniques to image the complex cerebrovascular tree—can be conceptually placed between duplex sonography and digital subtraction angiography. CTA and especially MRA can be performed with different techniques and protocols that need to be used according to the clinical questions. In the setting of acute ischaemic stroke with the therapeutic option of endovascular thrombectomy, the rapid and reliable detectio

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Tanislav, Christian, and Manfred Kaps. Classification. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198722366.003.0003.

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The classification of a cerebrovascular event distils information obtained in the workup and other related case history to a category indicating a specific pathophysiology, with direct implications for the subsequent secondary prevention management. A minimum standard of diagnostics is required for a precise classification. In young stroke victims, the conventional Trial of Org 10172 in Acute Stroke Treatment (TOAST) stroke subtype classification may only address the aetiopathogenesis in 30–60% of the individuals who are affected by vascular risk factors. Applying the criteria defined by TOAST

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Gardiner, Matthew D., and Neil R. Borley. Core surgical skills and knowledge. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199204755.003.0015.

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This chapter begins by discussing the basic principles of fluid and electrolyte homeostasis, fluid therapy, healthcare-associated infection, microorganisms and antimicrobials, preoperative assessment, and acute pain, before focusing on the key areas of knowledge, namely deep venous thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, respiratory tract infection, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, acute respiratory failure, ischaemic heart disease, heart failure, cardiac arrhythmias, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, acute renal failure, stroke, acute confusional state, and haematological conditions. The

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Devlin, Hugh, and Rebecca Craven. Heart and blood supply. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198759782.003.0009.

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The heart in relation to dentistry is the topic of this chapter. Heart physiology is described with respect to the cardiac cycle, control of contraction, ECG, and arrhythmias. Control of the cardiovascular system is next considered and the clinical application of this in fainting, shock, and blood loss. Atherosclerosis, angina, and myocardial infarction are described. This leads to a discussion of heart failure and drugs commonly used in cardiovascular disease. Infective endocarditis and rheumatic fever are discussed and the associations between oral bacteria and cardiovascular disease. The co

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