Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Weeds – Control – Western Australia”

[Truncated abstract] In the crop growing areas of Western Australia, two economically important weed species, Lolium rigidum Gaud. (annual ryegrass) and Raphanus raphanistrum L. (wild radish), have evolved widespread herbicide resistance to multiple chemistry groups. Consequently, grain growers in the region have adopted an integrated approach to weed management that includes many non herbicide tools, however many more are needed as these weed species become increasingly more difficult to control. This thesis examines, in a series of field trials carried out in the Western Australian crop growing area, the potential for weed seed predation of annual ryegrass and wild radish by naturally occurring granivores as a new weed management tool for grain growers . . . The study discusses the implications of these results with the view to manipulating predation of weed seed through agricultural management practices. Ants were shown to be the dominant seed predator in this environment, especially in the centre of fields. The study has identified that the ant species Melophorus turneri (Forel), Monomorium rothsteini (Forel), Pheidole hartmeyeri (Forel) and Rhytidoponera metallica (Smith) are potential biological control agents for annual ryegrass seeds while P. hartmeyeri was identified as the only species suitable for biological control of wild radish seed pods. Ants were found to be sensitive to disturbance and some to crop residue type and these effects are discussed in relation to seed removal. This study of weed seed predation in agricultural fields is the most complete in this environment and can be used to inform further work in this area. It has identified that naturally occurring granivores can be used as a weed management tool.

Over the past thirty years, price relativities and technological development have motivated an increase in the area of land allocated to cropping, as opposed to pasture production, throughout the central wheat belt of Western Australia. Nevertheless, reducing the proportion of pasture in these rotations has challenged the future productivity of farming systems in this area. First, the frequent application of selective herbicides for weed control in extended cropping rotations has promoted the development of herbicide resistance in a number of major agricultural weeds. Second, the primary use of annual plants has promoted the development of soil salinisation by allowing a significant proportion of rainfall to recharge saline water tables. The inclusion of perennial pasture phases between extended periods of cropping may mitigate or delay these constraints to production through (a) allowing the use of costeffective forms of non-selective weed control, and (b) through creating a buffer of dry soil that absorbs leakage occurring beneath subsequent crops. This study consequently explores the value of including perennial pasture phases in dryland agricultural systems in the eastern-central wheat belt of Western Australia, accounting for benefits related to herbicide resistance and water table management. A novel computational algorithm for the solution of multiple-phase optimal control problems is developed and used to conduct a conceptual analysis of the value of lucerne (Medicago sativa L.) pasture for managing annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum Gaudin), the primary weed in wheat belt cropping systems. The competitiveness and fecundity of annual ryegrass provide strong economic incentives to maintain a low weed population, irrespective of herbicide-resistance status. Consequently, the ineffectiveness of selective herbicides primarily reduces the profitability of cropping by motivating the adoption of more costly non-selective forms of weed control. The inclusion of lucerne in land-use rotations is only optimal in the presence of severe herbicide resistance given (a) the low efficiency of alternative weed-management practices available during the pasture phase, relative to selective-herbicide application; (b) the significant cost of establishing this perennial pasture; and (c) the high relative profitability of cereal production in the absence of resistance. The value of lucerne, relative to annual pastures, for weed management is explored in greater detail through the use of compressed annealing to optimise a sophisticated simulation model. The profitability of candidate rotations is also manipulated to account for the long-term production losses accruing to the recharge of saline groundwaters that occurs beneath them. Sequences incorporating lucerne are only more profitable than those that include annual pasture at the standard set of parameter values if (a) annual ryegrass is resistant to all selective herbicides, (b) the water table is so shallow (approximately less than 3.5 m deep) that frequent rotation with perennials is required to avert soil salinisation, or (c) sheep production is highly profitable. The value of perennial pasture is sufficient under these circumstances to overcome its high establishment cost. Consistent with intuition, these benefits are reinforced by lower discount rates and higher rates of leakage occurring beneath annual-based systems. Formulation of an effective communication strategy to report these results to producers is justified given the complexity involved in determining the true magnitude of these intertemporal benefits through alternative means, such as field trials.

Salsola australis is an introduced weed of crop and pasture systems in the Western Australian broad acre cropping and pasture region (wheat-belt). This thesis investigated the classification, biology and ecology of the genus Salsola in southwest Australia, as well as modelling the effectiveness of possible weed control practices. Prior to this research, S. tragus was the only recognised species of the Salsola genus within Australia. However, genetic analysis revealed that four genetically distinct putative taxa of the genus Salsola were found in southwest Australia, none of which were S. tragus. The taxa that is the most prevalent agricultural weed was classified as S. australis, but the other three putative taxa could not be matched to recognised species. All four taxa were diploid (2n = 18), as opposed to tetraploid (2n = 36) S. tragus. Within the agricultural system of southwest Australia, S. australis plants established throughout the year, although the majority of seed production occurred in late summer and autumn. Total seed production (138-7734 seeds per plant) and seed viability (7.6-62.8%) of S. australis were lower than that reported for other agricultural weed species of the Salsola genus. Seed dispersal occurred when the senesced plants broke free of their root system to become mobile. Wind driven plants travelled and shed seed over distances of 1.6 to 1247.2 m. Movement of approximately half the plants was restricted to less than 100 m by entanglement with other S. australis plants within the stand. Some seed was retained on the senesced plants, but the germinability of this seed fell to less than 2% in the two month period following plant senescence (i.e. a decline of 79%). Once seed shed into the soil seed bank, anywhere from 32.3 to 80.7% of the viable seeds germinated in the year following seed production, with the rest remaining dormant or degrading. A model of the life cycle of S. australis based on the population ecology data indicated that the dormant seed bank had very little effect on annual seedling recruitment, but seed dispersal from neighbouring populations had a large impact on population growth rate. Therefore, the most successful weed control measures were those that restricted seed dispersal from neighbouring populations, or those that were applied to all populations in the region rather than to a single population. Weed control techniques applied to a single population, without reducing seed dispersal, could not reduce population size.

Bibliography: leaves 124-136. This thesis gives an overview of factors used in weed risk assessments and explores the disparity between the measured high accuracy rate of the weed risk assessment system (WRA) as implemented in Australia and the pessimistic assessments of some workers about the possibility of predicting the weed potential of plant species imported in the future. The accuracy of the WRA may not be as high as previously thought, and it varies with weed definition and taxonomic groups. Cluster analysis and comparative analysis by independent contrasts were employed to determine the value of individual biological and ecological questions on the WRA questionnaire. Results showed that some WRA questions could be deleted from the questionnaire and the scores for others weighted differently. The WRA is not a reliable predictor of weeds when it is considered in the context of the base-rate probability of an introduced plant becoming weedy in Australia. As a result a far greater number on non-weeds will be placed on the prohibited imported list than was initially expected.

[Truncated abstract] Annual grasses have colonised a diverse range of environments in southern Australia. The “Silvergrasses” of the genus Vulpia are excellent examples being widely distributed, are prevalent weeds of agriculture and have had a long history to naturalise on the continent. Research was undertaken on Vulpia populations to identify if naturalising species have reproductive traits that provide propagules with the best chances of success. Furthermore, research aimed at investigating if these traits vary between species and their populations and how this variability related to the environment. A herbarium and field study was undertaken to establish what Vulpia species occur in SW Australia and to investigate environmental factors affecting their distribution. 169 herbaria specimens was examined and a botanical field survey of 189 sites was carried out in September 1998. Four species occur in the region: V. fasciculata, V. muralis, V. bromoides and two variants of V. myuros (V. myuros var. megalura and V. myuros var. myuros). V. bromoides and V. myuros were introduced early into the region while V. fasciculata and V. muralis more recently. It is plausible that Vulpia invaded the region via early seaport settlements and was spread by agricultural expansion. 96% of field sites contained V. myuros var. myuros, 79% V. myuros var. megalura, 50% V. bromoides, 6% V. fasciculata and 6% contained V. muralis. 90% of sites contained a mix of species and 9% of sites contained pure species stands. V. myuros var. myuros is the most widespread species and dominant form of V. myuros. It is found from high rainfall regions through to arid locations occurring on mostly light textured low fertility soils. V. muralis and V. fasciculata occur infrequently with the former widely dispersed and the later occurring predominantly on sands. V. bromoides occurs extensively in high rainfall regions but rarely extends to locations receiving less than 400-450mm annual rainfall and northward above 30°00’ latitude. It is predominantly on light to loamy textured soils that are fertile and acid. The most common species V. myuros and V. bromoides often coexist within sites but the dominance of one over the other is strongly correlated with growing season length and false break frequency. V. bromoides is positively correlated to growing season length and V. myuros is negatively related. The distribution of Vulpia species is strongly influenced by climate and soils. Variability in distribution is a reflection of the ecological differentiation between species to colonise different environments

Bibliography: leaves 82-89. Rampion mignonette is an annual to short-lived perennial agricultural weed from the Mediterranean region, first found in vineyards at Clare, South Australia, in 1986. The biology and ecology of rampion mignonette was studied to provide a basis for its integrated control and management. The study includes a literature review, maps of world and Australian distribution and drawings showing plant habit and details. A field survey found that rampion mignonette showed little migration and that containment and population reduction could be achieved by careful management including both chemical and cultural techniques. Common herbicides were also found to be effective in controlling the weed. An experiment established that it is unlikely to become a major weed of broadacre crops and pastures in the South Australian dryland farming system. It does however have the potential to compete with grapevines and reduce grape yields.

Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands is a common and devastating pathogen of cultivated proteas worldwide. Webb (1997) described a Sudden Death plant disease of proteas in Western Australia (WA) protea plantations. Proteas that suffer the syndrome display symptoms such as stunted growth, wilting, chlorosis and often death. In the current study, a number of protea plantations in the southwest of WA were visited to quantify the extent that P. cinnamomi was attributing to deaths of cultivated proteas. The survey indicated that P. cinnamomi is the major cause of Sudden Death in proteas. A range of other fungi (Fusarium, Botryosphaeria, Pestalotiopsis, Alternaria) and pests (nematodes, mealy bug, scale insects) were also identified to be contributing to protea death and decline in WA plantations. In many cases the factors contributing to protea disease appeared complex, with a range of physical factors or nutritional imbalances commonly associated with these pathogens and pests. As P. cinnamomi was the major cause of death of cultivated proteas the remainder of the experiments described in this dissertation investigated its control in horticultural plantings. Biofumigation has the potential to become an important technique in an overall integrated management approach to P. cinnamomi. In this thesis, biofumigation refers to the suppression of pathogens and pests by the incorporation of Brassica plants into the soil. Two biofumigants (Brassica juncea (L.) Czern., B. napus L.) were screened for their effect on the in vitro growth of five common Phytophthora species (P. cinnamomi, P. cactorum (Lebert & Colin) Schroeter., P. citricola Sawada, P. cryptogea Pethyb. & Laff. and P. megasperma Drechsler). Growth was determined by the measuring dry weight and radial growth of vegetative hyphae. B. juncea was found to be superior in its suppressive effect compared to B. napus. There was also significant variation in the sensitivity of the Phytophthora species to the suppressive effects of the biofumigants. P. cinnamomi was the most sensitive of the five species investigated. Where the rates of the biofumigant were sufficient to suppress growth of Phytophthora, the suppressive effect was mostly fungicidal. To determine how B. juncea and B. napus affect the infective ability and survival of P. cinnamomi, their effects on sporangia and chlamydospores production in soil was investigated in vitro. P. cinnamomi colonised Miracloth discs were added to soil amended with the two Brassica species, before being removed every two days over an eight day period for the determination of sporangia production, chlamydospore production and infective ability. Only the soils amended with B. juncea significantly reduced sporangia production in P. cinnamomi. Both Brassica species increased the percentage of aborted or immature sporangia and reduced the infective ability of the pathogen. Neither Brassica species had any effect on zoospore release or chlamydospore production in P. cinnamomi. Soil cores and soil leachate were collected from biofumigant-amended field soils to determine the inoculum potential and infective ability of the pathogen under glasshouse conditions. Amending the soil with both Brassica species had an immediate suppressive effect on the inoculum potential and infective ability of the P. cinnamomi. However, after this initial suppression there was a gradual increase in the recovery of the pathogen over the monitoring period of four weeks. To determine if the suppression would result in decreased disease incidence in a susceptible host, Lupinus angustifolius L. seeds were planted in the biofumigant amended soil. B. juncea amended soils reduced the disease incidence of P. cinnamomi by 25%. B. napus had no effect on disease incidence in L. angustifolius. Although the current study had demonstrated that biofumigants could suppress the growth, sporulation and infection of P. cinnamomi, it was unclear if this would equate to a reduction in disease incidence when applied in the field. A field trial was conducted on a protea plantation in the southwest of Western Australia that compared biofumigation with B. juncea to chemical fumigation (metham sodium) and soil solarisation. The three soil treatments were used in an integrated management approach to control P. cinnamomi that included the use of a hardwood compost, mulch and water sterilisation. All treatments were monitored during their application to ensure the treatments were conducted successfully. The three soil treatments significantly reduced the recovery of the pathogen and the infective ability of the pathogen to a soil depth of 20 cm. Metham sodium was the most suppressive soil treatment and soil solarisation was the least suppressive treatment. Only the metham sodium treatment resulted in a significant reduction in the incidence of root rot in Leucadendron salignum P.J. Bergius x laureolum (Lam.) Fourc (c.v. Safari Sunset) over the monitoring period of three years. Another field trial was conducted on the same protea plantation to compare the effectiveness of B. juncea and B. napus, without the use of other control strategies, to reduce the incidence of P. cinnamomi infection of Leucadendron Safari Sunset. The concentration of isothiocyanates was monitored for seven days after the incorporation of the biofumigants. Although both Brassica species reduced the recovery and infective ability of the pathogen, neither biofumigant reduced the incidence of root rot in Leucadendron Safari Sunset. In conclusion, P. cinnamomi is the most common and devastating pathogen in WA protea plantations. The current study demonstrated that P. cinnamomi is sensitive to the suppressive nature of biofumigants. Biofumigants can suppress the in vitro growth, sporulation, infective ability of P. cinnamomi and reduce the incidence of the disease caused by the pathogen in the glasshouse. Of the two Brassica species investigated, B. juncea was superior in its ability to control P. cinnamomi compared to B. napus. When applied in the field, biofumigation using B. juncea was found to be more suppressive that soil solarisation, but not as effective as metham sodium.

Includes bibliographical references (leaves 168-198) The horehound plume moth (Wheeleria spilodactylus Curits), an agent introduced to control the invasive weed horehound (Murrubium vulgare L.), was used as a model system to investigate factors believed to influence the successful establishment of an introduced natural enemy. Retrospectively tests the use of generic population viability analysis and decision making tools for determining optimal release strategies for the horehound plume moth in South Australia and to compare outcomes with the emprical data collected during the course of this project

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2002.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The high cost of herbicides for weed control in crop fields in the Western Cape is a major cause of reducing farmers' net income. As chemical weed control became more difficult and expensive, it became necessary to focus on the technique of reducing weed impact, which does not only involve herbicide usage. Aspects such as tillage method, sowing date of crops, crop rotation, weed ecology and germination requirements, amongst other, may play a role in reducing weed impact. The first experiment was done to determine whether temperature and light had an effect on the germination of six selected weed species, namely Arctotheca calendula, Avena fatua, Bromus diandrus, Emex australis, Lolium temulentum and Raphanus raphanistrum. Seeds of the aforementioned weeds were collected from Langgewens during 2000 and stored at room temperature before being used in this study. The seeds were germinated in a germination cabinet at three temperature regimes namely 5 "C /15 "C, 10°C / 15°C and 10°C / 20°C. Most seeds showed a positive germination response at the 10°C / 15°C treatment, except for Emex australis and Lolium temulentum, which was believed to germinate throughout the year under favourable conditions. Among the germinated weed species, Avena fatua germinated best with a cumulative value of 90% as compared to Raphanus raphanistrum, which germinated least with a cumulative value of 12%. The second experiment was done to evaluate the effect of three growth regulators, namely gibberellic acid, hydroxylamine (auxin), and kinetin (cytokinin) to break dormancy and enable simultaneous germination of the six weed species mentioned above. Weed seeds were germinated in a germination cabinet at 20 °C using the test solutions of the aforementioned growth regulators. The germination was assessed after 3, 7, 10 and 14 days of incubation and the tetrazolium test for the viability of seeds was done for ungerminated seeds. The result obtained showed that no chemical/concentration proved to be successful in stimulating the germination of all species tested. As for example a high concentration of hydroxylamine increased germination of Emex australis to nearly 100% and inhibited germination of Raphanus raphanistrum to less than 12.5% at all hydroxylamine concentrations. The third experiment was conducted with the aim of determining the competitiveness of the six weed species mentioned above when grown together with wheat in order to decide when weed control will be cost-effective. An additive series experiment was conducted in a glasshouse. The influence of weed species on wheat plant height, tiller number at different growth stages, vegetative dry mass and gram mass was determined by using different varying weed densities. Weed densities, through reduction in number of tillers, reduced wheat grain yield. By increasing the density of wheat this competitive effect could be reduced. Different weed densities caused a significant difference in wheat plant height, tiller number, dry mass and grain mass. The results showed that species had a significant effect (p < 0.05) on wheat plant height during tillering, stem elongation and heading growth stages. Total wheat plant above-ground dry mass was significantly (p < 0.05) reduced by an increase in weed density.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die hoë koste van onkruiddoders vir onkruidbeheer in graangebiede van die Wes- Kaap is een van die hooffaktore wat graanprodusente se netto inkomste verlaag. Weens moeiliker en duurder chemiese onkruidbeheer en om die impak van onkruide te verlaag, het dit noodsaaklik geword om op die tegnieke te fokus wat nie die gebruik van chemikalieë insluit nie. Faktore wat in rol kan speel sluit bewerkingspraktyke, saaidatum van gewasse, wisselbou, ekologie en ontkiemingsvereistes van onkruide in. Die eerste eksperiment is gedoen om te bepaal of temperatuur en lig 'n effek het op die ontkieming van ses gekose onkruide, naamlik Arctotheca calendula, Avenajatua, Bromus diandrus, Emex australis, Lo/ium temulentum en Raphanus raphanistrum. Sade van die voorgenoemde onkruide is in 2000 op Langgewens versamel en by kamertemperatuur geberg voordat dit in hierdie studie gebruik is. Die sade is in 'n ontkiemingskabinet geïnkubeer by drie temperatuurreekse naamlik 5 oe / 15 oe, 10 oe / 15 oe en 10 oe / 20 oe. Die meeste sade het 'n positiwe ontkiemingsreaksie getoon na die 10 oe / 15 oe behandeling, met die uitsondering van Emex australis en Lolium temulentum, wat oënskynlik heeljaar salontkiem onder gunstige omstandighede. Avena fatua het die hoogste ontkiemingspersentasie oor alle spesies getoon met 'n kumulatiewe waarde van 90% en Raphanus raphanistrum die minste met 'n kumulatiewe waarde van 12%. Die tweede eksperiment is gedoen om die invloed van drie groeireguleerders, naamlik gibberelliensuur, hidroksielamien (ouksien) en kinetin (sitokinien), op die opheffmg van saadrus te ondersoek en om ook die gelyktydige ontkieming van bogenoemde ses onkruidspesies moontlik te maak. Onkruidsade is in 'n ontkiemingskabinet by 20 oe ontkiem deur gebruik te maak van toetsoplossings van bogenoemde groei-reguleerders. Die ontkieming van die sade is na inkubasie periodes van 3, 7, 10 en 14 dae geëvalueer en die tetrazoliumtoets VIr saadkiemkragtigheid is toegepas vir onontkiemde sade. Die verkreë resultate het getoon dat geen chemiekalie / konsentrasie die ontkieming van alle spesies suksesvol kon stimuleer nie. Hoë konsentrasies hidroksielamien het die ontkieming van Emex australis tot byna 100% verhoog en het die ontkieming van Raphanus raphanistrum geïnhibeer tot minder as 12.5% by alle hidroksielamien konsentrasies. Die derde eksperiment is uitgevoer met die doelom die kompetisievermoë van dieselfde ses onkruidspesies te bepaal as dit saam met koring groei en om te besluit wanneer onkruidbeheer koste effektief sal wees. 'n Additiewe reeks eksperiment wat uit vier herhalings bestaan het, is in plastiekpotte in 'n glashuis uitgevoer. Die invloed van die onkruidspesies op koring planthoogte, halmgetal by verskillende groeistadiums, droë massa en graanmassa is bepaal deur onkruiddigthede te gebruik. Onkruide het koring opbrengs verlaag deur die vermindering van halmgetal en hierdie kompeterende effek kon verminder word deur 'n toename in die plantestand van koring. Verskillende onkruiddigthede het 'n betekenisvolle invloed op koring planthoogte, halmgetal, droë massa en graanmassa gehad. Die resultate het getoon dat spesies 'n betekenisvolle effek (p< 0.05) op koring planthoogte, stem verlenging en aarverskyning gehad het. Die totale bogrondse droë massa van koring is betekenisvol (p< 0.05) verminder deur 'n verhoging in onkruiddigtheid.

[Truncated abstract] The salinisation of agricultural land, urban infrastructure and natural habitat is a serious and increasing problem in southern Australia. Government funding has been allocated to the problem to attempt to reduce substantial costs associated with degradation of agricultural and non-agricultural assets. Nevertheless, Government funding has been small relative to the size of the problem and therefore expenditure needs to be carefully targeted to interventions that will achieve the greatest net benefits. For intervention to be justified, the level of salinity resulting from private landholder decisions must exceed the level that is optimal from the point of view of society as a whole, and the costs of government intervention must be less than the benefits gained by society. This study aims to identify situations when government intervention is justified to manage dryland salinity that threatens to affect road infrastructure (a public asset). A key gap in the environmental economics literature is research that considers dryland salinity as a pollution that has off-site impacts on public assets. This research developed two hydrological/economic models to achieve this objective. The first was a simple economic model representing external costs from dryland salinity. This model was used to identify those variables that have the biggest impact on the net-benefits possible from government intervention. The second model was a combined hydro/economic model that represents the external costs from dryland salinity on road infrastructure. The hydrological component of the model applied the method of metamodelling to simplify a complex, simulation model to equations that could be easily included in the economic model. The key variables that have the biggest impact on net-benefits of dryland salinity mitigation were the value of the off-site asset and the time lag before the onset of dryland salinity in the absence of intervention. ... In the case study of dryland salinity management in the Date Creek subcatchment of Western Australia, the economics of vegetation-based and engineering strategies were investigated for road infrastructure. In general, the engineering strategies were more economically beneficial than vegetation-based strategies. In the case-study catchment, the cost of dryland salinity affecting roads was low relative to the cost to agricultural land. Nevertheless, some additional change in land management to reduce impacts on roads (beyond the changes justified by agricultural land alone) was found to be optimal in some cases. Reinforcing the results from the simple model, a key factor influencing the economics of dryland salinity management was the urgency of the problem. If costs from dryland salinity were not expected to occur until 30 years or more, the optimal response in the short-term was to do nothing. Overall, the study highlights the need for governments to undertake comprehensive and case-specific analysis before committing resources to the management of dryland salinity affecting roads. There were many scenarios in the modelling analysis where the benefits of interventions would not be sufficient to justify action.

[Truncated abstract] The prinicipal aim of this thesis was to explore the relationship between 3rd generation cephalosporin antibiotics and hospital-acquired Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea (CDAD). This antibiotic class has been implicated in the aetiology of CDAD; therefore restriction of these antibiotics via antibiotic policies represents a potential strategy for prevention and control of CDAD. Successful control of CDAD in hospitals translates to improved quality of care for patients, and a reduction of pressure on hospital resources. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to determine whether 3rd generation cephalosporins were related to CDAD, to evaluate the effect of changes to antibiotic policy on the incidence of CDAD, and to determine the impact of CDAD on patient length of stay and hospital costs. The study was conducted in Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital (SCGH), a public teaching hospital located in Perth, the capital city of the state of Western Australia. Evidence for an association between 3rd generation cephalosporins and CDAD was obtained from studies of ecologic- and individual-level data. A time series analysis of the relationship between monthly consumption of 3rd generation cephalosporins and the incidence of CDAD in SCGH was undertaken covering the period 1994 to 2000. The results demonstrated a positive relationship between the use of 3rd generation cephalosporins and CDAD. A matched case-control study that involved 193 adult inpatients diagnosed with CDAD and 386 adult inpatients without CDAD, selected from the period 1996 to 2000, was conducted. Information was collected on exposure to 3rd generation cephalosporin antibiotics during hospitalisation, as well as exposure to other antibiotics and medications, procedures, and comorbidities. Results from conditional logistic regression analyses found CDAD cases were six times more likely to be exposed to 3rd generation cephalosporins during their admission, prior to the onset of diarrhoea, than controls (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 6.17, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.56-24.37). Approximately one third of CDAD in the study population could be attributed to 3rd generation cephalosporins. CDAD cases were also four times more likely to have been exposed to either amoxicillin-clavulanate or ticarcillin-clavulanate (adjusted OR=4.23, 95% CI=1.81-9.93). In October 1998, an antibiotic policy was introduced at SCGH that restricted the use of ceftriaxone, the 3rd generation cephalosporin most commonly used by the hospital. During 1999 and 2000, the incidence of CDAD halved as ceftriaxone consumption fell in response to this policy. The effect of this policy was demonstrated in the time series model; during the post-policy period the relationship between ceftriaxone and CDAD that was evident prior to the policy was cancelled out. From the individual-level data, obtained from the case-control study, a reduction in the prevalence of exposure to 3rd generation cephalosporins from 11% to 1% accounted for a 30% reduction in the incidence of CDAD. Data from the case-control study was also used to analyse the independent contribution of CDAD to length of stay and admission costs using multiple linear regression

[Truncated abstract] Insufficient water use by annual crop and pasture species leading to costly rises in saline watertables has prompted research into potentially profitable deep-rooted perennial species in the Western Australian wheatbelt. Native mallee eucalypts are currently being developed as a short-rotation coppice crop for production of leaf oils, activated carbon and bio-electricity for low rainfall areas (300—450 mm) too dry for many of the traditional timber and forage species. The research in this study was aimed at developing a knowledge base necessary to grow and manage coppiced mallee eucalypts for both high productivity and salinity control. This firstly necessitated identification of suitable species, climatic and site requirements favourable to rapid growth, and understanding of factors likely to affect yield of the desirable leaf oil constituent, 1,8-cineole. This was undertaken using nine mallee taxa at twelve sites with two harvest regimes. E. kochii subsp. plenissima emerged as showing promise in the central and northern wheatbelt, particularly at a deep acid sand site (Gn 2.61; Northcote, 1979), so further studies focussed on physiology of its resprouting, water use and water-use efficiency at a similar site near Kalannie. Young E. kochii trees were well equipped with large numbers of meristematic foci and adequate root starch reserves to endure repeated shoot removal. The cutting season and interval between cuts were then demonstrated to have a strong influence on productivity, since first-year coppice growth was slow and root systems appeared to cease in secondary growth during the first 1.5—2.5 years after cutting. After decapitation, trees altered their physiology to promote rapid replacement of shoots. Compared to uncut trees, leaves of coppices were formed with a low carbon content per unit area, and showed high stomatal conductance accompanied by high leaf photosynthetic rates. Whole-plant water use efficiency of coppiced trees was unusually high due to their fast relative growth rates associated with preferential investments of photosynthates into regenerating canopies rather than roots. Despite relatively small leaf areas on coppice shoots over the two years following decapitation, high leaf transpiration rates resulted in coppices using water at rates far in excess of that falling as rain on the tree belt area. Water budgets showed that 20 % of the study paddock would have been needed as 0—2 year coppices in 5 m wide twin-row belts in order to maintain hydrological balance over the study period. Maximum water use occurred where uncut trees were accessing a fresh perched aquifer, but where this was not present water budgets still showed transpiration of uncut trees occurring at rates equivalent to 3—4 times rainfall incident on the tree belt canopy. In this scenario, only 10 % of the paddock surface would have been required under 5 m wide tree belts to restore hydrological balance, but competition losses in adjacent pasture would have been greater

Alternative grazing systems and pasture types for wool production in the south west of Western Australia were analysed using bio-economic modelling techniques in order to determine their relative productivity and profitability. After reviewing the experimental and modelling literature on perennial pastures and grazing systems, seven case studies of farmers were conducted in order to investigate the practical application of innovative grazing systems and use of perennial pastures. Together these case studies provided information for identifying relevant variables and for calibrating the modelling work which followed. The core of the work lies in a bio-economic model for investigating the comparative value of the three grazing systems and two pasture families mentioned above. A baseline scenario using currently available and reliable scientific data provides baseline results, after which a number of sensitivity analyses provide further insights using variations of four key parameters: persistence, heterogeneity, water soluble carbohydrates, and increased losses. Results show that perennial pastures are in the studied region more profitable than annual pastures. Under current baseline conditions, continuous grazing with perennial pastures is the most profitable enterprise, but this superiority is not robust under parameter variations defined by other scenarios. The more robust solution in terms of enterprise profitability is cell grazing with perennial pastures. The results indicate that intensive grazing systems such as cell grazing have the potential to substantially increase the profitability of grazing operations on perennial pasture. This result is an encouraging one in light of its implications for water uptake and salinity control. It means that economics and land care can go hand in hand, rather than be competitive. It is to be noted that it is the choice of the grazing system in combination with the pasture species, rather then the pasture species itself, that allows for such complementarity between economics and sustainable land use. This research shows that if farmers adopt practices such as cell grazing they may be able to increase the area that they can profitably plant to perennial pasture thus reducing the impacts of dryland salinity. This finding is consistent with the findings of the case studies where the farmers perceived that, provided grazing was planned, increasing the intensity of their grazing management and the perenniallity of their pastures would result in an increase in the profitability of their grazing operation. As a result this research helps to bridge a gap which has existed in this area of research, between the results of scientific research and those reported in practice.

[Truncated abstract] Dryland salinity is a major environmental challenge facing agriculture in Australia. One option to manage dryland salinity is the use of perennial forages that increase water use of agricultural systems. However, the current array of perennial forages is limited. Forage species that satisfy the range of climatic and edaphic environments, and production systems, in southern Australia are needed (Chapter 1). In particular, low rainfall regions lack options other than lucerne (Medicago sativa L.) (Chapter 1). The Dorycnium genus (canary clovers) contains perennial species that might be useful forage plants for southern Australia. Dorycnium are sub-shrubs and their plant form differs from current perennial forages (Chapter 1). The aim of this project was to investigate some of the agronomic traits of several species of the genus Dorycnium to explore where they might be used in Australia and how they might be integrated into agricultural systems for management of dryland salinity. First, two desktop investigations assessed the potential adaptation and role of Dorycnium species in southern Australia: a review of the current literature on the agronomic characteristics of Dorycnium (Chapter 2) and an eco-geographical analysis to explore the ecology of Dorycnium species (Chapter 3). The agronomy of Dorycnium has been previously researched mainly in New Zealand, and although this provides some indications on where and how Dorycnium might be best used in Australia, this still requires testing in Australia. In particular, the aluminium tolerance of Dorycnium species indicates that they may be more suitable for acid soils than lucerne. Little ecological data was obtained for germplasm and herbarium collection sites of Dorycnium species. Climate comparisons between the native distribution of Dorycnium species in the Mediterranean basin and Australia, using spatial aridity data and CLIMEX climate match modelling, revealed that D. hirsutum and D. rectum might be suitably adapted to the temperate pasture regions of southern Australia. Suitable germplasm of D. pentaphyllum may also exist, but subsequent investigations in this project focussed on D. hirsutum and D. rectum.

This study is concerned with how educational legislation shapes and uses freedom for the purpose of governing the parent. The key question guiding the study was: How does the Act constitute the ‘parent’ as a subject position responsible for schooling the child? Central to the work is an examination of the School Education Act 1999 (the Act) using Foucault’s thinking on governmentality. This is prefaced by historical accounts that bring together freedom and childhood as contrived styles of conduct that provide the governmental logic behind the Act. The study reveals how the Act shapes and uses the truth of freedom/childhood to construct the responsible parent as a style of conduct pegged to a neo-liberal political rationality of government. It is this political rationality that provides the node or point of encounter between the technologies of power and the self within the Act which forms the ‘responsible’ identity of the parent as an active self-governing entrepreneur made more visible by the political construction of ‘others.’ This is a legal-political subjectivity centred on the truth of freedom/childhood and a neo-liberal rationality of government that believes that any change to our current ethical way of being in relation to educating the child would ruin the very freedoms upon which our civilised lifestyle depends. In essence, the Act relies on the production of ‘others’ as the poor, Aboriginal and radical who must be regulated and made autonomous to constitute the ‘parent’ as an active consumer whose autonomous educational choices are an expression of responsibility in relation to schooling the child

[Truncated abstract] Malva parviflora L. (small-flowered mallow) (Malvaceae) is a common weed of pastures and wastelands and its distribution has increased rapidly throughout Australia during the last decade. Control of M. parviflora with herbicides, such as glyphosate, is often unsatisfactory and changing farming practices, such as minimum tillage, have facilitated its spread. Yet there has been little research on M. parviflora in the past and many aspects of its biology and ecology are unknown. Hence, there exists a need to examine these aspects in order to investigate and develop suitable integrated weed management strategies. Weed identification is the first and probably the most important step in the management of weeds. Here it is shown that the weedy Malva species in Western Australian farming systems is M. parviflora, and not a morphologically similar Malva species or hybrid of two species. A common garden study of 24 populations collected across the agricultural region of south-west Western Australia revealed that since its introduction over 140 years ago M. parviflora has successfully adapted to a wide range of distinct environments. The species is able to thrive in areas that vary in annual rainfall from 315 to 496 mm, maximum average temperatures from 21.9 to 26.8oC and minimum average temperatures from 9 to 13.6oC. However, there was limited broad scale ecoclinal differentiation and low genetic variation within the common garden study with only length of time between sowing and flowering differing between populations. As the species was shown to possess a predominately inbreeding system, which typically would create ecotypes/ecoclines due to limited gene flow, it was suggested that seed dispersal by sheep is likely to have increased gene flow thus suppressing population differentiation. A considerable proportion of mature hardseeded M. parviflora can survive rumen digestion and mastication by sheep. ... With origins thought to be in the Mediterranean region, it is not surprising that M. parviflora has thrived and prospered in south-west Western Australia. This thesis has determined several aspects that have enabled it to flourish in this Mediterranean-type environment and most of these attributes, including autogamous reproduction, ecoclinal/ecotypic formation, dormancy and asynchronous germination and rapid seed development, are commonly found in successful weeds world-wide.

The objective of this Ph.D. research was to identify new and novel mechanisms of wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum L.) resistance to photosystem II (PSII) inhibitors, auxinics, and acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS) inhibitors. PSIIinhibitor resistance was demonstrated to be target-site based, and conferred by a Ser264 to Gly substitution of the D1 protein. Auxinic resistance was associated with reduced herbicide translocation to the meristematic regions of resistant wild radish plants. Two new resistance mutations of wild radish AHAS were discovered, including one encoding the globally rare Asp376 to Glu substitution, and another encoding an Ala122 to Tyr substitution, which has never been identified or assessed for resistance in plants previously. Characterization of the frequency and distribution of AHAS resistance mutations in wild radish from the WA wheatbelt revealed that Glu376 was widespread, and that some mutations of AHAS are more common than others. Computer simulation was used to examine the molecular basis of resistance-endowing AHAS target-site mutations. Furthermore, through the computer-aided analysis, residues were identified with the potential to confer resistance upon substitution, but which have not previously been assessed for this possibility. Results from this Ph.D. research demonstrate that diverse, unrelated mechanisms of resistance to PSII inhibitors, auxinics, and AHAS inhibitors have evolved in wild radish of the WA wheatbelt, and that these mechanisms have accumulated in some populations.

[Truncated abstract] The use of uncertainty analysis is gaining considerable attention in catchment hydrological modeling. In particular, the choice of an appropriate model structure, the identifiability of parameter values, and the reduction of model predictive uncertainty are deemed as essential elements of hydrological modelling. The chosen model structure must be parsimonious, and the parameters used must either be derivable from field measured data or inferred unambiguously from analysis of catchment response data. In this thesis, a long-term water balance model for the Susannah Brook catchment in Western Australia has been pursued using the ?downward approach?, which is a systematic approach to determine the model with the minimum level of complexity, with parameter values that in theory are derivable from existing physiographic data relating to the catchment. Through the analysis of the rainfall-runoff response at different timescales, and the exploration of the climate, soil and vegetation controls on the water balance response, an initial model structure was formulated, and a priori model parameter values estimated. Further investigation with the use of auxiliary data such as deuterium concentration in the stream and groundwater level data exposed inadequacies in the model structure. Two more model structures were then proposed and investigated through formulating alternative hypotheses regarding the underlying causes of observed variability, including those associated with the absence of a contribution of deep groundwater flow to the streamflow, which was indicated by deuterium concentration and internal dynamics characterized by the observed groundwater levels. ... These differences are due to differences in the time delay between rainfall and recharge between upland and riparian regions. The ages of water recharging the groundwater and discharging from the catchment were estimated by assuming a piston flow mechanism. In the deeper, upland soils, the age of recharging water was considerably larger than the unsaturated zone delay would suggest; a recharge response 16 days after an infiltration event may involve water as much as 160 days old. On the other hand, the delay and the age of recharging water were much lower in the shallow riparian zone. Where the upland zone contributes significantly to discharge, the predicted difference between the rainfall-discharge response time and the average age of discharging water can be significant.

No - till systems have been widely adopted by farmers in Australia over the past decade to reduce soil erosion, improve soil physical and chemical properties, conserve soil moisture and save on fuel costs. These changes in tillage practices can have a major influence on the ecology and management of weeds. Studies were undertaken on the seed biology of six important Australian weed species to provide underpinning knowledge of their response to tillage. Field studies were also undertaken to investigate the effect of no - till on weed seedling emergence, seed bank persistence and herbicide behaviour. Seed germination of threehorn bedstraw and wild turnip, the latter only at sub - optimal temperatures, was inhibited by light. In contrast, seed germination of common sowthistle and Indian hedge mustard was stimulated by light. Seed germination of small - flowered mallow was not influenced by the light conditions. Seedling emergence of threehorn bedstraw, wild turnip, small - flowered mallow and annual ryegrass was low on the soil surface but increased with shallow burial, which suggests that farming practices that achieve shallow burial of seeds are likely to promote greater seedling emergence of these weed species. In contrast, seedling emergence of common sowthistle and Indian hedge mustard was greatest for the seeds present on the soil surface and emergence decreased with increased burial depth. In field experiments, low soil disturbance tillage systems left more seeds on the soil surface after crop sowing, whereas high soil disturbance systems buried most of the seeds. Seedling emergence of annual ryegrass, threehorn bedstraw and wild radish was greater under minimum tillage than no - till system. In contrast, seedling emergence of Indian hedge mustard, common sowthistle, silvergrass, small - flowered mallow and turnipweed was greater under the no - till system. Seedling emergence of wild oat and wild turnip was not influenced by the tillage system. Even though seedling emergence of annual ryegrass was much lower under no - till, the persistence of residual viable seeds of annual ryegrass from one season to the next was similar between the tillage systems. This was because of much greater seed decay under no - till ( 48 to 60 % ) than that recorded under minimum tillage ( 12 to 39 % ). All dinitroaniline herbicides ( trifluralin, pendimethalin and oryzalin ) were more effective in reducing the number of plants, spikes, dry matter and seed production of annual ryegrass when incorporated at sowing with tines than with the discs. At Minlaton in 2004 and 2005, bioavailable trifluralin was greater under tillage systems with greater levels of soil disturbance than under lower soil disturbance systems. In the absence of the herbicide, annual ryegrass was less competitive with wheat under the disc - sown systems. The response of grain yield to herbicides was greater under the tine - sown systems than the disc - sown systems. The performance of S - metolachlor on annual ryegrass control was investigated under no - till. The control of annual ryegrass was greater than 80 % when S - metolachlor was applied at sowing ( incorporated by sowing or post - sowing pre - emergence ). However, application of the herbicide at sowing resulted in phytotoxic effects on crop emergence and grain yield of wheat. Application of S - metolachlor at 20 or 23 days before sowing not only provided effective control ( 74 to 83 % ) of annual ryegrass, it was also safe on wheat. Application of this herbicide at 40 or 46 days before sowing was relatively ineffective in controlling annual ryegrass ( 33 to 49 % weed kill ) but safe on wheat. In conclusion, soil disturbance caused by tillage was found to have a major influence on the behaviour of the seed bank of different species including seedling emergence and decay rates of weed seeds. However, the response to tillage tended to be species - specific and was related to their seed biology. Tillage systems also had a major influence on the efficacy and bioavailability of trifluralin, which is prone to volatilisation losses. The findings of this research program are expected to contribute to the improvement in weed management under no - till systems.<br>Thesis (Ph.D.)--School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, 2006.

Title page, table of contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University of Adelaide Library.<br>Field experiments investigating the nature and extent of interference in monocultures and mixtures of wild radish and wheat were conducted in 2003 and 2004 at Roseworthy, South Australia. Intraspecific and interspecific interfenernce between wild radish and wheat was investigated in the field using additive series design. Results indicated that higher densities of wheat were able to suppress seed production of this weed species.<br>http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1274618<br>Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, 2006

Bibliography: leaves 125-141.<br>xiii, 141 leaves : ill. ; 30 cm.<br>Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library.<br>Addresses the poor control of major weed species under southern Australian winter conditions by the non-selective post-emergence herbicide, glufosinate in order to determine the best way to use it. Dose response experiments were performed under simulated southern Australian winter conditions, and demonstrated a variable glufosinate efficacy between Lollium rigidum and Avis sterilis. Glutamine synthetase assays showed that target site sensitivity did not influence these results. Spray retention experiments showed no influence from plant size or morphological features, while metabolic studies showed that only a small proportion of glufosinate was metabolised in both species. Tests of several populations of Raphanus raphanistrum showed that all populations, despite geographical origin, were poorly controlled by glufosinate, in both field and simulated conditions. Experiments conducted at higher temperatures showed enhanced glufosinate efficiency. Experiments with the use of co-herbicides, chelating agents, fertilizer salts and hormones were also carried out. Studies on the effect of the pH of the herbicide solution on cell uptake showed that uptake into the cell wall only was enhanced by reducing the buffer pH. Shows that the poor efficacy of glufosinate against these species is mainly due to poor translocation of the herbicide.<br>Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Applied and Molecular Ecology, 2003

Weed management in sustainable farming systems often requires the integration of several different pest management techniques. Cultural, biological, and chemical pest control efforts can be utilized to contribute to the common goal of reducing weeds in vegetable row crop systems. This research addresses how common disturbances such as tillage and insecticide use affect: carabid beetle assemblages; predation of weed seeds by invertebrates; and weed seed recruitment. Field experiments were conducted over three years at two different locations on the OSU Vegetable Research Farm, Linn Co., OR. We found that activity-density of carabid beetles varied seasonally and peaked in late August-September each year. Insecticide applied in year 1 affected seed loss in year 2, suggesting possible long-term effects of land management on weed seed removal. Weed recruitment was highly variable between treatment, site, and year. Conserving biological weed control agents in combination with cultural techniques such as reducing tillage and the use of cover crops, helps growers shift from expensive, density-independent control efforts to more ecological, long-term solutions for weed management in agroecosystems.<br>Graduation date: 2011<br>Access restricted to the OSU community, at author's request, from Dec. 15, 2010 - Dec. 15, 2011.