Добірка наукової літератури з теми "Bostadssektorn"

This thesis investigates the development of the long-term energy consumption in the Swedish households by estimating the sector’s total energy use and moreover, by examining how structural, institutional and economic factors have affected the demand for energy in the residential sector during the period 1913-2008. The investigated period covers a transition from traditional fuels, such as firewood, to fossil fuels and finally renewable energy. Previous quantitative research in the field of energy history has mainly focused on estimates of the primary energy supply, and further, this research has primarily been supply-oriented and has therefore focused the production of energy and the supporting infrastructure.   Overall, there is currently a lack of knowledge covering the long-term patterns in Swedish household’s energy consumption, including changes of the household energy mix. Identifying the central mechanisms behind these changes is the central research question in this thesis. Improved understanding of the energy transformation in Swedish households constitutes important knowledge for all actors who address energy and climate policy, not the least are knowledge about the complex factors that have affected the household consumption of fossil fuels, and thereby the household’s carbon dioxide emissions, important.- The aim of this thesis is to contribute to a better under-standing of the households' role in the energy system and how this role has changed during the 1900s until 2008.   The thesis uses a structural analytical approach, based on the concepts suggested by foremost Olle Krantz and Lennart Schön, to understand how the household’s energy consumption is linked to structural changes and techno-logical development. Although the structural analytical chronology, as suggested by Schön, primary builds on the industrial sector, the households can be expected to follow a similar pattern of transformation. This since general-purpose energy technologies is central for the pattern of transformation. However, since different sectors face different conditions and different abilities to utilize the energy, it is equally plausible to assume that the households follow a different pattern than other sectors. The response could either have been faster or slower.   The thesis concludes that the period covering the years 1913 to 1973 was a catching-up phase. The households lagged behind the industrial sector with respect to the transition to coal, electricity and oil. But in 1973 the households had however a similar energy mix to other sectors. The second conclusion is therefore that the households made a faster transition from oil to electricity and district heating. After 1985 the household’s energy mix took a different path compared to other sectors, which is the third conclusion. After 1985 the household’s oil consumption continued to decline as the consumption of district heating was increasing. The households were also more prone to increase their consumption of bio-fuels during the 1990s.

Det finns en ökande efterfrågan på förnybar elproduktion och effektiva lösningar att kombinera med denna. Ett flertal tidigare arbeten har undersökt energilagringssystem (ESS) och dess lönsamhet i olika tillämpningar. Det råder en osäkerhet kring lönsamheten hos ESS för ökad självkonsumtion i Sverige. Detta arbete undersöker lönsamheten hos batterilagringssystem (BESS) som används i syftet att öka självkonsumtionen för aktörer med solceller i den svenska bostadssektorn. En modell konstruerades baserat på Levelized Cost of Storage (LCOS), och indata till modellen varierades för olika scenarier. Resultaten visade att BESS kostnader i dagsläget är för höga, med LCOS mellan 1,68 kr/kWh och 3,56 kr/kWh beroende på aktör och indata. För lönsamhet krävs reduktion av LCOS mellan 55% och 85%. Vidare undersöker arbetet vilka variabler som har störst påverkan på BESS lönsamhet. En känslighetsanalys genomfördes, där CAPEX, antalet battericykler per år, WACC och skattereduktioner vid elhandel identifierades som viktiga variabler. Arbetet visade att det antagligen krävs en kombination av högre elpriser och reducerade investeringskostnader för att motivera en investering i BESS. Utöver ökad självkonsumtion behövs ytterligare värden för att motivera en investering i BESS inom en snar framtid.
There is a growing demand for renewable power generation and efficient solutions to combine with renewables. Previous works have explored energy storage systems (ESS) and their profitability in various applications. There is an uncertainty about the profitability of ESS for increased self-consumption in Sweden. This thesis explores the profitability of battery energy storage systems (BESS) used for increased self-consumption for stakeholders with solar photovoltaics in the Swedish residential sector. A model based on levelized cost of storage (LCOS) was constructed, and varying input values were used for different scenarios. The results showed that the current cost of BESS is too high, with LCOS ranging between 1,68 SEK/kWh and 3,56 SEK/kWh depending on the stakeholder as well as input data. For profitability, a reduction of LCOS between 55% and 85% is needed. Furthermore, this thesis explores which variables have the greatest effect on a BESS’s profitability. A sensitivity analysis was conducted, where CAPEX, the number of battery cycles per year, WACC and tax reductions linked to electricity trading were identified as important variables. This thesis concluded that higher electricity prices in combination with reduced investment costs is needed to justify an investment in BESS. Besides increased self-consumption, other values are needed to justify an investment in a BESS in the near future.

Over the past 150 years Sweden's average temperature has gradually increased, which has led to worrying changes in ecosystems and people's livelihoods. To counteract the increase in temperature, the Swedish government has established environmental and energy targets, which entail requirements that homes must reduce their energy use by 50% by 2050 and that Sweden must not contribute with a net zero emission of greenhouse gases until 2045. In 1995, energy use in the household sector accounted for 25% of Sweden's total energy use, and in 2019 the household sector accounted for 22%. Despite a downward trend, more measures should be taken to achieve Sweden's environmental goals by 2050, an alternative are small-scale and energy-efficient homes that follow the passive house and zero energy house models, which contributes to Sweden's energy use and greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere. Based on the environmental goals, simulations have been drawn up for how apartments located in Karlstad are to be designed to be more energy efficient during a year according to the passive house model where parameters for the home's climate shell include, solar radiation through windows, heating alternatives, domestic hot water consumption, ventilation systems and internal heating. Based on simulations, the dwellings' energy use has been calculated via an energy prime number expressed in                      from the National Board of Housing, Building and Planning's recommendations which, in addition to the dwelling's parameters, consider geographical location and primary energy. The simulations resulted in an energy use for energy-efficient apartments between 58    and 17   , which meant a reduction based on the National Board of Housing, Building and Planning's recommendations for energy prime numbers for apartment buildings of 75   , and reduced energy use with 46–88% compared with the average energy use in apartment buildings in 2019. The largest measure of energy use is heat recovery in the ventilation system and heating alternatives to counteract transmissions via the climate shell. Thus, the environmental goal of a reduction in the housing sector by 50% is considered possible until 2050 if the right measures are implemented while a reduced energy use contributes to a reduced emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

Sedan årtionden tillbaka har begreppet hållbar utveckling varit en stor del av samhällsdiskussionen. Begreppet handlar om de tre dimensionerna ekologisk, ekonomisk och social hållbarhet. Genom åren har den ekologiska hållbarheten haft stort fokus och bidragit till utveckling av olika mätmetoder och verktyg för att uppnå uppsatta mål som världen antagit tillsammans, som att till exempel minska koldioxidutsläppen. Den ekonomiska hållbarheten har fått större utrymme i samband med den industriella revolutionens framfart där verktyg som BNP per capita har använts till att mäta ett lands ekonomiska tillstånd. Inom fastighetsbranschen finns olika certifikat som används för att påvisa den ekologiska hållbarheten samt olika lönsamhetsmått som mäter den. Social hållbarhet har på bekostnad av de andra dimensionerna hamnat i kläm och faller ofta mellan stolarna på grund av dess kvalitativa och svårmätta struktur. Definitionen av begreppet är bred och inte lika entydig som ekologisk och ekonomisk hållbarhet. Till följd av det uppstår det ibland oklarheter till begreppets betydelse, trots att den sociala hållbarheten får större utrymme i samhällsdebatten, inte minst inom samhällsbyggnad och i fastighetsbranschen. Syftet med studien är att kartlägga hur olika fastighetsaktörer definierar social hållbarhet och hur definitionen påverkar deras arbete. För att uppfylla studiens syfte har inledningsvis teoriunderlag kring begreppet hållbar utveckling tagits fram, både i allmänhet och inom fastighetsbranschen. Detta har gjorts för att uppnå en fördjupning kring begreppen ekologisk, ekonomisk och social hållbarhet och se hur de skiljer sig åt, både på definitionsnivå samt hur de går att mäta. Vidare genomfördes en intervjustudie i form av semistrukturerade intervjuer med sex olika fastighetsföretag för att samla kunskaper om fastighetsbranschens sociala hållbarhetsarbete. Med resultatet från teoriunderlaget och intervjustudien som grund har perspektivet på begreppet klargjorts för att uppnå en kartläggning av fastighetsbranschen definition och arbete med social hållbarhet. Resultatet från studien visar att syftet med social hållbarhet delas av alla deltagande aktörer: att skapa områden där kärnan ligger i att skapa trivsel och trygghet utifrån ett långsiktigt perspektiv. Däremot skiljer sig definitionen av social hållbarhet åt mellan olika fastighetsföretag. Slutsatsen av studien är att företags arbete med social hållbarhet styrs av hur de definierar begreppet. För flera aktörer skiljer sig definitionen åt från projekt till projekt, där varje projekt har ett eller flera unika fokusområden. Beroende på definitionen arbetar företagen antingen ur ett välgörenhetsperspektiv eller med fokus på den egna verksamhetens påverkan på människor. Arbetet med social hållbarhet är dock högst aktuellt för företagen och alla företag arbetar aktivt med social hållbarhet i sin verksamhet. Beroende på om företaget är stadsutvecklare eller konsulter avgör detta vilka krav de kan ställa på sina kunder eller andra aktörer kring arbetet med social hållbarhet. Den svåraste utmaningen med begreppet är dock att den är kvalitativ och svår att mäta. Flertalet företag försöker dock hitta egna metoder och verktyg för att mäta social hållbarhet i sina projekt eftersom det inte finns någon universell metod.
For decades, the concept of sustainable development has been a major part of the societal debate. The concept is about the three dimensions: ecological, economic and social sustainability. Social sustainability has been forgotten at the expense of the other dimensions and often falls between the cracks due to its qualitative structure. The definition of the term is broad and not as distinct as ecological and economic sustainability. As a result, questions sometimes arise about the meaning of the term, despite the fact that social sustainability is given greater scope in the public debate and in the real estate industry. The purpose of the study is to map how different real estate actors define social sustainability and how the definition affects their work. In order to fulfill the purpose of the study, the theoretical basis for the concept of sustainable development has initially been developed, both in general and in the real estate industry. This has been done to achieve an in-depth study of the concepts of ecological, economic and social sustainability and to see how they differ, both at the definition level and how they can be measured. Furthermore, an interview study was conducted in the form of semi-structured interviews with six different real estate companies to gather knowledge about the real estate industry's social sustainability work. Based on the results from the theoretical basis and the interview study, the perspective on the concept has been clarified in order to achieve a survey of the real estate industry's work with social sustainability. The results from the study show that the purpose of social sustainability is shared by all participating actors: to create areas where the core lies in creating well-being and security from a long-term perspective. However, the definition of social sustainability differs between different real estate companies. The conclusion of the study is that companies´ work with social sustainability is governed by how they define the concept. For several actors, the definition differs from project to project, where each project has one or more unique focus areas. Depending on the definition, companies work either from a charity perspective or with a focus on the impact of their own operations on people. However, the work with social sustainability is highly relevant and all companies work actively with social sustainability in their operations. Depending on whether the company is an urban developer or consultant, this determines what requirements they can place on their customers or other actors regarding the work with social sustainability. The most difficult challenge with the concept, however, is that it is qualitative and difficult to measure. However, most companies try to find their own methods and tools for measuring social sustainability in their projects because there is no universal method.