Добірка наукової літератури з теми "Football umpires"

<p>The Australian Football League (AFL) acknowledges a potentially serious branding problem in relation to umpires. It is struggling to meet the operational demands of providing enough umpires to officiate in non-professional competitions administrated by the AFL.</p><p> </p><p>It is believed AFL umpires have a poor reputation among the general public. This may provide a barrier to take up and present a significant source of motivational conflict for aspiring umpires. In particular this situation presents a challenge for marketing campaigns trying to recruit new umpires. The long term impact is significant, since without umpires at the grass roots level the future sustainability of AFL is brought into question.</p><p> </p><p>This paper aims to determine the umpires’ reputation and how this may impact on the AFL’s ability to effectively market the need for and recruit umpires in non-professional leagues. This information can provide guidance for strategies used to improve umpire reputation, recruitment and retention.</p>

This research aimed to present a hierarchy of key attributes for Australian football umpires. Elite Australian football umpires ( n = 19) and their coaches ( n = 5) participated in this study. A list of attributes necessary for sports officiating was obtained from past research and adapted specifically for Australian football umpires. Umpires were required to rate each attribute on a scale of 0–9 (least to most importance), and provide a justification of its importance to performance. A modified questionnaire was developed with attributes removed or added, according to the first survey round. This research identified two cognitive attributes: knowing the laws/interpretations and decision-making as the two highest rated attributes, respectively. Psychological attributes composure and concentration were rated highly by the umpires, ranked as number three and five, respectively. The game skill attribute of teamwork was rated as the fourth highest. Fitness was the only physical attribute to be rated in the most important category. Results highlight the importance of cognitive and psychological attributes to elite performance; however, participant feedback suggests that the integration of all attributes is critical. This knowledge establishes an understanding of the key attributes for expert performance, and this information could be used by coaches for the assessment and development of Australian football umpires.

Purpose:The main purpose of the present study was to quantify the match running demands and physiological intensities of AF field and boundary umpires during match play.Methods:Thirty-five AF umpires [20 field (age: 24.7 ± 7.7 y, body mass: 74.3 ± 7.1 kg, Σ7 skinfolds: 67.8 ± 18.8 mm); 15 boundary (age: 29.6 ± 13.6 y, body mass: 71.9 ± 3.1 kg, Σ7 skinfolds: 65.6 ± 8.8 mm)] volunteered to participate in the study. Movement characteristics [total distance (TD), average running speed, high-intensity activity (HIA; >14.4 km·h–1) distance] and physiological measures [heart rate, blood lactate concentration ([BLa–]), and rating of perceived exertion] were collected during 20 state-based AF matches.Results:The mean (± SD) TD covered by field umpires was 11,492 ± 1,729 m, with boundary umpires covering 15,061 ± 1,749 m. The average running speed in field umpires was 103 ± 14 m·min-1, and was 134 ± 14 m·min-1 in boundary umpires. Field and boundary umpires covered 3,095 ± 752 m and 5,875 ± 1,590 m, during HIA, respectively. In the first quarter, HIA distance (field: P = .004, η2 = 0.071, boundary: P < .001, η2 = 0.180) and average running speed (field: P = .002, η2 = 0.078, boundary: P < .001, η2 = 0.191) were significantly greater than in subsequent quarters.Conclusions:The results demonstrate that both AF field and boundary umpires complete similar running demands to elite AF players and are subject to physical fatigue. Further research is warranted to see if this physical fatigue impacts on the cognitive function of AF umpires during match play.

These days, referees and umpires are considered to be indispensable protagonists in modern sport. But despite their crucial significance for sport, historical scholarship has so far hardly considered their history. This article demonstrates why it is worth dealing with the cultural history of referees and umpires, in what ways this can be done, and what insights such an approach potentially offers. Empirically, the article focuses on football and tennis, while advocating the combination of questions of the history of sports with those pertaining to general history. It suggests several paths of investigation for this purpose. One finding is that the history of referees and umpires provides insights into the emergence and development of a decision-making authority in modern societies. Here, different forms and variants of the circulation of knowledge and processes of globalisation can be highlighted. In the second part, the article examines an important building block of this story. Here, the formation and entrenchment of international refereeing courses in football between 1948 and the mid-1970s will bring together the article’s programmatic objectives and empirical observations. It will trace which actors led the charge in establishing the courses, how they fostered the global dissemination and standardization of refereeing knowledge, and to what extent they contributed to expanding the boundaries of world football as a global arena of competitive comparison.

Two studies grounded in ironic-cognitive-processing theory were conducted to determine (a) whether ironic errors may be associated with efforts to exert mental control that typically occur in sport settings and (b) whether these potential ironic effects could be negated through the use of a task-relevant cue word to refocus one’s thoughts during suppression. Participants were asked to watch a videotape of a series of clips of Australian Rules Football players, coaches, and umpires. Study 1 revealed that participants were more aware of umpires when instructed not to pay attention to them. Contrary to expectations, however, ironic effects were not significantly magnified by the combination of high cognitive load and the instruction not to pay attention to the umpires. Results from Study 2 indicated that potential ironic effects could be negated when individuals were given a task-relevant cue word to focus on when suppressing unwanted or negative thoughts. Overall, support for ironic processing theory was found in Studies 1 and 2 in this investigation.

In sport, decision-making research has identified consistent results among the three variations of the recognition primed decision (RPD) model. Despite the fact that officials in sport are a key component of sports systems, previous research has explored the RPD model in players only. This paper addresses this by applying the RPD model to examine the decision making of umpires in Australian Rules football (Australian Football League [AFL]). Method: Audible communication instances of AFL field umpiring teams overseeing three games were transcribed. The data were coded into “decision moments”; each decision moment was classified into one of the three RPD model variations. Results: Within the 6,025 communication instances, 887 decision moments were identified. Of the decision moments, 78.70% were classified as Variation 1, 19.75% as Variation 2, and 1.35% as Variation 3. Discussion: The results demonstrate that AFL umpire decision making can be characterized by a similar RPD breakdown as that by players in sport. RPD variation in AFL umpiring is influenced by the game situation and the type of adjudication being made. The implications for research and practice are discussed, including extending the analysis to multirole officiating teams (e.g., soccer) and the provision of tailored decision-making training.

Many skills underpin the performance of sporting officials, however decision-making is regarded as the most critical. There are finite on-field opportunities to develop decision-making of sporting officials in training and competition, as a consequence, video-based approaches are typically used to assess and develop decision-making skill. Existing methods such as the use of match broadcast video may not be an ecologically valid method to present decision-making scenarios. With technological advancements, using virtual reality may improve the ecological validity of video-based approaches to improve decision-making. Study 1 systematically reviewed existing research utilising video-based testing to assess decision-making in officials, which often differentiates between skill levels to demonstrate construct validity. Study 1 identified several limitations including common use of match broadcast video, limited reporting of reliability, and studies often solely reporting number of decisions rather than performance accuracy. Comparison between video-based and in-game decision-making performance was rarely conducted. This study provided the foundation to further examine the efficacy of video- based tests in sporting officials. Study 2 developed two valid and reliable video-based tests, based on the recommendations of Study 1. As match broadcast video is the most common video-based testing method for officials, it was compared with 360° VR to assess decision-making accuracy. Both 360° VR and match broadcast video-based tests demonstrated construct validity and high reliability (r = 0.89). Stronger ecological validity was evident in 360° VR than match broadcast, as participants rated 360° VR to be more representative of in-game decision-making processes. Study 3 aimed to determine the relationship between decision-making accuracy in both video-based tests (360° VR and match broadcast) and in-game of elite Australian football umpires, given that this limitation of the research was identified in Study 1. Study 3 used validated video-based tests from Study 2. There were no significant relationships observed for decision-making accuracy between in-game and video-based testing. Studies 2 and 3 provide findings on testing, however it is unclear whether 360° VR or match broadcast is more effective for developing decision-making. Study 4 assessed the effectiveness of a video-based training program using 360° VR or match broadcast to develop decision-making in amateur Australian football umpires using a randomised control study design. Decision-making was assessed using the valid and reliable tests of Study 2 before, immediately following, and one month following training (retention test). The 360° VR group exhibited significantly higher decision-making accuracy (p < 0.05) than the control group at retention testing, with no between-group differences observed for the match broadcast group. Participants rated 360° VR as more relevant and enjoyable than match broadcast. In summary, this thesis aimed to develop and evaluate the effectiveness of 360° VR as a video-based testing and training tool in Australian football umpires. Although 360° VR and match broadcast appear to have strong construct validity and reliability, currently, there is limited transfer to in-game performance. Further, based on these results, it is not definitive whether 360° VR is a more effective training tool than match broadcast. The findings of this thesis indicate 360° VR may be more ecologically valid than match broadcast and warrants further investigation.

Research Doctorate - Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Team sport officials are an essential component of sport to ensure a fair and safe competition by enforcing the laws of the game. Some team sport officials (including but not limited to Australian football, soccer, rugby league and rugby union) have been referred to as “interactor” officials (MacMahon et al., 2014). Interactors are suggested to have “high interaction and physical movement demands and often a large number of cues to process” (MacMahon et al., 2014). These interactor officials are often exposed to extensive physical demands to maintain an ideal position around play to make perceptual judgements, based upon the actions of the players. Both the physical and perceptual decision-making tasks are performed simultaneously in order to apply the laws of the game. Despite this dual-task requirement of match play, the physical and perceptual decision-making training methods are typically applied in isolation, which fails to provide ecologically valid training strategies. Therefore, the overall aim of this thesis was to observe the physical and perceptual decision-making demands of match play and examine the effects of combined training methods in order to best replicate the match environment. An examination of the specific match demands of elite Australian football (AF) umpires has remained relatively unknown. In particular, no data have detailed the free kick decision-making performance of an umpire during match play, despite this being considered his/her primary role. Of further interest, the physical demands of different field umpire positions (mid-zone or end-zone) are yet to be examined. Therefore, to quantify the overall match demands of AF umpiring, 29 elite AF field umpires (age: 32.4 ± 6.1 yr; height: 181.7 ± 5.7 cm; body mass: 73.6 ± 5.4 kg) were assessed during 20 Australian Football League (AFL) matches (Study 1). Time-motion analysis data was collected from 5 Hz MinimaxX global positioning system (GPS) devices, and free kick decision-making accuracy was assessed by elite umpire coaches following each match. It was shown that field umpires covered a total distance (TD) of 10,563 ± 608 m, of which high speed running (HSR; > 14.4 km·h⁻¹) comprised 1,952 ± 494 m. Significant reductions (p < 0.05) were reported in both the TD and HSR distance following the first quarter. Significantly greater (p < 0.05) HSR and relative distances were covered within the mid-zone, compared to the end-zone demands. Overall, 44 ± 8 free kicks were awarded throughout a match, at an accuracy of 84 ± 6%. The number of free kicks awarded and decision-making accuracy (% correct) were consistent (p > 0.05) across quarters. Separately, the results show that despite reductions in the physical demands following the first quarter, decision-making accuracy is maintained throughout a match. Therefore decision-making performance was not directly compromised by the intermittent running demands that were completed by the AF umpires. The reduced physical demands of the end-zone (compared to the mid-zone) position allow for some physical recovery between bouts within the mid-zone, and these rotations permit the match demands are shared amongst all umpires. As such, the results of Study 1 provide current information regarding the physical and perceptual decision-making requirements of elite field umpires within AFL match play. In addition to Study 1, there is limited data available on sub-elite AFL umpires and comparison of the demands of elite and sub-elite AF umpires is important to compare the performance characteristics between the two levels of competition. Sub-elite AF competitions are vital for the development of umpire skills in their progression towards officiating elite match play. It is however unknown if these matches adequately prepare sub-elite umpires for the requirements of elite competition. Study 2 aimed to compare the physical and decision-making demands of elite and sub-elite competition. During 27 matches, time-motion analysis and free kick decision-making performance as described in Study 1 were examined for 36 AF umpires (elite: n = 29, age: 32.4 ± 6.1 yr, height: 181.7 ± 5.7 cm, body mass: 73.6 ± 5.4 kg; sub-elite: n = 7, age: 23.2 ± 2.3 yr, height: 178.2 ± 11.3 cm, body mass: 70.9 ± 7.3 kg). Significant differences (p < 0.05) in the TD and HSR existed between groups, with sub-elite umpires completing greater physical demands compared to elite umpires. Alternatively, elite umpires were superior in their free kick decision-making. Specifically, the number of correct decisions was similar, however sub-elite umpires made more incorrect decisions (16 errors; 68% correct) when compared to elite umpires (7 errors; 84% correct). The main findings of Study 2 highlight that the physical demands of sub-elite umpires are greater, which may contribute to them exhibiting poorer decision-making. These differences are likely due to a combination of factors including positioning, anticipation, rule knowledge and interpretation. Coaching staff need to ensure that they continue to develop the perceptual decision-making skills of sub-elite umpires to prepare them for elite match play performance. While Study 1 and Study 2 details the overall physical and perceptual decision-making demands of elite and sub-elite umpires, the physical aspects of their performance may present a number of potential factors limiting their perceptual decision-making abilities. As such, Study 3 investigated the effects of positioning and retrospective physical demands on the free kick decision-making accuracy of elite AF umpires. Using the same data that was analysed in Study 1, this study investigated how the positioning and physical demands may influence the free kick decision-making accuracy of elite AF umpires. It was shown that most decisions were made from a distance of 11-15 m from play; however distance from play had no significant effect on free kick decision-making accuracy (p > 0.05). In addition, the movement speed at the time of a decision had no effect on decision-making (p > 0.05). However, the running speed immediately prior to incorrect decisions was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than for correct decisions. These findings demonstrate that while there is no effect of distance from play or instantaneous velocity on decision-making accuracy, a higher running speed prior to a decision increases the likelihood of a decisional error. As such, superior anticipatory skills that would reduce the running demands prior to a decision may improve the decision-making accuracy of umpires. Despite the knowledge of the physical and physiological demands of interactor sports officials, little is known as to the relationship of these demands with decision-making performance, in particular during intermittent exercise typical of field-based team sport competition. Numerous laboratory-based studies have suggested that upon the onset of exercise, psychomotor performance continues to improve during steady state and incremental exercise before decreasing at higher exercise intensities, yet limited data is available for intermittent exercise. As such, the purpose of Study 4 was to examine changes in psychomotor performance of interactor sports officials during a laboratory based match simulation. Twelve elite interactor sports officials (age: 32.5 ± 5.5 yr; height: 180.0 ± 6.8 cm; body mass: 78.8 ± 7.6 kg) completed an intermittent match simulation on a non-motorised treadmill, while repeatedly completing a psychomotor task (Eriksen Flanker). Significant reductions (p < 0.05) in physical performance measures were observed towards the end of the simulation, however psychomotor performance was maintained throughout. However, when undertaking HSR (> 65% of maximal sprinting speed [MSS]), there was a significant improvement (p < 0.05) in psychomotor performance when compared with lower running speeds (< 65% MSS). Collectively, it appears that interactor sports officials can maintain their psychomotor performance through a laboratory simulation, despite reductions in the physical performance measures. Further, short duration bouts of HSR may actually promote psychomotor performance during intermittent exercise; possibly due to changes in central nervous system (CNS) arousal and cerebral blood flow (CBF) as a result of the increased running speed. Finally, the aim of Study 5 was to examine the effects of a combined high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and psychomotor training program on performance during an intermittent laboratory protocol. Ten sub-elite interactor sports officials (age: 22.5 ± 4.1 yr; height: 181.8 ± 8.3 cm; body mass: 75.7 ± 9.7 kg) initially completed a match simulation on the non-motorised treadmill (similar to that used in Study 4). Based on individual psychomotor performance, participants were placed either in a psychomotor training (n = 5) or physical conditioning (n = 5) group. Both groups completed a 6-week HIIT program (2 sessions per week; 4 sets of 3 or 4 min running efforts @ 90-95% maximum heart rate), with the psychomotor training group completing additional psychomotor training during the 3 min inter-interval recovery periods. Significant improvements (p < 0.05) were identified in maximal oxygen consumption (V̇O₂max) and velocity at V̇O₂max for both groups. Magnitude-based inferences suggest that the combined psychomotor and physical conditioning program provided a beneficial effect on psychomotor performance during and following the match simulation. The outcomes of the current study present a framework for the application of replicating the match environment for the acquisition of psychomotor skill of interactor sport officials. Collectively, these findings demonstrate the extensive physical and perceptual decision-making demands of AF umpires during match play. A considerable gap exists between elite and sub-elite umpires free kick decision-making accuracy thus highlighting the importance of developing decision-making performance through training. Further, traditional training methods used within interactor sports officials typically isolate the physical and decision-making aspects and as a result, they do not replicate the match demands. Overall, the findings of this thesis highlight the physical and decision-making demands of interactor sports officials, and provides a potential framework for the development of training strategies in order to replicate the physical and perceptual decision-making demands of match play.

In response to a public perception of brutality and dishonest play in American football, President Theodore Roosevelt is persuaded to intervene, and he invites coaches and graduate leaders from the Big Three of Harvard, Princeton, and Yale (including Camp) to meet with him at the White House on October 9, 1905. After the meeting, Camp and the other two graduate leaders draft a pledge at Roosevelt’s request, promising responsive action by their schools. Violations of the pledge occur quickly in the 1905 Harvard-Pennsylvania and Harvard-Yale games, and Roosevelt requests visits from a representative of Pennsylvania and separately from Harvard. President Eliot writes Roosevelt, criticizing the Harvard-Yale game umpire, Navy professor Paul Dashiell, whereupon Roosevelt writes Dashiell and criticizes him; Dashiell replies with a strong defense that persuades Roosevelt. Roosevelt continues to correspond with Camp in a complimentary manner.

Abstract The gentlemen who promulgated the first written rules of cricket, boxing, and football did not invent these games: they appropriated them from the common people who had long played them. Elaborate codes of fair play were involved in wrestling and in particular in Cornish hurling. Cricket became the quintessential game of fair play, owing largely to its being a relatively non-violent team sport. By the 1760s aristocrats were playing on all but equal terms with the men of Hambledon. Amateurs and professionals played together in first-class cricket, but the professionals were kept firmly in their place. The ostentatious fair play often associated with cricket seems to have been the legacy of the amateurs, while the professionals were happy to play to the umpire’s decision. Boxing developed from a popular tradition of fighting which had its own strong traditions of fair play. The importance of the Queensberry Rules in this civilising process can be overstated. Football too was a popular sport long before it was taken up in the public schools, played robustly but according to traditional rules. The need of public-school men for a common code was the main incentive for the creation of written rules for football defining fair play. In England there had for centuries been a tradition of fair play embodied in popular games, and relatively low status barriers which allowed members of the upper classes to appropriate these games, each of them finding its own path when negotiating the difficult question of amateurism against professionalism.