Статті в журналах: "Formation and evolution of planetary systems"

1

Burke, Bernard F. "Planetary systems: Formation, evolution, and detection - introduction." Astrophysics and Space Science 212, no. 1-2 (1994): xi—xii. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00984502.

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2

Horedt, G. P. "The Formation and evolution of planetary systems." Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 67, no. 3-4 (1991): 392–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0031-9201(91)90035-g.

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3

Owen, Tobias. "The formation and evolution of planetary systems." Icarus 91, no. 2 (1991): 334–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0019-1035(91)90029-s.

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4

Lipschutz, Michael E. "The formation and evolution of planetary systems." Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 54, no. 4 (1990): 1196. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(90)90455-t.

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5

Kley, Wilhelm. "Formation and Orbital Evolution of Planets." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 7, S282 (2011): 429–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921311027980.

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AbstractThe formation of planetary systems is a natural byproduct of the star formation process. Planets can form inside the protoplanetary disk by two alternative processes. Either through a sequence of sticking collisions, the so-called sequential accretion scenario, or via gravitational instability from an over-dense clump inside the protoplanetary disk. The first process is believed to have occurred in the solar system. The most important steps in this process will be outlined. The observed orbital properties of exoplanetary systems are distinctly different from our own Solar System. In particular, their small distance from the star, their high eccentricity and large mass point to the existence of a phase with strong mutual excitations. These are believed to be a result of early evolution of planets due to planet-disk interaction. The importance of this process in shaping the dynamical structure of planetary systems will be presented.

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6

Veras, Dimitri. "Post-main-sequence planetary system evolution." Royal Society Open Science 3, no. 2 (2016): 150571. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.150571.

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The fates of planetary systems provide unassailable insights into their formation and represent rich cross-disciplinary dynamical laboratories. Mounting observations of post-main-sequence planetary systems necessitate a complementary level of theoretical scrutiny. Here, I review the diverse dynamical processes which affect planets, asteroids, comets and pebbles as their parent stars evolve into giant branch, white dwarf and neutron stars. This reference provides a foundation for the interpretation and modelling of currently known systems and upcoming discoveries.

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7

Lin, D. N. C. "Planetary Formation in Protostellar Disks." International Astronomical Union Colloquium 163 (1997): 321–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0252921100042792.

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AbstractRecent discoveries of planets around other stars suggest that planets are ubiquitous and their dynamical properties are diverse. We reviewed the formation mechanism for protoplanets and the post-formation planet-disk tidal interaction which may have led the short-period planets to their present configuration. We suggest that these planets may be the survivors of a populations of similar planets which have plunged into and contaminated the stellar convection zone. In the context of the solar system, the mass of the giant planets and the present distribution of the minor planets may be used to infer the structure and evolution for the primordial solar nebula. The large eccentricity of 70 Vir and HD 114762 may be due to cohesive collisions in planetary systems which become unstable during their long term orbital evolution.

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8

Marzari, Francesco, and Philippe Thebault. "Planets in Binaries: Formation and Dynamical Evolution." Galaxies 7, no. 4 (2019): 84. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7040084.

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Binary systems are very common among field stars, yet the vast majority of known exoplanets have been detected around single stars. While this relatively small number of planets in binaries is probably partly due to strong observational biases, there is, however, statistical evidence that planets are indeed less frequent in binaries with separations smaller than 100 au, strongly suggesting that the presence of a close-in companion star has an adverse effect on planet formation. It is indeed possible for the gravitational pull of the second star to affect all the different stages of planet formation, from proto-planetary disk formation to dust accumulation into planetesimals, to the accretion of these planetesimals into large planetary embryos and, eventually, the final growth of these embryos into planets. For the crucial planetesimal-accretion phase, the complex coupling between dynamical perturbations from the binary and friction due to gas in the proto-planetary disk suggests that planetesimal accretion might be hampered due to increased, accretion-hostile impact velocities. Likewise, the interplay between the binary’s secular perturbations and mean motion resonances lead to unstable regions, where not only planet formation is inhibited, but where a massive body would be ejected from the system on a hyperbolic orbit. The amplitude of these two main effects is different for S- and P-type planets, so that a comparison between the two populations might outline the influence of the companion star on the planet formation process. Unfortunately, at present the two populations (circumstellar or circumbinary) are not known equally well and different biases and uncertainties prevent a quantitative comparison. We also highlight the long-term dynamical evolution of both S and P-type systems and focus on how these different evolutions influence the final architecture of planetary systems in binaries.

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9

Kawai, Toshio. "Pattern Formation by Inelastic Collisions, Especially in Planetary Systems." International Journal of Modern Physics B 12, no. 03 (1998): 309–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217979298000247.

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The Titius–Bode law governs the planet distribution in our Solar system. In this paper a possible explanation is proposed based on inelastic collision effects among planetessimals during the evolution of the Solar system. The main purpose of this paper is, however, to introduce a strategy to study phenomena driven by rare but drastic events such as colllisions in the planetary problem. Many complex systems evolve through rare but violent events, so that an efficient strategy to simulate such systems is desirable. An event-driven strategy is proposed in this article, and is used to produce many runs of 108 year evolution history of planetary systems. I have found that the Titius–Bode law holds approximately, if the gravitational effect (scattering) and the collisions are taken into account. The result illustrates the importance of inelastic collisions, which are often neglected in the standard classical mechanics courses. Therefore, for completeness, other simpler particle systems under the effect of inelastc collisions, such as one-dimensional systems, are also included.

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10

Salnikova, T. V., S. Ya Stepanov, and E. I. Kugushev. "Possible models of the planetary systems formations." International Journal of Modern Physics A 35, no. 02n03 (2020): 2040061. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217751x20400618.

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We discuss extended model of planetary system formation. Gravitational collapse of protoplanets leads to the formation of planets and their satellite systems. We consider the hypothesis of a two-stage mechanism of formation of satellite system. Small satellites are formed from the remnants of a collapsing protoplanetary cloud, and large satellites are formed by capturing other relatively small protoplanets. In this paper we study the process of formation of the initial gas-dust cloud, whose evolution leads to the formation of a protoplanetary, and then a planetary system. The justification of the extended model is carried out by numerical simulation. Stable for some time configurations are obtained as a result of interaction of the oncoming mass flows: the spatial collisionless matter takes a lens-like shape, and the planar dissipative system tends to form two gravitating rotating bodies, like the binary stars.

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11

Meyer, Michael R. "Circumstellar disk evolution: Constraining theories of planet formation." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 4, S258 (2008): 111–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921309031767.

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AbstractObservations of circumstellar disks around stars as a function of stellar properties such as mass, metallicity, multiplicity, and age, provide constraints on theories concerning the formation and evolution of planetary systems. Utilizing ground- and space-based data from the far–UV to the millimeter, astronomers can assess the amount, composition, and location of circumstellar gas and dust as a function of time. We review primarily results from the Spitzer Space Telescope, with reference to other ground- and space-based observations. Comparing these results with those from exoplanet search techniques, theoretical models, as well as the inferred history of our solar system, helps us to assess whether planetary systems like our own, and the potential for life that they represent, are common or rare in the Milky Way galaxy.

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12

Wang, Su, and Jianghui Ji. "The Configuration Formation of Planetary Systems Observed by Kepler." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 8, S293 (2012): 106–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921313012635.

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AbstractThe Kepler mission has found many planetary systems, among them more than 80 systems host three planet candidates which reveal a configuration of near 4:2:1 mean motion resonance. In this paper, we focus on the configuration formation of resonant systems. As shown from our model and N-body simulations, we find that 3:2 mean motion resonance always forms at the early stage of star evolution and planets undergo high rate of migration, while 2:1 mean motion resonance happens at the late stage of the star formation, more often.

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13

Andrews, Sean M. "Radio Interferometry Observations of the Hallmarks of Planet Formation." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 8, S299 (2013): 80–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921313007977.

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AbstractSome of the fundamental processes involved in the evolution of circumstellar disks and the assembly of planetary systems are just now becoming accessible to astronomical observations. The new promise of observational work in the field of planet formation makes for a very dynamic research scenario, which is certain to be amplified in the coming years as the revolutionary Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) facility ramps up to full operations. To highlight the new directions being explored in these fields, this brief review will describe how high angular resolution measurements at millimeter/radio wavelengths are being used to study several crucial aspects of the formation and early evolution of planetary systems, including: the gas and dust structures of protoplanetary disks, the growth and migration of disk solids, and the interactions between a young planetary system and its natal, gas-rich disk.

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14

Emsenhuber, Alexandre, Christoph Mordasini, Remo Burn, Yann Alibert, Willy Benz, and Erik Asphaug. "The New Generation Planetary Population Synthesis (NGPPS)." Astronomy & Astrophysics 656 (December 2021): A70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202038863.

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Context. Planetary formation and evolution is a combination of multiple interlinked processes. Constraining the mechanisms observationally requires statistical comparison to a large diversity of planetary systems. Aims. We want to understand global observable consequences of different physical processes (accretion, migration, and interactions) and initial properties (like disc masses and metallicities) on the demographics of the planetary population. We also want to study the convergence of our scheme with respect to one initial condition, the initial number of planetary embryo in each disc. Methods. We selected distributions of initial conditions that are representative of known protoplanetary discs. Then, we used the Generation III Bern model to perform planetary population synthesis. We synthesise five populations with each a different initial number of Moon-mass embryos per disc: 1, 10, 20, 50, and 100. The last is our nominal population consisting of 1000 stars (systems) that was used for an extensive statistical analysis of planetary systems around 1 M⊙ stars. Results. The properties of giant planets do not change much as long as there are at least ten embryos in each system. The study of giants can thus be done with simulations requiring less computational resources. For inner terrestrial planets, only the 100-embryos population is able to attain the giant-impact stage. In that population, each planetary system contains, on average, eight planets more massive than 1 M⊕. The fraction of systems with giants planets at all orbital distances is 18%, but only 1.6% are at >10 au. Systems with giants contain on average 1.6 such planets. The planetary mass function varies as M−2 between 5 and 50 M⊕. Both at lower and higher masses, it follows approximately M−1. The frequency of terrestrial and super-Earth planets peaks at a stellar [Fe/H] of −0.2 and 0.0, respectively, being limited at lower [Fe/H] by a lack of building blocks, and by (for them) detrimental growth of more massive dynamically active planets at higher [Fe/H]. The frequency of more massive planets (Neptunian, giants) increases monotonically with [Fe/H]. The fast migration of planets in the 5–50 M⊕ range is reduced by the presence of multiple lower-mass inner planets in the multi-embryos populations. To assess the impact of parameters and model assumptions, we also study two non-nominal populations: insitu formation without gas-driven migration, and a different initial planetesimal surface density. Conclusions. We present one of the most comprehensive simulations of (exo)planetary system formation and evolution to date. For observations, the syntheses provides a large data set to search for comparison synthetic planetary systems that show how these systems have come into existence. The systems, including their full formation and evolution tracks are available online. For theory, they provide the framework to observationally test the global statistical consequences of theoretical models for specific physical processes. This is an important ingredient towards the development of a standard model of planetary formation and evolution.

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15

Zhou, J. L. "Formation and tidal evolution of hot super-Earths in multiple planetary systems." EAS Publications Series 42 (2010): 255–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/eas/1042027.

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16

Lewis, K. "Moon formation and orbital evolution in extrasolar planetary systems - A literature review." EPJ Web of Conferences 11 (2011): 04003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/20101104003.

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17

Lewis, K. "Moon formation and orbital evolution in extrasolar planetary systems - A literature review." EPJ Web of Conferences 11 (2011): 04003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/20111104003.

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18

Carpenter, John M., Jeroen Bouwman, Murray D. Silverstone, et al. "The Formation and Evolution of Planetary Systems: Description of theSpitzerLegacy Science Database." Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 179, no. 2 (2008): 423–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/592274.

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19

Baruteau, Clément, Xuening Bai, Christoph Mordasini, and Paul Mollière. "Formation, Orbital and Internal Evolutions of Young Planetary Systems." Space Science Reviews 205, no. 1-4 (2016): 77–124. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11214-016-0258-z.

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20

Bouvier, J., G. Duchêne, J. C. Mermilliod, and T. Simon. "The formation and evolution of binary systems." Astronomy & Astrophysics 375, no. 3 (2001): 989–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361:20010915.

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21

Batygin, K., A. Morbidelli, and K. Tsiganis. "Formation and evolution of planetary systems in presence of highly inclined stellar perturbers." Astronomy & Astrophysics 533 (August 12, 2011): A7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201117193.

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22

Parker, Richard J., and Emma C. Daffern-Powell. "Making BEASTies: dynamical formation of planetary systems around massive stars." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters 516, no. 1 (2022): L91—L95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mnrasl/slac086.

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ABSTRACT Exoplanets display incredible diversity, from planetary system architectures around Sun-like stars that are very different from our Solar system, to planets orbiting post-main-sequence stars or stellar remnants. Recently, the B-star Exoplanet Abundance STudy (BEAST) reported the discovery of at least two super-Jovian planets orbiting massive stars in the Sco Cen OB association. Whilst such massive stars do have Keplerian discs, it is hard to envisage gas giant planets being able to form in such hostile environments. We use N-body simulations of star-forming regions to show that these systems can instead form from the capture of a free-floating planet or the direct theft of a planet from one star to another, more massive star. We find that this occurs on average once in the first 10 Myr of an association’s evolution, and that the semimajor axes of the hitherto confirmed BEAST planets (290 and 556 au) are more consistent with capture than theft. Our results lend further credence to the notion that planets on more distant (&gt;100 au) orbits may not be orbiting their parent star.

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23

Chew, Yilen Gómez Maqueo, Francesca Faedi, Leslie Hebb, et al. "The HoSTS Project: A Homogeneous Study of Transiting Systems." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 8, S299 (2013): 285–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921313008612.

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AbstractThe Homogeneous Study of Transiting Systems (HoSTS) will derive a consistent and homogeneous set of both the stellar and planetary physical properties for a large sample of bright transiting planetary systems with confirmed planetary masses and measured radii. Our resulting catalogs of the fundamental properties of these bright planets and their host stars will enable us to explore empirical correlations that will lead to a better understanding of planetary formation and evolution. We present our pilot study of the planet-hosting star WASP-13, and the framework of our project which will allow for the identification of true relationships among the physical properties of the systems from any systematics.

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24

Izidoro, André, Bertram Bitsch, Sean N. Raymond, et al. "Formation of planetary systems by pebble accretion and migration." Astronomy & Astrophysics 650 (June 2021): A152. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201935336.

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At least 30% of main sequence stars host planets with sizes of between 1 and 4 Earth radii and orbital periods of less than 100 days. We use N-body simulations including a model for gas-assisted pebble accretion and disk–planet tidal interaction to study the formation of super-Earth systems. We show that the integrated pebble mass reservoir creates a bifurcation between hot super-Earths or hot-Neptunes (≲15 M⊕) and super-massive planetary cores potentially able to become gas giant planets (≳15 M⊕). Simulations with moderate pebble fluxes grow multiple super-Earth-mass planets that migrate inwards and pile up at the inner edge of the disk forming long resonant chains. We follow the long-term dynamical evolution of these systems and use the period ratio distribution of observed planet-pairs to constrain our model. Up to ~95% of resonant chains become dynamically unstable after the gas disk dispersal, leading to a phase of late collisions that breaks the original resonant configurations. Our simulations naturally match observations when they produce a dominant fraction (≳95%) of unstable systems with a sprinkling (≲5%) of stable resonant chains (the Trappist-1 system represents one such example). Our results demonstrate that super-Earth systems are inherently multiple (N ≥ 2) and that the observed excess of single-planet transits is a consequence of the mutual inclinations excited by the planet–planet instability. In simulations in which planetary seeds are initially distributed in the inner and outer disk, close-in super-Earths are systematically ice rich. This contrasts with the interpretation that most super-Earths are rocky based on bulk-density measurements of super-Earths and photo-evaporation modeling of their bimodal radius distribution. We investigate the conditions needed to form rocky super-Earths. The formation of rocky super-Earths requires special circumstances, such as far more efficient planetesimal formation well inside the snow line, or much faster planetary growth by pebble accretion in the inner disk. Intriguingly, the necessary conditions to match the bulk of hot super-Earths are at odds with the conditions needed to match the Solar System.

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25

Hands, Thomas O., Richard D. Alexander, and Walter Dehnen. "Understanding the assembly of Kepler's tightly-packed planetary systems." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 9, S310 (2014): 90–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921314007935.

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AbstractThe Kepler mission has recently discovered a number of exoplanetary systems, such as Kepler 11, in which ensembles of several planets are found in very closely packed orbits. These systems present a challenge for traditional formation and migration scenarios. We present a dynamical study of the evolution of these systems using an N-body approach, incorporating both smooth and stochastic migration forces and a variety of initial conditions, in order to assess the feasibility of assembling such systems via traditional, disc-driven migration.

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26

Haghighipour, Nader. "Habitable planet formation in extreme planetary systems: systems with multiple stars and/or multiple planets." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 3, S249 (2007): 319–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921308016773.

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AbstractUnderstanding the formation and dynamical evolution of habitable planets in extrasolar planetary systems is a challenging task. In this respect, systems with multiple giant planets and/or multiple stars present special complications. The formation of habitable planets in these environments is strongly affected by the dynamics of their giant planets and/or their stellar companions. These objects have profound effects on the structure of the disk of planetesimals and protoplanetary objects in which terrestrial-class planets are formed. To what extent the current theories of planet formation can be applied to such “extreme” planetary systems depends on the dynamical characteristics of their planets and/or their binary stars. In this paper, I present the results of a study of the possibility of the existence of Earth-like objects in systems with multiple giant planets (namely υ Andromedae, 47 UMa, GJ 876, and 55 Cnc) and discuss the dynamics of the newly discovered Neptune-sized object in 55 Cnc system. I will also review habitable planet formation in binary systems and present the results of a systematic search of the parameter-space for which Earth-like objects can form and maintain long-term stable orbits in the habitable zones of binary stars.

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27

Ercolano, Barbara, and Ilaria Pascucci. "The dispersal of planet-forming discs: theory confronts observations." Royal Society Open Science 4, no. 4 (2017): 170114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.170114.

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Discs of gas and dust around million-year-old stars are a by-product of the star formation process and provide the raw material to form planets. Hence, their evolution and dispersal directly impact what type of planets can form and affect the final architecture of planetary systems. Here, we review empirical constraints on disc evolution and dispersal with special emphasis on transition discs, a subset of discs that appear to be caught in the act of clearing out planet-forming material. Along with observations, we summarize theoretical models that build our physical understanding of how discs evolve and disperse and discuss their significance in the context of the formation and evolution of planetary systems. By confronting theoretical predictions with observations, we also identify the most promising areas for future progress.

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28

Sandford, Emily, David Kipping, and Michael Collins. "On planetary systems as ordered sequences." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 505, no. 2 (2021): 2224–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stab1480.

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ABSTRACT A planetary system consists of a host star and one or more planets, arranged into a particular configuration. Here, we consider what information belongs to the configuration, or ordering, of 4286 Kepler planets in their 3277 planetary systems. First, we train a neural network model to predict the radius and period of a planet based on the properties of its host star and the radii and period of its neighbours. The mean absolute error (MAE) of the predictions of the trained model is a factor of 2.1 better than the MAE of the predictions of a naive model that draws randomly from dynamically allowable periods and radii. Secondly, we adapt a model used for unsupervised part-of-speech tagging in computational linguistics to investigate whether planets or planetary systems fall into natural categories with physically interpretable ‘grammatical rules.’ The model identifies two robust groups of planetary systems: (1) compact multiplanet systems and (2) systems around giant stars (log g ≲ 4.0), although the latter group is strongly sculpted by the selection bias of the transit method. These results reinforce the idea that planetary systems are not random sequences – instead, as a population, they contain predictable patterns that can provide insight into the formation and evolution of planetary systems.

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29

Lambrechts, Michiel, Alessandro Morbidelli, Seth A. Jacobson, et al. "Formation of planetary systems by pebble accretion and migration." Astronomy & Astrophysics 627 (July 2019): A83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201834229.

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Super-Earths – planets with sizes between the Earth and Neptune – are found in tighter orbits than that of the Earth around more than one third of main sequence stars. It has been proposed that super-Earths are scaled-up terrestrial planets that also formed similarly, through mutual accretion of planetary embryos, but in discs much denser than the solar protoplanetary disc. We argue instead that terrestrial planets and super-Earths have two clearly distinct formation pathways that are regulated by the pebble reservoir of the disc. Through numerical integrations, which combine pebble accretion and N-body gravity between embryos, we show that a difference of a factor of two in the pebble mass flux is enough to change the evolution from the terrestrial to the super-Earth growth mode. If the pebble mass flux is small, then the initial embryos within the ice line grow slowly and do not migrate substantially, resulting in a widely spaced population of approximately Mars-mass embryos when the gas disc dissipates. Subsequently, without gas being present, the embryos become unstable due to mutual gravitational interactions and a small number of terrestrial planets are formed by mutual collisions. The final terrestrial planets are at most five Earth masses. Instead, if the pebble mass flux is high, then the initial embryos within the ice line rapidly become sufficiently massive to migrate through the gas disc. Embryos concentrate at the inner edge of the disc and growth accelerates through mutual merging. This leads to the formation of a system of closely spaced super-Earths in the five to twenty Earth-mass range, bounded by the pebble isolation mass. Generally, instabilities of these super-Earth systems after the disappearance of the gas disc trigger additional merging events and dislodge the system from resonant chains. Therefore, the key difference between the two growth modes is whether embryos grow fast enough to undergo significant migration. The terrestrial growth mode produces small rocky planets on wider orbits like those in the solar system whereas the super-Earth growth mode produces planets in short-period orbits inside 1 AU, with masses larger than the Earth that should be surrounded by a primordial H/He atmosphere, unless subsequently lost by stellar irradiation. The pebble flux – which controls the transition between the two growth modes – may be regulated by the initial reservoir of solids in the disc or the presence of more distant giant planets that can halt the radial flow of pebbles.

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30

Turrini, D., A. Zinzi, and J. A. Belinchon. "Normalized angular momentum deficit: a tool for comparing the violence of the dynamical histories of planetary systems." Astronomy & Astrophysics 636 (April 2020): A53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201936301.

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Context. Population studies of the orbital characteristics of exoplanets in multi-planet systems have highlighted the existence of an anticorrelation between the average orbital eccentricity of planets and the number of planets of their host system, that is, its multiplicity. This effect was proposed to reflect the varying levels of violence in the dynamical evolution of planetary systems. Aims. Previous work suggested that the relative violence of the dynamical evolution of planetary systems with similar orbital architectures can be compared through the computation of their angular momentum deficit (AMD). We investigated the possibility of using a more general metric to perform analogous comparisons between planetary systems with different orbital architectures. Methods. We considered a modified version of the AMD, the normalized angular momentum deficit (NAMD), and used it to study a sample of 99 multi-planet systems containing both the currently best-characterized extrasolar systems and the solar system, that is, planetary systems with both compact and wide orbital architectures. Results. We verified that the NAMD allows us to compare the violence of the dynamical histories of multi-planet systems with different orbital architectures. We identified an anticorrelation between the NAMD and the multiplicity of the planetary systems, of which the previously observed eccentricity–multiplicity anticorrelation is a reflection. Conclusions. Our results seem to indicate that phases of dynamical instabilities and chaotic evolution are not uncommon among planetary systems. They also suggest that the efficiency of the planetary formation process in producing high-multiplicity systems is likely to be higher than that suggested by their currently known population.

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31

McMillan, Stephen L. W., P. N. McDermott, and Ronald E. Taam. "The formation and evolution of tidal binary systems." Astrophysical Journal 318 (July 1987): 261. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/165365.

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32

Ciesla, Fred J. "Chemical evolution of planetary materials in a dynamic solar nebula." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 15, S350 (2019): 152–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921319009499.

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AbstractAs observational facilities improve, providing new insights into the chemistry occurring in protoplanetary disks, it is important to develop more complete pictures of the processes that shapes the chemical evolution of materials during this stage of planet formation. Here we describe how primitive meteorites in our own Solar System can provide insights into the processes that shaped planetary materials early in their evolution around the Sun. In particular, we show how this leads us to expect protoplanetary disks to be very dynamic objects and what modeling and laboratory studies are needed to provide a more complete picture for the early chemical evolution that occurs for planetary systems.

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33

Boyle, L. A., and M. P. Redman. "Planet destruction and the shaping of planetary nebulae." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 12, S323 (2016): 193–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921317000539.

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AbstractThe shaping of PNe as a result of an interaction with a planet is a hypothesis that has been suggested for nearly two decades. However, exploring the idea observationally is challenging due to the lack of capabilities needed to detect any evidence of such a scenario. Nonetheless, we propose that the hypothesis can be indirectly tested via a combination of exoplanet formation and evolution theories, the star and planet formation histories of the galaxy and the tidal evolution of star-planet systems. We present a calculation of the fraction of planetary nebulae in the galaxy today which have undergone an interaction with a planet, concluding that a significant number of visible planetary nebulae may have been shaped by a planet.

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34

Urrutia-Fucugauchi, Jaime, and Ligia Pérez-Cruz. "Planetary Sciences, Geodynamics, Impacts, Mass Extinctions, and Evolution: Developments and Interconnections." International Journal of Geophysics 2016 (2016): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/4703168.

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Research frontiers in geophysics are being expanded, with development of new fields resulting from technological advances such as the Earth observation satellite network, global positioning system, high pressure-temperature physics, tomographic methods, and big data computing. Planetary missions and enhanced exoplanets detection capabilities, with discovery of a wide range of exoplanets and multiple systems, have renewed attention to models of planetary system formation and planet’s characteristics, Earth’s interior, and geodynamics, highlighting the need to better understand the Earth system, processes, and spatio-temporal scales. Here we review the emerging interconnections resulting from advances in planetary sciences, geodynamics, high pressure-temperature physics, meteorite impacts, and mass extinctions.

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35

Zhu, Wei, and Subo Dong. "Exoplanet Statistics and Theoretical Implications." Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 59, no. 1 (2021): 291–336. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-astro-112420-020055.

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In the past few years, significant advances have been made in understanding the distributions of exoplanet populations and the architecture of planetary systems. We review the recent progress of planet statistics, with a focus on the inner ≲1-AU region of planetary systems that has been fairly thoroughly surveyed by the Kepler mission. We also discuss the theoretical implications of these statistical results for planet formation and dynamical evolution.

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36

Meyer, Michael R., Lynne A. Hillenbrand, Dana Backman, et al. "The Formation and Evolution of Planetary Systems: Placing Our Solar System in Context withSpitzer." Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 118, no. 850 (2006): 1690–710. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/510099.

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37

Kim, Jinyoung Serena, Dean C. Hines, Dana E. Backman, et al. "Formation and Evolution of Planetary Systems: Cold Outer Disks Associated with Sun‐like Stars." Astrophysical Journal 632, no. 1 (2005): 659–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/432863.

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38

Carpenter, John M., Jeroen Bouwman, Eric E. Mamajek, et al. "FORMATION AND EVOLUTION OF PLANETARY SYSTEMS: PROPERTIES OF DEBRIS DUST AROUND SOLAR-TYPE STARS." Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 181, no. 1 (2009): 197–226. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0067-0049/181/1/197.

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39

Absil, Olivier, and Dimitri Mawet. "Formation and evolution of planetary systems: the impact of high-angular resolution optical techniques." Astronomy and Astrophysics Review 18, no. 3 (2009): 317–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00159-009-0028-y.

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40

Poon, Sanson T. S., Richard P. Nelson, and Gavin A. L. Coleman. "In situ formation of hot Jupiters with companion super-Earths." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 505, no. 2 (2021): 2500–2516. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stab1466.

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ABSTRACT Observations have confirmed the existence of multiple-planet systems containing a hot Jupiter and smaller planetary companions. Examples include WASP-47, Kepler-730, and TOI-1130. We examine the plausibility of forming such systems in situ using N-body simulations that include a realistic treatment of collisions, an evolving protoplanetary disc, and eccentricity/inclination damping of planetary embryos. Initial conditions are constructed using two different models for the core of the giant planet: a ‘seed-model’ and an ‘equal-mass-model’. The former has a more massive protoplanet placed among multiple small embryos in a compact configuration. The latter consists only of equal-mass embryos. Simulations of the seed-model lead to the formation of systems containing a hot Jupiter and super-Earths. The evolution consistently follows four distinct phases: early giant impacts; runaway gas accretion on to the seed protoplanet; disc damping-dominated evolution of the embryos orbiting exterior to the giant; a late chaotic phase after dispersal of the gas disc. Approximately 1 per cent of the equal-mass simulations form a giant and follow the same four-phase evolution. Synthetic transit observations of the equal-mass simulations provide an occurrence rate of 0.26 per cent for systems containing a hot Jupiter and an inner super-Earth, similar to the 0.2 per cent occurrence rate from actual transit surveys, but simulated hot Jupiters are rarely detected as single transiting planets, in disagreement with observations. A subset of our simulations form two close-in giants, similar to the WASP-148 system. The scenario explored here provides a viable pathway for forming systems with unusual architectures, but does not apply to the majority of hot Jupiters.

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41

Krot, Alexander M. "On the Analytical Models of Protoplanetary Formation in Extrasolar Systems." Space: Science & Technology 2022 (November 12, 2022): 1–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.34133/2022/9862389.

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In this work, we consider a statistical theory for a cosmogonical body formation (so-called spheroidal body) to develop the analytical models of protoplanetary formation in extrasolar systems. Within the framework of this theory, the models and evolution equations of the statistical mechanics have been proposed, while the well-known problem of gravitational condensation of infinite distributed cosmic substances has been solved. This paper derives the general equation of distribution of the specific angular momentum of forming protoplanets since the specific angular momentums (for particles or planetesimals) are averaged during a conglomeration process (under a planetary embryo formation). As a result, a new law for planetary distances (which generalizes Schmidt’s law) is derived theoretically. This paper develops also an alternative thermal emission of particles model of the formation of protoplanets in extrasolar systems. Within the framework of this model, the equation for the thermal distribution function of the specific angular momentums of particles moving in elliptical orbits in the gravitational field is derived. According to this thermal escape model, only 0.8% of the total number of particles in the solar system composing the protoplanetary cloud has angular momentum 15.6 times higher than the angular momentum of the remaining 99% of particles. This conclusion agrees completely with the known fact of a nonuniform distribution of the angular momentums in our solar system noted by ter Haar. As pointed out here, the exponential laws of planetary distances occur in some extrasolar systems.

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42

Ceccarelli, Cecilia, and Fujun Du. "We Drink Good 4.5-Billion-Year-Old Water." Elements 18, no. 3 (2022): 155–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.2138/gselements.18.3.155.

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Water is crucial for the emergence and evolution of life on Earth. Recent studies of the water content in early forming planetary systems similar to our own show that water is an abundant and ubiquitous molecule, initially synthesized on the surfaces of tiny interstellar dust grains by the hydrogenation of frozen oxygen. Water then enters a cycle of sublimation/freezing throughout the successive phases of planetary system formation, namely, hot corinos and protoplanetary disks, eventually to be incorporated into planets, asteroids, and comets. The amount of heavy water measured on Earth and in early forming planetary systems suggests that a substantial fraction of terrestrial water was inherited from the very first phases of the Solar System formation and is 4.5 billion years old.

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43

Espinoza-Retamal, Juan I., Wei Zhu, and Cristobal Petrovich. "Prospects from TESS and Gaia to Constrain the Flatness of Planetary Systems." Astronomical Journal 166, no. 6 (2023): 231. http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/1538-3881/ad00b9.

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Abstract The mutual inclination between planets orbiting the same star provides key information to understand the formation and evolution of multiplanet systems. In this work, we investigate the potential of Gaia astrometry in detecting and characterizing cold Jupiters in orbits exterior to the currently known Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) planet candidates. According to our simulations, out of the ∼3350 systems expected to have cold Jupiter companions, Gaia, by its nominal 5 yr mission, should be able to detect ∼200 cold Jupiters and measure the orbital inclinations with a precision of σ cos i < 0.2 in ∼120 of them. These numbers are estimated under the assumption that the orbital orientations of the CJs follow an isotropic distribution, but these only vary slightly for less broad distributions. We also discuss the prospects from radial velocity follow-ups to better constrain the derived properties and provide a package to do quick forecasts using our Fisher matrix analysis. Overall, our simulations show that Gaia astrometry of cold Jupiters orbiting stars with TESS planets can distinguish dynamically cold (mean mutual inclination ≲5°) from dynamically hot systems (mean mutual inclination ≳20°), placing a new set of constraints on their formation and evolution.

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44

Jiang, Jonathan H., Remo Burn, Xuan Ji, Kristen A. Fahy, and Patrick Eggenberger. "Angular Momentum Distributions for Observed and Modeled Exoplanetary Systems." Astrophysical Journal 924, no. 2 (2022): 118. http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ac3242.

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Abstract The distribution of angular momentum of planets and their host stars provides important information on the formation and evolution of the planetary system. However, mysteries still remain, partly due to bias and uncertainty of the current observational data sets and partly due to the fact that theoretical models for the formation and evolution of planetary systems are still underdeveloped. In this study, we calculate the spin angular momentum of host stars and the orbital angular momentum of their planets using data from the NASA Exoplanet Archive along with detailed analysis of observation dependent biases and uncertainty ranges. We also analyze the angular momentum of the planetary system as a function of star age to understand their variation in different evolutionary stages. In addition, we use a population of planets from theoretical model simulations to reexamine the observed patterns and compare the simulated population with the observed samples to assess variations and differences. We found the majority of exoplanets discovered thus far do not have the angular momentum distribution similar to that of planets in our solar system, though this could be due to the observation bias. When filtered by the observational biases, the model simulated angular momentum distributions are comparable to the observed pattern in general. However, the differences between the observation and model simulation in the parameter (angular momentum) space provide more rigorous constraints and insights on the issues that needed future improvement.

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45

Bonfanti, A., L. Fossati, D. Kubyshkina, and P. E. Cubillos. "Constraining stellar rotation and planetary atmospheric evolution of a dozen systems hosting sub-Neptunes and super-Earths." Astronomy & Astrophysics 656 (December 2021): A157. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202142010.

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Context. Planetary atmospheric evolution modelling is a prime tool for understanding the observed exoplanet population and constraining formation and migration mechanisms, but it can also be used to study the evolution of the activity level of planet hosts. Aims. We constrain the planetary atmospheric mass fraction at the time of the dispersal of the protoplanetary disk and the evolution of the stellar rotation rate for a dozen multi-planet systems that host sub-Neptunes and/or super-Earths. Methods. We employ a custom-developed PYTHON code that we have dubbed PASTA (Planetary Atmospheres and Stellar RoTation RAtes), which runs within a Bayesian framework to model the atmospheric evolution of exoplanets. The code combines MESA stellar evolutionary tracks, a model describing planetary structures, a model relating stellar rotation and activity level, and a model predicting planetary atmospheric mass-loss rates based on the results of hydrodynamic simulations. Results. Through a Markov chain Monte Carlo scheme, we retrieved the posterior probability density functions of all considered parameters. For ages older than about 2 Gyr, we find a median spin-down (i.e. P(t)∝ty) of ȳ = 0.38−0.27+0.38, indicating a rotation decay slightly slower than classical literature values (≈0.5), though still within 1σ. At younger ages, we find a median spin-down (i.e. P(t)∝tx) of x̄ = 0.26−0.19+0.42, which is below what is observed in young open clusters, though within 1σ. Furthermore, we find that the x probability distribution we derived is skewed towards lower spin-down rates. However, these two results are likely due to a selection bias as the systems suitable to be analysed by PASTA contain at least one planet with a hydrogen-dominated atmosphere, implying that the host star has more likely evolved as a slow rotator. We further look for correlations between the initial atmospheric mass fraction of the considered planets and system parameters (i.e. semi-major axis, stellar mass, and planetary mass) that would constrain planetary atmospheric accretion models, but without finding any. Conclusions. PASTA has the potential to provide constraints to planetary atmospheric accretion models, particularly when considering warm sub-Neptunes that are less susceptible to mass loss compared to hotter and/or lower-mass planets. The TESS, CHEOPS, and PLATO missions are going to be instrumental in identifying and precisely measuring systems amenable to PASTA’s analysis and can thus potentially constrain planet formation and stellar evolution.

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46

Kane, Stephen R., Bradford J. Foley, Michelle L. Hill, et al. "Orbital Dynamics and the Evolution of Planetary Habitability in the AU Mic System." Astronomical Journal 163, no. 1 (2021): 20. http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/1538-3881/ac366b.

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Abstract The diverse planetary systems that have been discovered are revealing the plethora of possible architectures, providing insights into planet formation and evolution. They also increase our understanding of system parameters that may affect planetary habitability, and how such conditions are influenced by initial conditions. The AU Mic system is unique among known planetary systems in that it is a nearby, young, multiplanet transiting system. Such a young and well-characterized system provides an opportunity for orbital dynamical and habitability studies for planets in the very early stages of their evolution. Here, we calculate the evolution of the Habitable Zone of the system through time, including the pre-main-sequence phase that the system currently resides in. We discuss the planetary atmospheric processes occurring for an Earth-mass planet during this transitional period, and provide calculations of the climate state convergence age for both volatile rich and poor initial conditions. We present results of an orbital dynamical analysis of the AU Mic system that demonstrate the rapid eccentricity evolution of the known planets, and show that terrestrial planets within the Habitable Zone of the system can retain long-term stability. Finally, we discuss follow-up observation prospects, detectability of possible Habitable Zone planets, and how the AU Mic system may be used as a template for studies of planetary habitability evolution.

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47

Bouwman, J., Th Henning, L. A. Hillenbrand, et al. "The Formation and Evolution of Planetary Systems: Grain Growth and Chemical Processing of Dust in T Tauri Systems." Astrophysical Journal 683, no. 1 (2008): 479–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/587793.

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48

Rasio, Frederic A., and Mario Livio. "On the Formation and Evolution of Common Envelope Systems." Astrophysical Journal 471, no. 1 (1996): 366–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/177975.

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49

Kraus, Adam L., and Michael J. Ireland. "The Role of Multiplicity in Protoplanetary Disk Evolution." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 5, H15 (2009): 766. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s174392131001149x.

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AbstractInteractions with close stellar or planetary companions can significantly influence the evolution and lifetime of protoplanetary disks. It has recently become possible to search for these companions, directly studying the role of multiplicity in protoplanetary disk evolution. We have described an ongoing survey to directly detect these stellar and planetary companions in nearby star-forming regions. Our program uses adaptive optics and sparse aperture mask interferometry to achieve typical contrast limits of Δ K=5-6 at the diffraction limit (5–8 MJup at 5–30 AU), while also detecting similar-flux binary companions at separations as low as 15 mas (2.5 AU). In most cases, our survey has found no evidence of companions (planetary or binary) among the well-known “transitional disk” systems; if the inner clearings are due to planet formation, as has been previously suggested, then this paucity places an upper limit on the mass of any resulting planet. Our survey also has uncovered many new binary systems, with the majority falling among the diskless (WTTS) population. This disparity suggests that disk evolution for close (5–30 AU) binary systems is very different from that for single stars. As we show in Figure 1, most circumbinary disks are cleared by ages of 1–2 Myr, while most circumstellar disks are not. These diskless binary systems have biased the disk frequency downward in previous studies. If we remove our new systems from those samples, we find that the disk fraction for single stars could be higher than was previously suggested.

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50

An, Dong-Sheng, Ji-Wei Xie, Yuan-Zhe Dai, and Ji-Lin Zhou. "Planetary Orbit Eccentricity Trends (POET). I. The Eccentricity–Metallicity Trend for Small Planets Revealed by the LAMOST–Gaia–Kepler Sample." Astronomical Journal 165, no. 3 (2023): 125. http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/1538-3881/acb533.

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Abstract Orbital eccentricity is one of the basic planetary properties, whose distribution may shed light on the history of planet formation and evolution. Here, in a series of works on Planetary Orbit Eccentricity Trends (dubbed POET), we study the distribution of planetary eccentricities and their dependence on stellar/planetary properties. In this paper, the first work of the POET series, we investigate whether and how the eccentricities of small planets depend on stellar metallicities (e.g., [Fe/H]). Previous studies on giant planets have found a significant correlation between planetary eccentricities and their host metallicities. Nevertheless, whether such a correlation exists for small planets (e.g., super-Earths and sub-Neptunes) remains unclear. Here, benefiting from the large and homogeneous LAMOST–Gaia–Kepler sample, we characterize the eccentricity distributions of 244 (286) small planets in single (multiple) transiting systems with the TDR method. We confirm the eccentricity–metallicity trend whereby the eccentricities of single small planets increase with stellar metallicities. Interestingly, a similar trend between eccentricity and metallicity is also found in the radial velocity sample. We also found that the mutual inclination of multiple transiting systems increases with metallicity, which predicts a moderate eccentricity–metallicity rising trend. Our results of the correlation between eccentricity (inclination) and metallicity for small planets support the core accretion model for planet formation, and they could be footprints of self (and/or external) excitation processes during the history of planet formation and evolution.

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