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Автор: Grafiati

Опубліковано: 4 червня 2021

Оновлено: 23 вересня 2023

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1

Šarić, Mirela, Anke Vahrmann, Daniela Niebur, Verena Kluempers, Adrian B. Hehl та Henning Scholze. "Dual Acylation Accounts for the Localization of α19-Giardin in the Ventral Flagellum Pair of Giardia lamblia". Eukaryotic Cell 8, № 10 (14 серпня 2009): 1567–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/ec.00136-09.

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ABSTRACT A Giardia-specific protein family denominated as α-giardins, represents the major protein component, besides tubulin, of the cytoskeleton of the human pathogenic parasite Giardia lamblia. One of its members, α19-giardin, carries an N-terminal sequence extension of MGCXXS, which in many proteins serves as a target for dual lipid conjugation: myristoylation at the glycine residue after removal of the methionine and palmitoylation at the cysteine residue. As the first experimental evidence of a lipid modification, we found α19-giardin to be associated with the membrane fraction of disrupted trophozoites. After heterologous coexpression of α19-giardin with giardial N-myristoyltransferase (NMT) in E scherichia coli, we found the protein in a myristoylated form. Additionally, after heterologous expression together with the palmitoyl transferase Pfa3 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, α19-giardin associates with the membrane of the main vacuole. Immunocytochemical colocalization studies on wild-type Giardia trophozoites with tubulin provide evidence that α19-giardin exclusively localizes to the ventral pair of the giardial flagella. A mutant in which the putatively myristoylated N-terminal glycine residue was replaced by alanine lost this specific localization. Our findings suggest that the dual lipidation of α19-giardin is responsible for its specific flagellar localization.

2

Abbasi, Elnaz, Alireza Amouzandeh-Nobaveh, and Ehsanollah Ghaznavi-Rad. "The Frequency of the Intestinal Parasites Giardia Lamblia and Entamoeba Histolytica in Pediatric Diarrhea Specimens from Central Iran." Open Microbiology Journal 14, no. 1 (March 13, 2020): 53–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874285802014010053.

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Introduction: Intestinal parasitic infections, particularly those caused by Giardia lamblia, are among the major health problems that exist worldwide, especially in developing countries. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of the intestinal parasites Giardia lamblia and Entamoeba histolytica that were isolated from samples of infectious diarrhea in pediatric patients from Central Iran. Methods: This descriptive cross-sectional study included 230 samples of infectious diarrhea that were collected from May 2015 to February 2016. Direct observation, the formalin-ether sedimentation method and the technique using the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) of β-giardin and EH primers were used for the identification of Giardia lamblia and Entamoeba histolytica. Results: Out of 230 samples of infectious diarrhea, five cases (2.1%) of Giardia lamblia and no cases (0%) of Entamoeba histolytica were identified using the formalin-ether sedimentation method and the same result were obtained using PCR technique. Of the five patients who had Giardia lamblia, three (60%) were male and two (40%) were female. The most common clinical symptoms in these patients were stomach ache and diarrhea (100%) and mucus in the stool (80%). Conclusion: Giardia lamblia was introduced as a parasitic agent causing diarrhea from Central Iran. The results indicate that pediatricians and, even more importantly, experts in laboratories should pay special attention to the identification of this parasite to treat the patients as effectively and as quickly as possible.

3

Eagle, Kim, and Ann M. Dvorak. "Giardia lamblia." New England Journal of Medicine 328, no. 14 (April 8, 1993): 1010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/nejm199304083281406.

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4

SHEFF, BARBARA. "Giardia lamblia." Nursing 34, no. 4 (April 2004): 76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00152193-200404000-00056.

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5

Pickering, Larry K., and Paul G. Engelkirk. "Giardia lamblia." Pediatric Clinics of North America 35, no. 3 (June 1988): 565–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0031-3955(16)36472-0.

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6

Sheff, Barbara. "Giardia lamblia." Nursing (Ed. española) 23, no. 1 (January 2005): 56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0212-5382(05)71348-0.

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7

Suman, MSH, MM Alam, SB Pun, A. Khair, S. Ahmed, and RY Uchida. "PREVALENCE OF GIARDIA LAMBLIA INFECTION IN CHILDREN AND CALVES IN BANGLADESH." Bangladesh Journal of Veterinary Medicine 9, no. 2 (January 24, 2013): 177–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/bjvm.v9i2.13474.

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Giardia lamblia is highly infectious protozoan parasite capable of causing gastrointestinal illness in both humans and animals. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of Giardia lamblia infection in children < 5 years old and calves. Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) has been used for the detection of Giardia lamblia. A total of 266 children and 15 calves diarrheic fecal samples were tested for Giardia lamblia during January 2011 to May 2012. The prevalence of Giardia lamblia infection among children was 3.8% while 13.3% in calves. Giardia lamblia was highest in children between 24 and 60 months of age (8.7%). Giardia lamblia infection was higher in male (4.7%) than in female (2.0%). Male calves (14.3%) have slightly higher prevalence than female calves (12.5%). The highest prevalence (33.3%) of Giardia lamblia infection in calves was between the ages 6 and 9 months. This is the first study to determine the prevalence of Giardia lamblia infection in calves using ELISA method in Bangladesh. A larger scale study is needed for accurate estimates of prevalence of Giardia lamblia to undertake an appropriate control strategy in future.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/bjvm.v9i2.13474

8

Touz, María, Constanza Feliziani, and Andrea Rópolo. "Membrane-Associated Proteins in Giardia lamblia." Genes 9, no. 8 (August 10, 2018): 404. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes9080404.

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The manner in which membrane-associated proteins interact with the membrane defines their subcellular fate and function. This interaction relies on the characteristics of the proteins, their journey after synthesis, and their interaction with other proteins or enzymes. Understanding these properties may help to define the function of a protein and also the role of an organelle. In the case of microorganisms like protozoa parasites, it may help to understand singular features that will eventually lead to the design of parasite-specific drugs. The protozoa parasite Giardia lamblia is an example of a widespread parasite that has been infecting humans and animals from ancestral times, adjusting itself to the changes of the environment inside and outside the host. Several membrane-associated proteins have been posted in the genome database GiardiaDB, although only a few of them have been characterized. This review discusses the data regarding membrane-associated proteins in relationship with lipids and specific organelles and their implication in the discovery of anti-giardial therapies.

9

Wei, Chao Jun, Xi Feng Tian, Rodney D. Adam, and Si Qi Lu. "Giardia lamblia: Intracellular localization of alpha8-giardin." Experimental Parasitology 126, no. 4 (December 2010): 489–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.exppara.2010.05.028.

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10

Han, Jian, and Lesley J. Collins. "Reconstruction of Sugar Metabolic Pathways of Giardia lamblia." International Journal of Proteomics 2012 (October 18, 2012): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/980829.

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Giardia lamblia is an “important” pathogen of humans, but as a diplomonad excavate it is evolutionarily distant from other eukaryotes and relatively little is known about its core metabolic pathways. KEGG, the widely referenced site for providing information of metabolism, does not yet include many enzymes from Giardia species. Here we identify Giardia’s core sugar metabolism using standard bioinformatic approaches. By comparing Giardia proteomes with known enzymes from other species, we have identified enzymes in the glycolysis pathway, as well as some enzymes involved in the TCA cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. However, the majority of enzymes from the latter two pathways were not identifiable, indicating the likely absence of these functionalities. We have also found enzymes from the Giardia glycolysis pathway that appear more similar to those from bacteria. Because these enzymes are different from those found in mammals, the host organisms for Giardia, we raise the possibility that these bacteria-like enzymes could be novel drug targets for treating Giardia infections.

11

Shukla, Geeta, Tarveen Kaur, Rakesh Sehgal, Praveen Rishi, and Vijay Prabha. "Protective potential of L. acidophilus in murine giardiasis." Open Medicine 5, no. 4 (August 1, 2010): 456–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/s11536-009-0139-x.

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AbstractThis study describes the in vivo activity of Lactobacillus acidophilus in Giardia lamblia infected BALB/c mice. Experimentally, it was observed that daily administration of lactobacilli 7 days before or in simultaneous inoculation with Giardia trophozoites efficiently reduced G. lamblia infection in mice. More specifically, excretion of Giardia cysts were reduced significantly in probiotic-treated groups, and resolution of infection was observed by day 21 post-inoculation. It was also observed that the lactobacillus count increased tremendously and continuously in faeces of all probiotic-fed mice, and was significantly higher as compared with that in control mice. Histological analysis of microvilli membrane integrity revealed that probiotic administration also protected mice against parasite-induced mucosal damage, whereas Giardia-infected mice had severe villous atrophy, oedema, vacuolation and ileitis. Immunologically, the anti-Giardia serum IgG level was not stimulated significantly by probiotic treatment administered both prior to and simultaneous with Giardia infection, but remained high after the infection peak. Taken together, the data demonstrates the anti-giardial effect of the probiotic in vivo by modulation of the intestinal epithelial cells, inhibiting the colonization of Giardia trophozoites and thereby reducing the severity of Giardia infection.

12

Ibrahim, Amjed Qays. "Prevalence of Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia in Children in Kadhmiyah Hospital." Iraqi Journal of Veterinary Medicine 36, no. 1 (June 30, 2012): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.30539/iraqijvm.v36i1.543.

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In this study we collect 1520 stool samples during the period from September to December 2010 from children whom their ages between 1 month - 12 years. The results showed that the total infection of Entamoeba histolytica was 9.80% , and Giardia lamblia was 1.77%. And the male ratio that infected with Entamoeba histolytica was 9.83% , while the female ratio was 9.74%; and the male infected with Giardia lamblia was 1.51% , while the female ratio was 2.18%. The result showed that the high average of infection with Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia in age group from 1 month to 2 years. And there is no significance difference between gender and infectivity rate of Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia under P≤0.05. Also it showed that there were significant relation between Age group and infectivity rate of Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia.

13

Hadi, Wed Shakir, Rabab Shaker Salman, Ali Abdulzahra Al-Fahham, Muhammad Usman Faryad Khan, Sunarto Kadir, Methaq Hadi Laft, Balsam Qubais Saeed, Wesam Radhi Kadhum, Abduladheem Turki Jalil, and Mustafa Mohammed Kadhim. "Evaluation of IL-17 and IL-35 in patients with giardiasis in Thi-Qar province, Iraq." Journal of Medicine and Life 15, no. 9 (September 2022): 1096–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.25122/jml-2021-0328.

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Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba histolytica, Cryptosporidium, and Blastocystis are some parasites primarily responsible for human infections. Giardia lamblia, also known as Giardia intestinalis or Giardia duodenalis, is a common pathogenic protozoan found in the human duodenum and jejunum that causes giardiasis. This study collected stool and blood samples from patients with diarrhea aged less than 1 month to 15 years, from September 2020 to December 2020, in Thi-Qar province. Our study aimed to reveal the diagnosis of Giardia lamblia using direct microscopy examination and detect some immunological parameters such as IL-17 and IL-35 in patients infected with giardiasis.

14

Nixon, Julie E. J., Amy Wang, Jessica Field, Hilary G. Morrison, Andrew G. McArthur, Mitchell L. Sogin, Brendan J. Loftus, and John Samuelson. "Evidence for Lateral Transfer of Genes Encoding Ferredoxins, Nitroreductases, NADH Oxidase, and Alcohol Dehydrogenase 3 from Anaerobic Prokaryotes to Giardialamblia and Entamoebahistolytica." Eukaryotic Cell 1, no. 2 (April 2002): 181–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/ec.1.2.181-190.2002.

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ABSTRACT Giardia lamblia and Entamoeba histolytica are amitochondriate, microaerophilic protists which use fermentation enzymes like those of bacteria to survive anaerobic conditions within the intestinal lumen. Genes encoding fermentation enzymes and related electron transport peptides (e.g., ferredoxins) in giardia organisms and amebae are hypothesized to be derived from either an ancient anaerobic eukaryote (amitochondriate fossil hypothesis), a mitochondrial endosymbiont (hydrogen hypothesis), or anaerobic bacteria (lateral transfer hypothesis). The goals here were to complete the molecular characterization of giardial and amebic fermentation enzymes and to determine the origins of the genes encoding them, when possible. A putative giardia [2Fe-2S]ferredoxin which had a hypothetical organelle-targeting sequence at its N terminus showed similarity to mitochondrial ferredoxins and the hydrogenosomal ferredoxin of Trichomonas vaginalis (another luminal protist). However, phylogenetic trees were star shaped, with weak bootstrap support, so we were unable to confirm or rule out the endosymbiotic origin of the giardia [2Fe-2S]ferredoxin gene. Putative giardial and amebic 6-kDa ferredoxins, ferredoxin-nitroreductase fusion proteins, and oxygen-insensitive nitroreductases each tentatively supported the lateral transfer hypothesis. Although there were not enough sequences to perform meaningful phylogenetic analyses, the unique common occurrence of these peptides and enzymes in giardia organisms, amebae, and the few anaerobic prokaryotes suggests the possibility of lateral transfer. In contrast, there was more robust phylogenetic evidence for the lateral transfer of G. lamblia genes encoding an NADH oxidase from a gram-positive coccus and a microbial group 3 alcohol dehydrogenase from thermoanaerobic prokaryotes. In further support of lateral transfer, the G. lamblia NADH oxidase and adh3 genes appeared to have an evolutionary history distinct from those of E. histolytica.

15

Adam, Rodney D. "Biology of Giardia lamblia." Clinical Microbiology Reviews 14, no. 3 (July 1, 2001): 447–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/cmr.14.3.447-475.2001.

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SUMMARY Giardia lamblia is a common cause of diarrhea in humans and other mammals throughout the world. It can be distinguished from other Giardia species by light or electron microscopy. The two major genotypes of G. lamblia that infect humans are so different genetically and biologically that they may warrant separate species or subspecies designations. Trophozoites have nuclei and a well-developed cytoskeleton but lack mitochondria, peroxisomes, and the components of oxidative phosphorylation. They have an endomembrane system with at least some characteristics of the Golgi complex and encoplasmic reticulum, which becomes more extensive in encysting organisms. The primitive nature of the organelles and metabolism, as well as small-subunit rRNA phylogeny, has led to the proposal that Giardia spp. are among the most primitive eukaryotes. G. lamblia probably has a ploidy of 4 and a genome size of approximately 10 to 12 Mb divided among five chromosomes. Most genes have short 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions and promoter regions that are near the initiation codon. Trophozoites exhibit antigenic variation of an extensive repertoire of cysteine-rich variant-specific surface proteins. Expression is allele specific, and changes in expression from one vsp gene to another have not been associated with sequence alterations or gene rearrangements. The Giardia genome project promises to greatly increase our understanding of this interesting and enigmatic organism.

16

Adam, Rodney D. "The Giardia lamblia genome." International Journal for Parasitology 30, no. 4 (April 2000): 475–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0020-7519(99)00191-5.

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17

DuBois, Kelly N., Marla Abodeely, Mohammed Sajid, Juan C. Engel, and James H. McKerrow. "Giardia lamblia cysteine proteases." Parasitology Research 99, no. 4 (April 6, 2006): 313–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00436-006-0149-4.

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18

Fedorko, Daniel P., Esther C. Williams, Nancy A. Nelson, Leslie B. Calhoun, and Sizhuang S. Yan. "Performance of Three Enzyme Immunoassays and Two Direct Fluorescence Assays for Detection of Giardia lamblia in Stool Specimens Preserved in ECOFIX." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 38, no. 7 (2000): 2781–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jcm.38.7.2781-2783.2000.

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ECOFIX is a single-vial stool preservative that is both formalin- and mercury-free. We evaluated the abilities of three commercialGiardia lamblia-specific enzyme immunoassays (EIAs) (ProSpecT Giardia Microplate Assay [Alexon-Trend Inc.], Giardia Test [Techlab], and Premier Giardia lamblia [Meridian Diagnostics, Inc.]) and two commercial direct fluorescent-antibody (FA) assays for G. lamblia(Crypto/Giardia IF Test [Techlab] and Merifluor Cryptosporidium/Giardia [Meridian Diagnostics, Inc.]) to detectG. lamblia in 34 G. lamblia-positive and 44G. lamblia-negative stool specimens (determined by traditional examination for ova and parasites) preserved in ECOFIX compared to their abilities to detect G. lamblia in the same specimens preserved in formalin as the “gold standard” for each assay. Of the 34 formalin-fixed positive specimens, the number detected by each assay was as follows:, Alexon EIA, 34; Meridian EIA, 27; Techlab EIA, 29; Meridian FA assay, 31; and Techlab FA assay, 28. Both FA tests and the Alexon EIA performed well with ECOFIX, but the other two EIAs detected fewer positive specimens (the difference was statistically significant with the Techlab EIA) when ECOFIX was the preservative. Use of G. lamblia cyst antigen from cultured organisms preserved in formalin and ECOFIX demonstrated that the Alexon EIA could detect smaller amounts of antigen in ECOFIX than the other two EIAs could and suggested that cyst antigen is more stable in formalin. We recommend that laboratories use an FA assay or the Alexon EIA if they plan to use ECOFIX as their stool preservative.

19

Kharazmkia, Ali, Javad Ghasemian Yadegari, Mohammad Mohammadian, Rehman Ali, and Hossein Mahmoudvand. "Antiparasitic effect of limonene, a monoterpene compound found in the essential oils against Giardia lamblia." Journal of Herbmed Pharmacology 12, no. 2 (March 18, 2023): 327–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.34172/jhp.2023.34.

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Introduction: The present work aimed to assess the anti-parasitic effects of limonene (LMN) against Giardia lamblia trophozoites and cysts. Methods: Anti-Giardia activities of LMN (25, 50, and 100 μg/mL) were assessed against G. lamblia cysts and trophozoites for 15-360 minutes. The effects of LMN on the apoptosis stimulation G. lamblia parasites were determined by colorimetric protease assay. Results: Giardia trophozoites were more sensitive to LMN than cysts. The best effect of LMN was seen at 100 μg/mL. LMN markedly triggered caspase-3 activity by 10.2%, 25.3%, and 36.1%, respectively (P < 0.001). Conclusion: We found the potent in vitro anti-giardia activity of LMN against G. lamblia parasites with the maximum activity at 50 and 100 μg/mL. However, additional surveys are necessary to reveal the specific efficacy, mechanisms, and safety of LMN.

20

Groudan, Kevin, Kamesh Gupta, Jean Chalhoub, and Rohit Singhania. "Giardia lamblia Diagnosed Incidentally by Duodenal Biopsy." Journal of Investigative Medicine High Impact Case Reports 9 (January 2021): 232470962110016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/23247096211001649.

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Giardia lamblia (also referred to as Giardia intestinalis and Giardia duodenalis) is the most common intestinal parasite in the world, affecting approximately 200 million people annually. Symptoms of Giardia include foul-smelling diarrhea, abdominal cramping, bloating, gas, and nausea. Although usually self-limiting, Giardia can progress to dehydration, malnutrition, and failure to thrive, especially in immunocompromised individuals. Early diagnosis and treatment is imperative to prevent and control infection of Giardia. Infectious Disease Society of America diagnostic guidelines recommend obtaining stool studies to diagnose Giardia; when stool studies are negative but suspicion remains high, duodenal aspirate microscopy is the only alternative diagnostic strategy suggested. We report a patient diagnosed incidentally with Giardia from a duodenal biopsy specimen obtained during a workup for a gastrointestinal bleed. There are limited cases of Giardia diagnosed by duodenal biopsy reported in the literature. We review studies that suggest duodenal biopsy can be a very sensitive strategy for the diagnosis of Giardia.

21

Kamda, Joel D. T., and Steven M. Singer. "Inhibition of dendritic cell IL-12 production by Giardia lamblia (44.1)." Journal of Immunology 178, no. 1_Supplement (April 1, 2007): S48. http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.178.supp.44.1.

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Abstract Unlike most other enteric infections, Giardia lamblia infection does not typically induce mucosal inflammation. We therefore studied the response of bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) to Giardia extracts. G. lamblia is only a weak activator of BMDCs. Compared to LPS, co-incubation of G. lamblia extract results in only moderate up-regulation of the co-stimulatory molecules CD80 and CD86. In addition, G. lamblia extract causes minimal induction of IL-6 and TNF and no detectable IL-10 or IL-12. Interestingly, pre-exposure of BMDCs to G. lamblia extract inhibits the secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-12 by LPS activated BMDCs. IL-12 suppression by G. lamblia is apparently dependent on its activation of the phosphotidylinositol 3-Kinase (PI3-K) pathway, as it is abrogated by pretreatment of BMDCs with the specific PI3-Kinase inhibitor, wortmannin. These results suggest that Giardia actively prevents inflammation, and suggests a distinct mechanism of immune regulation by this intestinal parasite.

22

Adam, R. D., T. E. Nash, and T. E. Wellems. "Telomeric location of Giardia rDNA genes." Molecular and Cellular Biology 11, no. 6 (June 1991): 3326–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.11.6.3326-3330.1991.

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Giardia lamblia telomeres have been isolated from a library enriched for repaired chromosome ends by (i) screening with a Plasmodium falciparum telomere and (ii) differential hybridization with Bal 31-digested and total G. lamblia DNA. Analysis of three clones isolated by this strategy has identified multiple tandem repeats of the 5-mer TAGGG. An oligonucleotide containing these repeats recognizes Bal 31-sensitive bands in Southern hybridizations and detects all G. lamblia chromosomes in pulsed-field gel electrophoresis separations. An abrupt transition from the G. lamblia rDNA sequence to telomeric repeats has been found in all three clones. In two of the clones the transition occurs at the same site, near the beginning of the large subunit rDNA sequence. In the third clone the transition occurs at a site in the intergenic spacer sequence between the rDNA genes. Hybridization of an rDNA probe to a pulsed-field separation of G. lamblia chromosomes indicates that rDNA genes are present on several chromosomes but vary in location from isolate to isolate. These results suggest that rRNA genes are clustered at telomeric locations in G. lamblia and that these clusters are mobile.

23

Adam, R. D., T. E. Nash, and T. E. Wellems. "Telomeric location of Giardia rDNA genes." Molecular and Cellular Biology 11, no. 6 (June 1991): 3326–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.11.6.3326.

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Giardia lamblia telomeres have been isolated from a library enriched for repaired chromosome ends by (i) screening with a Plasmodium falciparum telomere and (ii) differential hybridization with Bal 31-digested and total G. lamblia DNA. Analysis of three clones isolated by this strategy has identified multiple tandem repeats of the 5-mer TAGGG. An oligonucleotide containing these repeats recognizes Bal 31-sensitive bands in Southern hybridizations and detects all G. lamblia chromosomes in pulsed-field gel electrophoresis separations. An abrupt transition from the G. lamblia rDNA sequence to telomeric repeats has been found in all three clones. In two of the clones the transition occurs at the same site, near the beginning of the large subunit rDNA sequence. In the third clone the transition occurs at a site in the intergenic spacer sequence between the rDNA genes. Hybridization of an rDNA probe to a pulsed-field separation of G. lamblia chromosomes indicates that rDNA genes are present on several chromosomes but vary in location from isolate to isolate. These results suggest that rRNA genes are clustered at telomeric locations in G. lamblia and that these clusters are mobile.

24

Yu, Xingang, Auwalu Yusuf Abdullahi, Sheng Wu, Weida Pan, Xianli Shi, Wei Hu, Liping Tan, Kangxin Li, Zhen Wang та Guoqing Li. "Prokaryotic Expression of α-13 Giardin Gene and Its Intracellular Localization in Giardia lamblia". BioMed Research International 2017 (2017): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2017/1603264.

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To study prokaryotic expression and subcellular localization of α-13 giardin in Giardia lamblia trophozoites, α-13 giardin gene was amplified and cloned into prokaryotic expression vector pET-28a(+). The positive recombinant plasmid was transformed into E. coli BL21(DE3) for expression by using IPTG and autoinduction expression system (ZYM-5052). The target protein was validated by SDS-PAGE and Western blotting and purified by Ni-NTA Resin. Rabbits were immunized with purified fusion proteins for preparation of polyclonal antibody; then the intracellular location of α-13 giardin was determined by fluorescence immunoassay. The results showed that the length of α-13 giardin gene was 1038 bp, encoding a polypeptide of 345 amino acids. The expressed product was a fusion protein with about 40 kDa largely present in soluble form. The target protein accounted for 21.0% of total proteins after being induced with IPTG, while it accounted for 28.8% with ZYM-5052. The anti-α13-giardin polyclonal antibody possessed good antigenic specificity as well as excellent binding activity with recombinant α-13 giardin. Immunofluorescence assays revealed that α-13 giardin was localized in the cytoplasm of G. lamblia trophozoite, suggesting that it is a cytoplasm-associated protein. The present study may lay a foundation for further functional research on α-13 giardin of G. lamblia.

25

Pasley, James, James Daly, David McCullough, Tom McChesney, Eleanora Daly, and Suzanne Tank. "Circannual Incidence of Giardia Lamblia." Chronobiology International 6, no. 2 (1989): 185–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/07420528909064629.

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26

Bonner, Alice, and Rosemary Dale. "Giardia Lamblia: Day Care Diarrhea." American Journal of Nursing 86, no. 7 (July 1986): 818. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3425392.

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27

Aldritt, S. M., P. Tien, and C. C. Wang. "Pyrimidine salvage in Giardia lamblia." Journal of Experimental Medicine 161, no. 3 (March 1, 1985): 437–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1084/jem.161.3.437.

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We have found that the anaerobic protozoan parasite Giardia lamblia is incapable of de novo pyrimidine metabolism, as shown by its inability to incorporate orotate, bicarbonate, and aspartate into the pyrimidine nucleotide pool. Results from high performance liquid chromatography of pyrimidine and pyrimidine nucleoside pulse-labeled nucleotide pools and enzyme assays suggest that the parasite satisfies its pyrimidine nucleotide needs predominantly through salvage of uracil by a cytoplasmic uracil phosphoribosyltransferase. Exogenous uridine and cytidine are primarily converted to uracil by the action of uridine hydrolase and cytidine deaminase before incorporation into nucleotide pools. Direct salvage of cytosine occurs to a relatively limited extent via cytosine phosphoribosyltransferase. G. lamblia relies on salvage of exogenous thymidine for ribosylthymine monophosphate (TMP) synthesis, accomplished primarily through the action of a 100,000 g-pelletable thymidine phosphotransferase.

28

BONNER, ALICE, and ROSEMARY DALE. "GIARDIA LAMBLIA DAY CARE DIARRHEA." AJN, American Journal of Nursing 86, no. 7 (July 1986): 818–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00000446-198607000-00019.

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29

Nash, Theodore E. "TREATMENT OF GIARDIA LAMBLIA INFECTIONS." Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 20, no. 2 (February 2001): 193–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006454-200102000-00015.

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30

Alam, Samiah, Janet Yee, Manon Couture, Shin-ichi J. Takayama, Wan-Hsin Tseng, A. Grant Mauk, and Steven Rafferty. "Cytochrome b5 from Giardia lamblia." Metallomics 4, no. 12 (2012): 1255. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c2mt20152f.

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31

Lujan, Hugo D., and Maria C. Touz. "Protein trafficking in Giardia lamblia." Cellular Microbiology 5, no. 7 (July 2003): 427–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1462-5822.2003.00284.x.

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32

Davis-Hayman, Sara R., and Theodore E. Nash. "Genetic manipulation of Giardia lamblia." Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 122, no. 1 (June 2002): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0166-6851(02)00063-4.

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33

Elmendorf, Heidi G., Scott C. Dawson, and J. Michael McCaffery. "The cytoskeleton of Giardia lamblia." International Journal for Parasitology 33, no. 1 (January 2003): 3–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0020-7519(02)00228-x.

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34

Yolken, RobertH, and Beth Ungar. "ELISA DETECTION OF GIARDIA LAMBLIA." Lancet 326, no. 8464 (November 1985): 1120. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(85)90703-2.

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35

Baños Madrid, R., J. J. Martínez Crespo, and J. Mercader Martínez. "Diarrea crónica por Giardia lamblia." FMC - Formación Médica Continuada en Atención Primaria 10, no. 2 (January 2003): 139. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1134-2072(03)75842-3.

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36

Aggarwal, A., and T. E. Nash. "Giardia lamblia: RNA Translation products." Experimental Parasitology 64, no. 3 (December 1987): 336–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0014-4894(87)90044-0.

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37

Nash, Theodore E. "Antigenic variation in Giardia lamblia." Experimental Parasitology 68, no. 2 (February 1989): 238–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0014-4894(89)90104-5.

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38

Montañez, Cecilia, Lourdes Cervantes, César Ovando, and Guadalupe Ortega-Pierres. "Giardia lamblia: Isolation of RNA." Experimental Parasitology 68, no. 3 (April 1989): 354–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0014-4894(89)90117-3.

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39

Cernikova, Lenka, Carmen Faso, and Adrian B. Hehl. "Five facts about Giardia lamblia." PLOS Pathogens 14, no. 9 (September 27, 2018): e1007250. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1007250.

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40

Nenoff, P., Kathrein Wichmann, and J. Herrmann. "Giardia lamblia - Auslöser eines Analekzems." Aktuelle Dermatologie 28, no. 7 (July 2002): 248–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2002-33496.

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41

Le Blancq, S. M. "Chromosome rearrangements in Giardia lamblia." Parasitology Today 10, no. 5 (January 1994): 177–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-4758(94)90021-3.

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42

Lin, Shun Dar. "Giardia lamblia and Water Supply." Journal - American Water Works Association 77, no. 2 (February 1985): 40–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.1551-8833.1985.tb05490.x.

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43

Nash, T. E., A. Aggarwal, R. D. Adam, J. T. Conrad, and J. W. Merritt. "Antigenic variation in Giardia lamblia." Journal of Immunology 141, no. 2 (July 15, 1988): 636–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.141.2.636.

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Abstract Clones of the WB isolate of Giardia lamblia were exposed to cytotoxic mAb 6E7 which reacts with a 170-kDa surface Ag. Surviving progeny occurred at a frequency of about 1 in 1000 and were resistant to the effects of mAb 6E7. Analysis of progeny and clones of these progeny by surface radiolabeling, surface immunofluorescence, and Western blotting failed to detect the 170-kDa Ag. Loss of this Ag was associated with the appearance of a series of new surface Ag. A cytotoxic mAb (5C1) was produced to one of the newly appearing antigens (approximately equal to 64 kDa) and Giardia resistant to the cytotoxic effects of 5C1 isolated. Neither the approximately equal to 64 kDa nor the 170 kDa Ag were present and were replaced by a second series of new Ag. These studies clearly establish the loss and subsequent replacement of two antigenically distinct epitopes on Giardia derived from a single organism.

44

Erlandsen, Stanley L., Edward Jarroll, Peter Wallis, and Harry van Keulen. "Development of Species-specific rDNA Probes for Giardia by Multiple Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization Combined with Immunocytochemical Identification of Cyst Wall Antigens." Journal of Histochemistry & Cytochemistry 53, no. 8 (August 2005): 917–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1369/jhc.5c6656.2005.

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In this study, we describe the development of fluorescent oligonucleotide probes to variable regions in the small subunit of 16S rRNA in three distinct Giardia species. Sense and antisense probes (17–22 mer) to variable regions 1, 3, and 8 were labeled with digoxygenin or selected fluorochomes (FluorX, Cy3, or Cy5). Optimal results were obtained with fluorochome-labeled oligonucleotides for detection of rRNA in Giardia cysts. Specificity of fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) was shown using RNase digestion and high stringency to diminish the hybridization signal, and oligonucleotide probes for rRNA in Giardia lamblia, Giardia muris, and Giardia ardeae were shown to specifically stain rRNA only within cysts or trophozoites of those species. The fluorescent oligonucleotide specific for rRNA in human isolates of Giardia was positive for ten different strains. A method for simultaneous FISH detection of cysts using fluorescent antibody (genotype marker) and two oligonucleotide probes (species marker) permitted visualization of G. lamblia and G. muris cysts in the same preparation. Testing of an environmental water sample revealed the presence of FISH-positive G. lamblia cysts with a specific rDNA probe for rRNA, while negative cysts were presumed to be of animal or bird origin.

45

Ropolo, Andrea S., Alicia Saura, Pedro G. Carranza, and Hugo D. Lujan. "Identification of Variant-Specific Surface Proteins in Giardia muris Trophozoites." Infection and Immunity 73, no. 8 (August 2005): 5208–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.73.8.5208-5211.2005.

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ABSTRACT Giardia lamblia undergoes antigenic variation, a process that might allow the parasite to evade the host's immune response and adapt to different environments. Here we show that Giardia muris, a related species that naturally infects rodents, possesses multiple variant-specific surface proteins (VSPs) and expresses VSPs on its surface, suggesting that it undergoes antigenic variation similar to that of G. lamblia.

46

Meliț, Lorena Elena, Cristina Oana Mărginean, Simona Mocan, Nicoleta Suciu, and Maria Oana Mărginean. "INFECȚIA CU HELICOBACTER PYLORI FAVORIZEAZĂ PREZENȚA GIARDIA LAMBLIA ÎN MUCOASA GASTRICĂ – PREZENTARE DE CAZ." Romanian Journal of Infectious Diseases 19, no. 3 (September 30, 2016): 123–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.37897/rjid.2016.3.12.

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Helicobacter pylori și Giardia lamblia sunt răspândite în întreaga lume. Helicobacter pylori este un factor favorizant pentru prezența Giardia lamblia în stomac datorită neutralizării pH-ului gastric prin secreția de urează. Prezentăm cazul unui copil în vârstă de 5 ani, cu simptome gastro-intestinale intermitente în antecedentele personale patologice recente, care s-a internat în clinica Pediatrie 1 Târgu Mureș pentru dureri abdominale, grețuri, inapetență și hematemeză. Endoscopia digestivă superioară a evidențiat multiple sufuziuni hemoragice ale mucoasei gastrice, iar examenul histopatologic al mucoasei gastrice antrale a identificat coexistența infecției cu Helicobacter pylori și Giardia lamblia. Evoluția pacientului a fost favorabilă sub terapia de eradicare a infecției cu Helicobacter pylori și tratamentul antiparazitar administrat, endoscopia de control arătând o mucoasă fără modificări vizibile macroscopic, iar reevaluare histopatologică evidențiind modificări regenerative ale mucoasei gastrice. Particularitatea cazului este reprezentată de identificarea prezenței parazitozei cu Giardia lamblia în mucoasa gastrică, mediu fiziologic acid, alcalinizat de ureaza secretată de Helicobacter pylori, asigurând astfel condiții favorabile dezvoltării acestui parazit la un copil în vârstă de 5 ani, dintr-un mediu socio-economic favorabil, cu simptome gastro-intestinale intermitente în antecedentele personale patologice recente.

47

Wu, Sheng, Weida Pan, Xianli Shi, Auwalu Yusuf Abdullahi, Zhen Wang, Xingang Yu, Biao Jiang, Kangxin Li, Chang Xu та Guoqing Li. "Immunolocalization of α18- and α12-giardin in Giardia lamblia trophozoites". Parasitology Research 115, № 11 (28 липня 2016): 4183–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00436-016-5194-z.

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48

Guy, Rebecca A., Pierre Payment, Ulrich J. Krull, and Paul A. Horgen. "Real-Time PCR for Quantification of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in Environmental Water Samples and Sewage." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 69, no. 9 (September 2003): 5178–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.69.9.5178-5185.2003.

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ABSTRACT The protozoan pathogens Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum are major causes of waterborne enteric disease throughout the world. Improved detection methods that are very sensitive and rapid are urgently needed. This is especially the case for analysis of environmental water samples in which the densities of Giardia and Cryptosporidium are very low. Primers and TaqMan probes based on the β-giardin gene of G. lamblia and the COWP gene of C. parvum were developed and used to detect DNA concentrations over a range of 7 orders of magnitude. It was possible to detect DNA to the equivalent of a single cyst of G. lamblia and one oocyst of C. parvum. A multiplex real-time PCR (qPCR) assay for simultaneous detection of G. lamblia and C. parvum resulted in comparable levels of detection. Comparison of DNA extraction methodologies to maximize DNA yield from cysts and oocysts determined that a combination of freeze-thaw, sonication, and purification using the DNeasy kit (Qiagen) provided a highly efficient method. Sampling of four environmental water bodies revealed variation in qPCR inhibitors in 2-liter concentrates. A methodology for dealing with qPCR inhibitors that involved the use of Chelex 100 and PVP 360 was developed. It was possible to detect and quantify G. lamblia in sewage using qPCR when applying the procedure for extraction of DNA from 1-liter sewage samples. Numbers obtained from the qPCR assay were comparable to those obtained with immunofluorescence microscopy. The qPCR analysis revealed both assemblage A and assemblage B genotypes of G. lamblia in the sewage. No Cryptosporidium was detected in these samples by either method.

49

Goka, A. K. J., D. D. K. Rolston, V. I. Mathan, and M. J. C. Farthing. "Serum anti-Giardia IgA in human Giardia lamblia infection." Serodiagnosis and Immunotherapy in Infectious Disease 3, no. 4 (August 1989): 273–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0888-0786(89)90007-3.

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50

Blackwell, Aaron D., Melanie Martin, Hillard Kaplan, and Michael Gurven. "Antagonism between two intestinal parasites in humans: the importance of co-infection for infection risk and recovery dynamics." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 280, no. 1769 (October 22, 2013): 20131671. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.1671.

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Co-infection may affect transmission and recovery from infection, but remains an understudied element of disease ecology, particularly with regard to antagonism between parasites sharing a host. Helminth and giardia infections are often endemic in the same populations and both occupy the small intestine; yet few studies have examined interactions between these parasites. We report on helminth–giardia co-infections in a panel study of forager–horticulturalists in the Bolivian lowlands. Parasites were identified in faecal samples from 3275 participants, collected during 5235 medical exams over 6 years. Longitudinal co-infection patterns were examined using logistic mixed and multi-state Markov models. The most prevalent infections were hookworm (56%), Giardia lamblia (30%) and Ascaris lumbricoides (15%). Cross-sectionally, hookworm and A. lumbricoides were negatively associated with G. lamblia (OR = 0.60; OR = 0.65, respectively). Longitudinally, giardia infection was less likely in helminth-infected individuals (HR: 0.46). Infection with helminths was also less likely for individuals infected with giardia (HR: 0.71). Finally, treatment with mebendazole reduced subsequent hookworm infections, but resulted in a marginal increase in the odds of G. lamblia infection. Our results provide evidence for an antagonistic relationship between helminths and giardia, and suggest that co-infection should be considered in disease transmission models and treatment decisions.