Дисертації з теми "Mandatory rules of public law"

The authors discussed on the alleged utility as well as the drawbacks of the mandatory determination of corporate purpose. They analyze and criticize the required characteristics of the corporate purpose by the Peruvian corporate regulation as well as the alleged benefits of making mandatory its determination. The authors propose the elimination of the obligation to determine the corporate purpose in order to give corporations freedom to configure their economic activity without being limited by an outdated rule.
En el presente artículo, los autores discuten la presunta utilidad como inconvenientes de la obligación de determinar el objeto social. En ese sentido, se analiza las características exigidas al objeto social, como los supuestos beneficios que traería su regulación. Los autores proponen la eliminación de la obligación de determinar el objeto social a fin de permitir a las sociedades configurar libremente su actividad, sin verse limitadas por una norma rígida.

L’autonomie de la volonté est un principe relatif à la liberté des parties quant au choix de la loi applicable au contrat international. Cependant, ce principe est limité par les règles d’ordre public, et plus généralement les dispositions impératives, réduisant l’étendue de cette autonomie. Afin de perfectionner la mise en application de ces règles tout en garantissant une certaine prévisibilité, il s’avère important d’étudier en détail l’origine et la nature des règles d’ordre public. Une étude comparée avec le droit international privé égyptien s’avère nécessaire pour perfectionner les mécanismes actuels. Le débat conceptuel actuel met en évidence le rôle de la coopération internationale, outre les intérêts purement étatiques, ce qui suscitera un nouvel ordre public transnational, voire supranational
The freedom of choice is a principle referring to the freedom of the parties concerning the choice of the law ruling the international contract. However, this principle is limited by public policy, which reduce the extent of this freedom. In order to improve the application of these rules with a minimum of predictability, it is important to study in detail the origin and nature of the rules of public policy. A comparative study with Egyptian private international law is needed to take advantage from all current mechanisms. The current conceptual debate highlights the role of international cooperation, in addition to purely State interests, which will tend to create a new transnational, or even supranational, public policy

Les lois de police sont traditionnellement définies comme des lois dont l’observation est jugée nécessaire pour la sauvegarde de l’organisation politique, sociale et économique du pays. Le juge procède dès lors à leur application immédiate sans même recourir à la règle de conflit de lois. Une telle définition ne permet cependant pas d’identifier avec certitude ce type de normes. Cette recherche entend ainsi proposer un définition du concept des lois de police délimité au regard de l’intérêt public, élément qui a été intégré l’article 9, paragraphe 1 du règlement « Rome I » sur la loi applicable aux obligations contractuelles. Les réflexions menées conduisent ensuite à s’interroger sur les conditions qui permettent de conférer aux lois de police une impérativité dans l’ordre international. Il s’agit alors de rechercher quelle est l’incidence de la considération d’intérêt public dans le traitement de conflits de lois mais aussi des conflits de juridictions
Overriding mandatory provisions is traditionally defined as a provisions the respect for which is regarded as necessary by a country for safeguarding its political, social or economic organisation. Hence, the Courts apply the law of the forum automatically and do not apply their own conflit of rules. Definition is not precise enough to be used accurately. Therefore we propose to define concept of Overriding mandatory provisions focuses on the « Public Interest », which is derived from article 9, paragraph 1 of the regulation on the law applicable to the contractual obligations. In the following lines, we wonder about the mandatory implantation of these rules at the intrenational level. Our aim is to measure the impact of Public Interest in the conflict of laws and in the conflict of jurisdictions

Le droit international privé, tel qu’il résulte des droits nationaux et du droit de l’Unioneuropéenne, accorde une attention particulière aux systèmes juridiques étrangers. L’application de la loiétrangère constitue l’expression de l’importance reconnue aux systèmes juridiques étrangers, mais appliquerune loi qui est extérieure au système juridique du for peut provoquer, du fait de sa différence, des réactionsdéfensives. L’application de la loi étrangère se trouve ainsi confrontée à différents obstacles qui tendent àgarantir une application prioritaire de la lex fori. D’une part, les techniques employées par le systèmejuridique du for pour appliquer la loi étrangère ne lui sont pas favorables, comme en témoigne l’interventionrécurrente de l’exception d’ordre public international. D’autre part, des éléments exogènes au systèmejuridique du for, comme la compréhension différente d’une même institution juridique, peuvent égalementfaire échec à l’application de la loi étrangère. Il existe ainsi un décalage entre la lettre des règles de droitinternational privé du for, qui permettrait d’envisager une application fréquente de la loi étrangère et l’usagequi en est fait par les autorités du système juridique du for, qui mène souvent à sa neutralisation. Cette étudedéfend un meilleur respect de la lettre des règles relatives à l’application de la loi étrangère, qui aurait poureffet de promouvoir ce type d’application. Dans cette perspective, le droit international privé de l’Unioneuropéenne fournit d’importants enseignements, dans la mesure où il dynamise l’application de la loiétrangère appartenant à d’autres Etats membres
The national or the European private international law is taking into a particular accountthe foreign legal systems. The foreign law application is an expression of the attention given to the foreignlegal systems, but applying a law that belongs to a different legal system than the legal system of the forumcountry may provoke a defence reaction caused by the existing differences between the legal systemsinvolved. The foreign law application is therefore confronted to different obstacles that tend to ensure aprimary application of the lex fori. First, the techniques used by the legal system of the forum country toapply the foreign law are not entirely favourable to this kind of application, as evidenced by the recurrentintervention of the international public policy. Furthermore, there are elements that are exogenous to thelegal system of the forum country, such as different understandings of the same legal institution that canobstruct the foreign law application. There is thus a gap between the theory of the private internationalrules, which would appeal a frequent application of the foreign law, and the use that is made of them by theauthorities of the forum country, which often leads to the neutralization of the foreign law. This studydefends a better compliance to the theory of private international law, which would promote the applicationof the foreign law. In this perspective, the private international law of the European Union provides animportant source of « savoir-faire » as it promotes the application of a foreign law belonging to anotherMember States

Abstract  This thesis is concerned with examining the intersection between the areas of international commercial arbitration and money laundering. There are various points of connectivity between the two and the aim of this thesis is to discern how an arbitrator should conduct arbitral proceedings involving money laundering. For this purpose, a few selected topics have been examined. The practical challenges arising out of these topics, as well as the tools available to arbitrators to face them have been analysed in turn. After a brief inquiry into the nature of international commercial arbitration, money laundering and the ways that they come together, the topics of jurisdiction, the norms applicable to the substance of the dispute, and matters of evidence are subject to discussion. In studying these topics, a recurring theme, which goes to the very heart of the intersection between the seemingly odd areas of international commercial arbitration and money laundering, is discernible. In practically all of the challenges that an arbitrator will face when adjudicating a dispute involving money laundering a conflict of interest between the pivotal principle of party autonomy and other interests will arise. These interests originate from the public policy concerns vested in countering money laundering and the criminal law nature of this phenomenon. The tools which the arbitrator deem to be applicable as well as the conduct that he might choose in regards to the topics discussed, very much depend on his perception of the role that international arbitrators ought to assume in this conflict. Keeping these conceptual building blocks in mind the author, whilst examining the relevant legal instrument, case law and legal commentary, reaches the conclusion that arbitral tribunals ought to claim jurisdiction over disputes arising out of contracts tainted by money laundering in the majority of cases. The author also reaches the conclusion that there are other norms than the lex contractus that can be applied to the substance of the dispute and that the willingness to apply them will depend on the attitude of the arbitrator. Similarly, the arbitrator could, and arguably should, investigate the issue of money laundering of his own accord, albeit with a few important reservations. The rules of evidence, especially those of the burden of proof and standard of proof, should be tailored to reflect the nature of the complex offence of money laundering. Finally, the eventual possibility for an international arbitrator to report suspicions of money laundering is touched upon.

La thèse porte sur « L’exécution des sentences arbitrales contre les personnes publiques de l’OHADA ». Elle a pour but de démontrer comment mettre en œuvre ces sentences sans se heurter à l’immunité d’exécution des personnes qui en bénéficient. En effet, en l’absence d’une exception arbitrale, l’interdiction de l’exécution forcée et des mesures conservatoires à l’encontre de ces personnes semble s’étendre à l’exécution forcée des sentences arbitrales contre les personnes publiques de l’OHADA. Or, comme ces dernières, l’immunité d’exécution a également un fondement contractuel ; c’est une règle d’ordre public de protection à laquelle le bénéficiaire peut renoncer. Donc, son application ne serait requise que si son bénéficiaire n’y a pas renoncé. Mais, pour être valable, la renonciation à l’immunité d’exécution doit être expresse, au sens du droit international coutumier, dont fait partie la Convention des Nations Unies sur l’immunité juridictionnelle des Etats et de leurs biens du 2 décembre 2004, applicable en droit OHADA, pour raison de droit. Cette condition de validité de la renonciation pose le problème de l’efficacité des contrats soumis aux règles impératives du droit public ou des conventions et règlements d’arbitrage. Alors, faudrait-il envisager la réécriture des modèles habituels de conventions et règlements d’arbitrage pour y intégrer cette condition ? Cette approche garantirait l’effectivité des sentences arbitrales administratives, sur le fondement de la force obligatoire des contrats (Pacta sunt servenda) et de leur exécution de bonne foi. Aussi, pourrait-on renforcer cette renonciation par la mention de biens affectés à l’activité en cause ou à l’exécution de la sentence qui s’ensuivra sans lien avec l’activité qui y a donné lieu. En tout état de cause, l’immunité d’exécution ne s’oppose ni à l’identification des débiteurs des condamnations pécuniaires des personnes publiques, ni à l’exequatur des sentences arbitrales adm inistratives, ni même à l’exécution volontaire ou spontanée desdites sentences. Ainsi, en dépit de sa conception absolue ou stricte, l’immunité d’exécution de l’OHADA a des limites à l’égard des sentences arbitrales administratives
The thesis focuses on " The execution of arbitral awards against public persons of OHADA ". Its purpose is to demonstrate how to implement these sentences without coming up against the immunity from execution of the persons who benefit from them. Indeed, in the absence of an arbitration exception, the prohibition of forced execution and interim measures against these persons seems to extend to the forced execution of arbitral awards against public persons of the OHADA. However, like the latter, immunity from execution also has a contractual basis ; it is a rule of public order of protection which the beneficiary can waive. Therefore, its application would only be required if its beneficiary has not waived it. However, to be valid, the waiver of immunity from execution must be express, within the meaning of customary international law, of which the United Nations Convention on Jurisdictional Immunity of States and their Property of December 2, 2004 forms part. applicable in OHADA law, for legal reasons. This condition of validity of the waiver poses the problem of the effectiveness of contracts subject to the mandatory rules of public law or arbitration agreements and regulations. So, should we consider rewriting the usual models of arbitration agreements and rules to include this condition ? This approach would guarantee the effectiveness of administrative arbitration awards, based on the binding force of contracts (pacta sunt servenda) and their performance in good faith. Also, this waiver could be reinforced by the mention of property assigned to the activity in question or to the execution of the award which will ensue unrelated to the activity which gave rise to it. In any event, immunity from execution does not preclude either the identification of the debtors of the pecuniary judgments of public persons, nor the exequatur of administrative arbitration awards, nor even the voluntary or spontaneous execution of the said sentences. T hus, despite its absolute or strict design, OHADA immunity from execution has limits with respect to administrative arbitral awards

Les notions d’exception d’ordre public et de lois de police appartiennent au vocabulaire de la théorie générale du droit international privé. Il est légitime de se demander si cette affirmation de principe est illustrée par une comparaison franco-mexicaine. La pertinence d’un tel rapprochement peut paraître suspecte, compte tenu de la participation de la France à un processus plus ou moins fédérateur, du fait de son appartenance à l’Union européenne ; alors que le Mexique s’organise autour d’un « pacte fédéral ». Or, la comparaison retrouve sa pertinence dès lors qu’on observe que le rapport entre l’État-Nation et le droit international privé passe inexorablement par le prisme de la souveraineté et que la France et le Mexique demeurent détenteurs de la souveraineté au plan international. L’analyse se rend possible grâce à l’existence d’un fond historique et d’une culture juridique communes, elle se circonscrit à la matière contractuelle car particulièrement sensible aux mécanismes liés à l’ordre public. Cependant, le droit international privé a évolué depuis l’identification et la construction des grandes catégories que sont l’exception d’ordre public et les lois de police aboutissant à un certain nombre d’affinements dont il faudra vérifier leur orientation. Éléments d’affinement aussi multiples que variés tels que les droits fondamentaux, la protection de la partie faible, le contrôle de constitutionnalité, et la proportionnalité entre autres, font de cette étude l’occasion de mettre en évidence le caractère évolutif des mécanismes liés à l’ordre public en droit international privé
The concepts of public policy and overriding mandatory rules are to be found within the vocabulary of the general theory of conflict of laws. It is legitimate to ask whether this statement of principle can be illustrated by a French-Mexican comparison. The relevance of such a comparison may seem doubtful, given France's participation in a more or less unifying process, due to its membership of the European Union; whereas Mexico, on the other hand, is organized around a "federal pact". However, the comparison remains relevant as we can observe that the relationship between the nation-state and private international law inexorably passes through the prism of sovereignty and that France and Mexico remain masters of their sovereignty at the international level. This analysis is made possible thanks to the existence of a common historical background and a common legal culture, contractual matters are specifically targeted due to their high level of sensitivity to the influence of public policy. However, private international law has evolved since the identification and construction of the broad categories of the public policy and overriding mandatory rules, which have led to a number of developments whose orientation will have to be verified. These specification elements as multiple as they are varied, such as fundamental rights, protection of the weaker party, constitutional review and proportionality, among others, renders this study an opportunity to highlight the evolving nature of mechanisms related to public policy in international private contract law

Le droit international privé français des contrats est très avancé, la richesse de la jurisprudence et la doctrine font une bonne preuve de l'évolution du droit français en la matière. Ses conceptions sont répandues et admises par d'autres États, européens en premier lieu, puis dans le monde entier. Le système de droit français et celui de droit communautaire sont complémentaires l'un et l'autre. Pour cette raison l'étude de droit international privé français ne peut plus être restreinte uniquement dans le cadre de droit international commun. Dés lors le droit international privé communautaire devrait aussifaire l'objet de cette étude. Quant au droit international privé des contrats thaïlandais, il est en cours de développement et a besoin de grande réformation urgent pour la coopération juridique dans l'ASEAN. L'étude comparative en cette matière permettrait donc de trouver la bonne solution et d'apprendre l'application de règles conflictuelles ainsi que d'autres mécanismes du droit international privé pour régler les problèmes dans l'ordre juridique thaï. Donc les questions de la loi applicable et le règlement des différends font l'objet principal de cette étude.

Cette recherche propose un éclairage historique des avatars de deux mécanismes désormais intégrés au système français de droit international privé, celui des « lois de police » et celui de « l’ordre public international », qui ont pour trait commun de s’opposer au jeu normal de la règle de conflit et de s’appuyer, l’un et l’autre, sur l’art. 3, al. 1er du Code civil de 1804. Prévenant par préemption les atteintes à l’utilitas publica vel communis ou y réagissant par éviction de la loi normalement applicable, ces deux types de normes tissent une histoire commune depuis les antécédents que furent les statuts prohibitifs et les statuts territoriaux identifiés par la doctrine romano-canonique médiévale. Adaptés par les juristes de l’Ecole Hollandaise et de l’Ecole Française à l’hypothèse dominante à la fin de l’Ancien Régime des conflits de souverainetés, ceux-ci sont recueillis en 1804 par l’art. 3, al. 1er. Le travail conjoint de la doctrine et de la jurisprudence et une réaction à la notion hybride de « lois d’ordre public » qui émerge au long du siècle suivant permettent leur reformatage en les séparant l’un de l’autre dès le tournant des XIXe et XXe siècles. Le déclin du conflit des souverainetés qui porte à se désintéresser des lois de droit public, voire des lois pénales, et une représentation plus privatiste du conflit de lois qui ne peut cependant méconnaitre l’interventionnisme croissant de l’Etat, confirment la distinction de deux figures appelées à être théorisées sous les concepts de lois de police ou d’application immédiate (promouvant l’utilitas communis) et d’exception d’ordre public (défendant les valeurs fondamentales)
This research aims at shedding light on the historical background of the avatars of two mechanisms now integrated into the French system of private international law: lois de police (i.e. overriding mandatory rules) and (international) ordre public (i.e. public policy). Both share the common feature of opposing the normal interplay of choice-of-law rules and rely on Art. 3, para. 1 of the 1804 Civil Code. Preventing by pre-emption infringements of utilitas publica vel communis or reacting to them by eviction from the normally applicable law, these two types of norms have emerged from a common history beginning with the antecedents of prohibitive and territorial statutes identified by medieval romano-canonical commentators. Then members of the Dutch and French Schools adapted the two concepts to the prevailing hypothesis at the end of the Ancien Régime, that of conflicts of sovereignties. In 1804, lois de police and ordre public were collected in the French Civil Code. Thanks to the joint work of scholars and case law, on the one hand, and to a reaction to the hybrid notion of lois d’ordre public that emerged over the next century, on the other hand, the distinction between the two concepts was made possible at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. As conflict of sovereignties declined, leading to a loss of interest in public law, or even in criminal law, and as a more private-law-driven representation arose, without ignoring, however, growing state interventionism, the distinction has been confirmed between the two concepts: lois de police or d’application immédiate, promoting the utilitas communis, and exception d’ordre public, defending fundamental values

Sandorio, prieštaraujančio imperatyvioms įstatymo normoms, negaliojimas įtvirtinamas tiek Lietuvos, tiek užsienio valstybių nacionalinėje teisėje. Šis negaliojimo pagrindas valstybių nacionaliniuose teisės aktuose, o taip pat ir Europos sutarčių teisėje siejamas su itin svarbių teisės normų pažeidimu, kurių tikslas apsaugoti visos visuomenės mastu reikšmingas vertybes. Sandorio, prieštaraujančio imperatyvioms įstatymo normoms, negaliojimo pagrindas Lietuvos nacionalinėje teisėje įtvirtinamas CK 1.80 straipsnio 1 dalyje. Tai viena iš sutarties laisvės išimčių, nustatytų, siekiant užtikrinti teisėtumą civiliniuose santykiuose, apginti asmens teises ir teisėtus interesus. Sandorio negaliojimas minėtu pagrindu dažniausiai konstatuojamas, esant suinteresuoto asmens prašymui. Be teisės, suteikiamos suinteresuotiems asmenims, teisė ex officio konstatuoti sandorio negaliojimą įtvirtinama teismui, tačiau svarbu, tačiau turi būti nustatyta šio pagrindo taikymui būtina aplinkybių visuma: aplinkybė, kad teisės norma yra imperatyvi, kad ši teisės norma yra pažeista ir, kad pažeidimas lemia sandorio negaliojimą. Europos sutarčių teisėje taip pat atsižvelgiama į pažeidimo pasekmes, sandorio šalių tyčią, pažeidimo rimtumą ir kitas reikšmingas aplinkybes. Teismas, nustatęs šią aplinkybių visumą, t.y., kad sandoris prieštarauja imperatyvioms įstatymo normoms, gali ji pripažinti negaliojančiu ab initio, arba ex nunc, jeigu pagal bylos aplinkybes ab initio sandorio pripažinti negalima. Teismo... [toliau žr. visą tekstą]
Invalidity of transactions contrary to mandatory rules is recognized in European Contract Law, also in national legal systems. Ground of invalidity of the contract contrary to the imperative rules is introduced at Civil code of the Republic of Lithuania paragraph 1.80. This is one of exceptions of contracts freedom set out in order to ensure the legitimacy of civil relations, to protect individual rights and legitimate interests. The mostly transactions contrary mandatory rules are invalidated as a consequence of being concerned person request. In addition despite of the rights granted to persons, the right to invalidate transaction ex officio is provided to court at paragraph 1.78. The using of the right ex-officio invalidate the transaction is based on the obvious invalidity of the transaction. Therefore, the court decision by its own initiative to invalidated contact contrary to the imperative norms can be made only when all the circumstances by which is based the invalidity of the transaction are investigated and determined. When the court finds existing all the circumstances that the transaction infringes the mandatory rules of the law, it may be declared that transaction is void ab initio or ex nunc. Application of court right ex officio invalidate transaction is especially needed when the transaction violated mandatory rules ensuring the needs of society and protecting the public interest. A lot of such rules regulate state-owned land purchase agreements. Infringement... [to full text]

Includes bibliographical references
This thesis is a comparative examination of the application of mandatory rules in the area of the private international law of contracts.] As will be seen during the course of this study, and as will be briefly noted in the following introductory remarks, this question arises in a number of situations. It prompts fundamental issues that have been debated for many years by academics all over the world. Some of the problems are still not fully settled.

Thesis (LLM (Public Law))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010.
Bibliography
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Various types of rules govern many areas of life in a sectional title scheme. The Sectional Titles Act 95 of 1986 prescribes model management and conduct rules in its regulations. Other non-prescribed rules are adopted by either the developers initially or later by the trustees of the body corporate. These rules provide for the control, management, administration, use and enjoyment of the sections and the common property in the scheme. Sectional owners and other occupiers have the entitlements of use and enjoyment of their individual sections and their share in the common property of the sectional title scheme, in proportion to their participation quota. These entitlements are restricted by the rules in operation within the scheme. Although these rules limit the entitlements of sectional owners and other occupiers in the interest of the sectional title community, they may not be unreasonable in their application and effect. In some instances, the application of the rules might exceed the bounds of reasonableness and result in unfair discrimination, arbitrary deprivation, unfair administrative action or restrictions on access to courts for dispute resolution. If certain rules are unreasonable in their application, based on one or more of the abovementioned grounds, the court must interpret the potentially impermissible rules and if the court cannot avoid a declaration of invalidity by implementing a constitutional remedy such as reading-up, reading-down, reading-in or severance, these impermissible rules will need to be substituted, amended or repealed and replaced because they are potentially unconstitutional and invalid. After a statutory and constitutional enquiry into the nature, scope, application, operation and effect of the rules governing sectional title schemes, it can be concluded that the various types of rules governing sectional title schemes restrict and limit sectional owners’ and occupiers’ entitlements of use and enjoyment of their individual sections and share in the common property. However, after being tested against section 25 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996 and other non-property rights entrenched in the Bill of Rights, to determine if the rules are reasonable in their application and constitutionally permissible, it can be seen that the application of the rules do not necessarily amount to arbitrary deprivations of property and that they can be justified in terms of the Constitution because there is sufficient reasons for the particular regulations and they are procedurally fair. The various different types of rules governing sectional title schemes serve as reasonable regulations in as far as they contribute to a harmonious relationship between the trustees of the body corporate and the sectional owners and occupiers as members of the body corporate as well as between the members of the body corporate inter se. The rules serve an important function in this regard. Therefore, they are considered reasonable and constitutionally valid in as far as they do not enforce excessive regulation and as long as they are equally applicable and do not unfairly differentiate in their application.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Verskeie tipes reëls reguleer alledaagse aangeleenthede in ‘n deeltitelskema. Die Wet op Deeltitels 95 van 1986 maak voorsiening vir voorgeskrewe bestuurs- en gedragsreëls in die regulasies. Die ontwikkelaars of die trustees van die regspersoon kan aanvanklik met die stigting van die skema of op ‘n latere stadium addisionele reëls byvoeg wat nie alreeds deur die Wet voorgeskryf is nie. Die reëls maak voorsiening vir die beheer, bestuur, administrasie, gebruik en genot van die eenheid en die gemeenskaplike eiendom in die skema. Die deeleienaars van deeltitelskemas en ander okkupeerders van die skema is geregtig om hulle individuele eenhede sowel as die gemeenskaplike eiendom, in ooreenstemming met hulle deelnemingskwota, te gebruik en geniet; en dit vorm deel van hul inhoudsbevoegdhede. Hierdie inhoudsbevoegdhede word beperk deur die skema se reëls. Afgesien daarvan dat die reëls die deeleienaar en ander okkupeerders se inhoudsbevoegdhede beperk in die belang van die deeltitelgemeenskap, mag die reëls nie onredelik wees in die toepassing daarvan nie. In sommige gevalle kan die toepassing van die reëls die perke van redelikheid oorskry en neerkom op ongeregverdigde diskriminasie, arbitrêre ontneming, ongeregverdigde administratiewe handeling of ‘n beperking plaas op toegang tot die howe met die oog op dispuutoplossing. Indien daar bevind word dat sekere reëls onredelik is in die toepassing daarvan op grond van een of meer van die voorafgemelde gronde, moet die hof artikel 39 van die Grondwet volg en die reël interpreteer om ‘n deklarasie van ongeldigheid te vermy. As die hof dit nie kan vermy deur middel van konstitutusionele remedies soos “op-lesing”, “af-lesing”, “afskeiding” of “in-lesing” nie, sal die reëls gewysig of geskrap en vervang moet word, anders sal die reël ongrondwetlik wees en ongeldig verklaar word. Na afloop van ‘n statutêre en konstitusionele ondersoek ten opsigte van die aard, omvang, toepassing, werking en effek van die reëls wat deeltitelskemas reguleer word daar bevind dat die verskeie tipes reëls wat ‘n deeltitelskema reguleer ‘n beperking plaas op die inhousdbevoegdhede van deeltiteleienaars en ander okkupeerders wat betref die reg om die eenheid sowel as die gemeenskaplike eiendom te gebruik en geniet. Ten einde te bepaal of die reëls redelik in die toepassing daarvan sowel as grondwetlik toelaatbaar is, word dit getoets in terme van artikel 25 van die Grondwet van die Republiek van Suid-Afrika 1996 en ander regte in die Handves van Regte. Daar word bevind dat die toepassing van die reëls nie noodwendig ‘n arbitrêre ontneming van eiendom is nie en dat dit geregverdig kan word in terme van die Grondwet omdat daar voldoende redes vir die spesifieke regulasies is en omdat dat hulle prosedureel billik is. Die verskeie tipes reëls wat ‘n deeltitelskema reguleer dien as redelike regulasies sover dit bydra tot ‘n harmonieuse verhouding tussen die trustees van die regspersoon, die deeltiteleienaars en die okkupeerders as lede van die regspersoon sowel as tussen die lede van die regspersoon inter se. Die reëls het ‘n belangrike funksie in hierdie verband. Die reëls word geag redelik en grondwetlik geldig te wees sover dit nie buitensporige regulasies afdwing nie, gelyk toegepas word en daar nie ongeregverdig gedifferensieer word in die toepassing daarvan nie.

Each state and territory within the United States is required by the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act [42 U.S.C. 5101 et seq.] to maintain a mandatory suspected child abuse and neglect reporting law, requiring certain professionals who regularly see children to report any suspicions of child maltreatment to child protective services. It is well documented that mandatory reporters fail to report each case of suspected child maltreatment they witness. This study sought to determine whether differences in three specific variables within the mandatory report laws had an effect on the frequency with which medical personnel report suspected child abuse and neglect. The three variables analyzed were: definitional scope of emotional abuse; standard of knowledge required for a report; and severity of penalty imposed on those who knowingly fail to report cases of child abuse and neglect. Data was obtained from the Child Maltreatment 2006 annual report printed by the Health and Human Services Administration of Children, Youth and Families. Of the three variables assessed, only severity of penalty yielded a significant association with report rate. States with lower report rates were significantly more likely to have lenient penalties for failure to report compared with those who had report rates above the national average (O.R. = 5.0, 95% C.I. = 1.165-21.465). It is recommended that states consider increasing the severity of the sanctions enforced for failure to report suspected child abuse and neglect. Although standard of knowledge requirements were not significantly associated with report rates, the literature suggests that standardization of this portion of the mandatory report laws could improve report rates, particularly among physicians.

Thesis (LLD)--Stellenbosch University, 2012.
Includes bibliography
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The existential crisis of the international regime of criminal law is arguably a thing of the past. This is confirmed through a growing body of positive law and the existence of various international criminal courts, notably the permanent International Criminal Court which has been in operation since 2002. Moreover, it is significant that international criminal law (“ICL”) is developing towards increased domestic enforcement, in particular as a result of the complementarity regime envisioned by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. States have generally been receptive and cooperative towards international criminal norms as well as the structures of international criminal justice. As a result international criminal laws are increasingly being transformed into national law and enforced by states on the domestic level. Chapter 2 provides an overview of the abovementioned developments, the characteristics of ICL and certain key concepts. In lieu of the upward trajectory of ICL’s development, the thesis aims to determine whether ICL exerts an influence which holds ‘transformative value’. Chapter 3 unpacks this concept by delineating the different meanings afforded to transformation and identifying the reticent characteristics of transformative change, especially the underlying importance of values during processes of transformation. Transformative value is conceptualised broadly as the product and potential of the type of change that holds some utility for the civitas maxima (or the community of mankind). In Part II, ICL’s transformative value is investigated from a historical and global perspective with emphasis on the purposes, values and politics of international criminal justice. Chapter 4 focuses on the Nuremberg IMT and the trial of Adolf Eichmann. It is submitted that these trials produced a paradigm shift that represents the transformative foundation of modern ICL. Chapter 5 investigates the purposes and aspirations of modern ICL with reference to its underlying assumptions as well as its objectives, the latter which may be found in positive law and the jurisprudence of international criminal courts. The research suggests that ICL is disposed towards objectives which are unique in comparison to those of domestic criminal law. While it cannot be denied that punishment under ICL is predominantly a backward-looking exercise in the tradition of domestic criminal law retributivism, ICL is somewhat removed from this paradigm due to its purpose- and value-driven nature. ICL is also expressive, normative and forward-looking in various respects. Individual criminal liability is however not universally accepted as an appropriate response to collective violence. This is partly a result of ICL’s endemic political dependency. Chapter 6 addresses the impact of politics on ICL’s transformative value. ICL is closely associated with liberal-legalist ideals which essentially promote the interests of individuals. Although it constitutes an important element of ICL’s transformative value, this political influence exposes ICL to criticism and may exert a disruptive influence on its transformative mandate. In this latter respect it is noted that ICL remains somewhat controversial and subject to the general limitations of the decentralised and state-dominated international legal system. In Part III, ICL’s transformative value is investigated using South Africa as a case study, with particular reference to its transitional- and post-transitional periods. Chapter 7 provides a domestic perspective of ICL’s transformative value by investigating the interactions of ICL and the South African legal system, particularly the value of the transformation of ICL into national law. In this regard the impact of Constitutional provisions and national legislation pertaining to ICL are considered, as well as a number of cases related to matters of international criminal justice. It is argued that international criminal norms may promote human values over state authority and political interests in the domestic context. Domestic courts may serve as ‘engine rooms’ for transformative change through more effective enforcement of those international criminal norms that have been ‘transformed’ into national law through implementation legislation. The permeation of international criminal norms into the domestic sphere represents a foray of universal values into an area traditionally dominated by sovereign might and holds potential for promoting the interests of individuals as well as for the institutionalisation of human rights. Yet, as illustrated by the current rift between the ICC and the African Union, international and regional political affiliations may influence the ability of a state to meet its obligations towards international criminal justice. In Part IV (Chapter 8), it is submitted that ICL is historically and ontologically aimed at change that is both backward-looking (repressive) and forward-looking (normative) as well as beneficial in a communitarian sense. ICL’s transformative value derives from the value-and purpose-driven nature of international criminal norms, the political nature of international criminal justice and also from the interaction between international law and domestic legal systems. ICL may be viewed as an authoritative expression of the norms and values of the international community. As such, ICL and its institutions may be viewed not only as a means of punishing the perpetrators of international crime, but also as part of the spearhead towards a desired alternative to the historical and present reality characterised by injustices which have gone unabated under the system of traditional Westphalian sovereignty. As egregious forms of the aforementioned injustices, macro criminality and impunity undermine the protection of internationally recognised individual rights. ICL seeks to remedy this through impacting on those individuals that have not yet acceded to the emergent universal consciousness of the majority in the international community. It is further argued that ICL’s transformative impact is not confined to the “hard” impact of the application of substantive ICL in international and domestic courts. The international criminal justice system as a whole also produces a normative impact through a purpose-driven association with international values and certain political preferences. This thesis offers a new way of thinking about the value, potential and limitations of the ICL regime, as well as the role of politics in international criminal justice.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die eksistensiële krisis van die internasionale strafregbestel is stellig iets van die verlede. Dít word bevestig deur die toenemende hoeveelheid positieweregsmateriaal en die bestaan van verskeie internasionale strafhowe, in die besonder die permanente Internasionale Strafhof wat sedert 2002 in werking is. Daarbenewens is dit beduidend dat internasionale strafreg (hierna ‘ISR’) na binnelandse toepassing begin verskuif, bepaald as gevolg van die komplementariteitsregime wat die Rome Statuut van die Internasionale Strafhof beoog. State is oor die algemeen ontvanklik vir, en tegemoetkomend jeens, internasionale strafnorme sowel as die strukture van internasionale strafregspleging. Gevolglik word internasionale strafwette al hoe meer tot in nasionale wette getransformeer en binnelands deur state toegepas. Hoofstuk 2 bied ’n oorsig van bogenoemde ontwikkelings, die kenmerke van ISR en bepaalde kernbegrippe. In die lig van die opwaartse ontwikkelingstrajek van ISR, het dié tesis ten doel om te bepaal of die invloed wat ISR uitoefen, oor ‘transformasiewaarde’ beskik. Hoofstuk 3 ondersoek hierdie begrip deur die verskillende betekenisse van transformasie uiteen te sit en die versweë kenmerke van transformerende verandering, veral die onderliggende belang van waardes in die transformasieproses, te bepaal. Transformasiewaarde word in die breë verstaan as die produk en potensiaal van die soort verandering wat een of ander nut het vir die civitas maxima (of die gemeenskap van die mensdom). In deel II word die transformasiewaarde van ISR uit ’n historiese en internasionale hoek ondersoek, met die klem op die doel, waardes en politiek van internasionale strafregspleging. Hoofstuk 4 konsentreer op die Neurenberg- internasionale militêre tribunaal en die verhoor van Adolf Eichmann. Daar word aangevoer dat hierdie verhore ’n paradigmaverskuiwing teweeggebring het wat die transformerende grondslag van moderne ISR gelê het. Hoofstuk 5 verken die doelwitte en aspirasies van moderne ISR aan die hand van die onderliggende aannames en oogmerke daarvan. Laasgenoemde is te vinde in die positiewe reg en regsleer van internasionale strafhowe. Die navorsing doen aan die hand dat die oogmerke van ISR uniek is in vergelyking met dié van binnelandse strafreg. Hoewel straf ingevolge ISR onteenseglik ’n hoofsaaklik terugblikkende oefening in die vergeldingstradisie van nasionale strafreg is, is ISR tog ietwat verwyderd van hierdie paradigma vanweë die doel- en waardegedrewe aard daarvan. ISR is in baie opsigte ook ekspressief, normatief en toekomsgerig. Individuele strafregtelike aanspreeklikheid word egter nie allerweë as ’n toepaslike reaksie op kollektiewe geweld aanvaar nie. Dít is deels ’n gevolg van die endemiese politieke afhanklikheid van ISR. Hoofstuk 6 handel derhalwe oor die impak van politiek op die transformasiewaarde van ISR. ISR hou ten nouste verband met liberaal-legalistiese ideale wat in wese individue se belange bevorder. Hoewel dit ’n belangrike element van die ISR-transformasiewaarde uitmaak, stel hierdie politieke invloed ISR ook bloot aan kritiek, en kan dit ’n ontwrigtende uitwerking op die transformasiemandaat daarvan hê. In dié verband word daarop gelet dat ISR ietwat omstrede bly, sowel as onderworpe aan die algemene beperkinge van die gedesentraliseerde en staatsoorheerste internasionale regstelsel. In deel III word die transformasiewaarde van ISR aan die hand van Suid-Afrika as gevallestudie ondersoek, met bepaalde verwysing na die oorgangs- en na-oorgangstydperke van die land. Hoofstuk 7 bied ’n binnelandse beskouing van die transformasiewaarde van ISR deur ondersoek in te stel na die wisselwerking tussen ISR en die Suid-Afrikaanse regstelsel, veral die waarde van die transformasie van ISR tot in die nasionale reg. In hierdie verband word daar besin oor die impak van grondwetlike bepalings en nasionale wetgewing met betrekking tot ISR, sowel as ’n aantal hofsake in verband met aangeleenthede van internasionale strafregspleging. Daar word aangevoer dat internasionale strafnorme in binnelandse verband straks mensewaardes bo staatsgesag en politieke belange bevorder. Binnelandse howe dien moontlik as ‘enjinkamers’ vir transformerende verandering, deur daardie internasionale strafnorme wat deur inwerkingstellingswetgewing tot in die nasionale reg ‘getransformeer’ is, doeltreffender toe te pas. Die deurdringing van internasionale strafnorme tot in die binnelandse sfeer stel ’n verskeidenheid universele waardes bekend op ’n gebied wat tradisioneel deur soewereine mag oorheers is, en hou potensiaal in vir die bevordering van individuele belange sowel as vir die institusionalisering van menseregte. Soos die huidige skeuring tussen die Internasionale Strafhof en die Afrika-unie egter toon, kan internasionale en streek- politieke bande ’n invloed hê op ’n staat se vermoë om sy verpligtinge teenoor internasionale strafregspleging na te kom. In deel IV (hoofstuk 8) word aangevoer dat ISR histories en ontologies afgestem is op terugblikkende (onderdrukkende) én toekomsgerigte (normatiewe) verandering, sowel as verandering wat een of ander gemeenskapsvoordeel inhou. Die transformasiewaarde van ISR spruit uit die waarde- en doelgedrewe aard van internasionale strafnorme, die politieke aard van internasionale strafregspleging, sowel as die wisselwerking tussen internasionale reg en binnelandse regstelsels. ISR kan as ’n gesaghebbende openbaring van die internasionale gemeenskap se norme en waardes beskou word. As sodanig, is ISR en die instellings daarvan nie net ’n middel om die plegers van internasionale misdaad te straf nie, maar ook deel van die strewe na ’n wenslike alternatief vir die historiese én huidige realiteit, wat gekenmerk word deur onregte wat ongebreideld onder die stelsel van tradisionele Wesfaalse soewereiniteit voortduur. Makrokriminaliteit en strafloosheid, synde uiterste vorme van voormelde onregte, ondermyn die beskerming van internasionaal erkende individuele regte. ISR beoog om dít reg te stel deur ’n invloed uit te oefen op daardie individue wat nóg nie die ontluikende universele bewustheid van die meerderheid in die internasionale gemeenskap openbaar nie. Daar word voorts betoog dat die transformerende impak van ISR nie tot die ‘harde’ impak van die toepassing van substantiewe ISR in internasionale en binnelandse howe beperk is nie. Die stelsel van internasionale strafregspleging in die geheel het ook ’n normatiewe impak deur middel van ’n doelgedrewe verbondenheid aan internasionale waardes en bepaalde politieke voorkeure. Hierdie tesis bied ’n nuwe denkwyse oor die waarde, potensiaal en beperkings van die ISR-bestel, sowel as die rol van politiek in internasionale strafregspleging.
Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin for financial support
Stellenbosch University for financial support

xvii, 232 p. : ill. A print copy of this thesis is available through the UO Libraries. Search the library catalog for the location and call number.
Beginning in the 1970s, states adopted sentencing reforms as a response to a growing number of concerns in the criminal justice system. These reforms included sentencing guidelines, statutory presumptive sentencing, determinate sentencing, truth in sentencing, and three strikes laws. Each reform has become an important part of the judicial system. These "fixed" reforms shifted sentencing from the indeterminate-rehabilitation sentencing model to a more predetermined-deterrence model. The reforms' main purpose is to limit judicial discretion by insuring convicted felons receive a reasonably standard sentence depending on the crime they committed. Few studies have attempted to systematically answer the question of whether these reforms produced the outcomes stated by their supporters. This analysis utilizes a social chain theory, which suggests the socio-political context of the law and order movement interacted with structural-procedural changes in the justice system that led to unintended consequences. The study assesses the effects of sentencing reforms on shifts in year-to-year changes in general incarceration rates, changes in the racial/ethnic composition of imprisonment, and changes in the gender composition of imprisonment. It also assesses the social, political, and demographic characteristics of states that change the rate of adoption of sentencing reforms across all 50 states from the years 1965 to 2008 on the aggregate state level. This study finds, counter to most previous findings, that sentencing reforms are associated with higher rates of imprisonment. The results further suggest mechanisms are at work that unintentionally "target" historically disadvantaged groups, perpetuating inequalities within the criminal justice system instead of easing them. This result is counter to some of the policies' stated goals. Conversely, the results suggest that drug arrest rates and not sentencing reforms are associated with the narrowing gender gap in imprisonment. Finally, the results indicate that state-level characteristics are important in predicting which states will adopt sentencing reforms. From a policy perspective, rapid changes in the composition of imprisonment can be a logistical and financial burden, and these results shed light onto the specific mechanisms causing a portion of the change. This dissertation includes previously unpublished co-authored material.
Committee in charge: Robert O Brien, Chairperson, Sociology; Jean Stockard, Member, Planning Public Policy & Mgmt; James Elliott, Member, Sociology; Hill Walker, Outside Member, Special Education and Clinical Sciences

Objective: To determine the demographic, economic, geographic, and health infrastructure factors related to the percentage of students by school who comply with state-mandated dental screenings in Iowa. Methods: An exploratory, cross-sectional study was conducted, utilizing secondary data sources from the Iowa Department of Public Health, the Iowa Department of Education, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture, to examine factors related to dental screening compliance rates for public school kindergarteners in Iowa (AY year 2014-15). Both school-level and county-level factors were considered. A ninety percent student compliance rate was established as the criteria for a school to satisfy the threshold for being compliant with screening requirement. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were conducted to evaluate the relationship of the independent variables on whether the schools satisfactorily met the criteria for compliance. Results: Fifty-six percent of the 504 schools included in the study satisfactorily met the established criteria. Schools located in dental health professional shortage areas or in urban adjacent areas were more likely to have a greater percentage of kindergarten students exceed the 90% compliance threshold (p<0.05). Schools where a greater percentage of students were screened by a dentist or where larger populations of children were eligible for free or reduced price lunch (FRPL) (≥40%) were less likely to meet the compliance threshold. Conclusions: Schools with more lower income students, those in metro areas, and those with a higher reliance on dentists performing the oral health screenings could benefit from targeted efforts to improve compliance with mandated dental screenings.

Dans un contexte où le recours au mécanisme des lois de police apparaît de plus en plus fréquent et facilité sur le plan des conflits de lois, la perte d’impérativité que connaissent ces dispositions du fait des solutions libérales retenues sur le plan des conflits de juridictions, conduit à s’interroger sur la possibilité d’apporter des correctifs. En droit positif, l’admission généralisée des clauses de prorogation de for, étatique et arbitral, malgré l’applicabilité d’une loi de police, associée à un système de reconnaissance pratiquement automatique des jugements étrangers et des sentences arbitrales au stade du contentieux de l’exequatur, conduit à rendre ces dispositions globalement semi-nécessaires dans les rapports internationaux. Alors que la mise en œuvre des lois de police devant un for étatique étranger ou arbitral apparaît très incertaine et que la violation de ces dispositions ne fait pas obstacle à la reconnaissance d’un jugement ou d’une sentence qui les aurait négligées, les clauses de prorogation de for apparaissent comme des instruments à la disposition des parties pour se livrer au forum shopping et contourner les impérativités étatiques. Cette solution, paradoxale et peu satisfaisante, compte tenu de l’importance et de la nature des intérêts par principe mis en cause à travers ces dispositions, incite à envisager une solution permettant de restaurer l’impérativité des lois de police dans les conflits de juridictions. Dès lors que ce résultat apparaît comme la conséquence du maintien du principe traditionnel de l’indépendance des compétences législative et juridictionnelle malgré le lien existant entre forum et jus en matière de lois de police, ce constat conduit à s’interroger sur la possibilité de déroger exceptionnellement à ce principe pour consacrer un forum legis impératif et exclusif, fondé sur l’applicabilité d’une telle disposition. Cette solution, restaurant efficacement l’impérativité des lois de police dans leur for d’origine, devrait néanmoins être associée à la mise en place d’un mécanisme de coordination des systèmes permettant de prolonger son efficacité devant les fors étrangers. Il pourrait trouver ses fondements dans certains procédés préexistants, susceptibles d’être adaptés à la réalisation de l’objectif de protection des impérativités étatiques poursuivis. La mise en place de différents mécanismes, apparentés à celui du forum non conveniens, fondés sur un système de coopération interjuridictionnelle ou inspirés de la méthode de référence à l’ordre juridique compétent envisagée par P. Picone, pourrait permettre d’assurer, à l’étranger, le respect des lois de police du for dans des hypothèses différentes. De manière transversale, la restauration de l’impérativité des lois de police pourrait être assurée grâce à un recours à la notion d’ordre juridique prépondérant. Désignant un ordre juridique dont une loi de police mettant directement en cause un intérêt étatique réellement fondamental serait applicable au fond du litige, elle devrait pouvoir fonder la reconnaissance de la vocation plus forte de celui-ci à faire valoir ses vues pour la résolution d’un litige. Elle pourrait fonder à la fois la revendication de compétence juridictionnelle prioritaire de celui-ci pour trancher le différend et un effacement des fors étrangers pour faire prévaloir le point de vue qu’il retient. Une telle solution, étroitement délimitée et justifiée au regard de l’importance des intérêts mis en cause, assurerait une solution satisfaisante permettant à la fois d’articuler harmonieusement la poursuite de la politique libérale qui s’impose dans les conflits de juridictions avec le respect des lois de police et de réconcilier la protection des impérativités étatiques avec la coordination des systèmes
In times of mandatory provisions becoming more and more prevalent, based on conflict of law, the concept of mandatory enforcement appears to be somehow diluted regarding the liberal solutions found in conflicts of jurisdictions. In positive law, mandatory rules do not prevent the enforcement of a forum clause, no more than they are considered during the enforcement stage of decisions. While the application of these rules before foreign courts and arbitrators is very uncertain and does not raise obstacles to the recognition of foreign judgments or arbitral judgment which overlook them, choice of forum clauses has become an instrument of forum shopping in order to avoid mandatory regulations. This solution paradoxically induces a search for a solution to restore there international imperativity. This result has appeared as a consequence of the principle of separation of conflicts of law and conflicts of jurisdictions. That observation leads to ask questions about the possibility of an exemption to this general principle. Indeed, this encourages to consider the possibility to admit a correlation between forum and jus in order to establish imperative and exclusive competence, based on the applicability of such mandatory rules. This forum legis would require to maintain the litigation in its courts and could ensure their application in international relations. However, unilateralism that governs rules of judicial competence should involve the establishment of a mechanism of different legal systems coordination. Depending on the type of mandatory rules concerned, it could be based on an adapted form of forum non conveniens, on international judicial Co-operation processes, or be inspired by the method of reference to the competent legal order envisaged by P. Picone. The deployment of these solutions could be based on using preponderant state notion, that would be the one with the most widely public policy involved. It would lead to the recognition of the strong vocation of it to assert its views for the resolution of a dispute and would justify both the priority jurisdiction of its courts and circumspection of the other jurisdictional authorities to exercise their competence. Such a solution, tightly defined and justified in view of the importance of the interests involved, would provide a satisfactory solution to both harmoniously articulate the pursuit of liberal politics required in conflicts of jurisdictions with respect of public policy, and reconcile the protection of imperativities with the coordination of legal systems

L'opera esamina l'intervento pubblico nella gestione del rapporto di lavoro sotto il profilo storico e giuridico nelle tre fasi d'instaurazione, gestione e cessazione del rapporto. Si valorizza anche il ruolo specifico dei tre poteri legislativo, esecutivo e giudiziario, con particolare riguardo all'analisi sistematica del diritto amministrativo del lavoro. L'opera intende porre in luce gli elementi logici, giuridici ed assiologici di questo ramo del diritto del lavoro, per ricondurne le fattispecie esaminate ad un sistema coerente e razionale e per suggerirne sia un metodo d'analisi de iure condito sia una prospettiva per una lettura ed una proposta de iure condendo.
This work analyses how public powers affects labour relationships both from the historical and the juridical points of view. The three main phases of labour relationships beginning, management and end are examined separately. The specific contributions by the three public powers legislative, administrative and judiciary especially by the public administration, are also dealt with. The goal is to illustrate the logical, juridical and ethical elements of this branch of the labour law, in order to build a rational system for both the analysis de iure condito and the debate de iure condendo.

The right to collectively negotiate salaries afforded to Public Employees has been a longstanding controversy in our country. Especially, in the light of the prohibitions established by Budget Laws. However, this conflict has been recently resolved by the Constitutional Court. This decision marks a fundamental landmark for Labor Law because it crystallizes the right of public employee to collectively bargain salaries with the State. In this article, the author recount the path travelled by the Constitutional Court in this field, that is, from the absolute prohibitions to a reasonable restriction in the pursue to achieve balance between this right and the public interest at stake.
El derecho de los trabajadores públicos de negociar colectivamente sus salarios ha sido una controversia de larga data en nuestro país. En especial, a la luz de las prohibiciones establecidas por las normas presupuestales. Sin embargo, este conflicto ha sido resuelto recientemente por el Tribunal Constitucional. Esta sentencia marca un hito fundamental en el derecho laboral colectivo, pues ha cristalizado el derecho de los trabajadores de la Administración Pública a negociar colectivamente sus salarios con el Estado. En el presente artículo, el autor realiza un recuento del camino transitado por el Tribunal Constitucional en este campo, esto es, desde la absoluta prohibición hasta la restricción razonable de este derecho en su afán por conciliarlo con el interés público en juego.

Le cœur de la problématique relative aux normes non directement applicables réside dans le caractère extrêmement réducteur du raisonnement suivant : la norme est trop imprécise ou n’a pas pour objet de régir la situation juridique, elle ne peut donc pas être appliquée à une espèce sur laquelle elle n’a, par elle-même, aucun effet juridique, par conséquent le justiciable ne saurait s’en prévaloir au soutien de ses prétentions et elle doit être exclue du débat juridictionnel. L’étude commence par une analyse de la démarche d’identification de leur absence d’applicabilité directe. La logique commande de vérifier ensuite si ce caractère a pour corollaire une spécificité du régime juridique des règles : l’applicabilité correspond à une application directe aux autorités publiques et l’absence d’invocabilité de ces norme correspond à leur absence d’application directe aux individus. Or, la justiciabilité des normes non directement applicables est, en réalité, à géométrie tout aussi variable que leurs effets juridiques. Aussi est-il important d’en découvrir les raisons tant théoriques que pratiques, et de proposer d’y apporter quelques aménagements
Invocabilité Non self-executing rules don’t generally effect, of themselves, the object to be accomplished or the people’s condition, but they are carried into execution by the public authorities of the state. Regarded as political questions by thejudges, they can’t be invoked before court : the legislature must execute them before they can become “actual” rules for the judges. The study begins with a search on the criteria that distinguish self-executing and non self-executing rules. It is thennecessary to analyse the consequences of such a qualfication on the way those rules effect the public authorities, responsible for they enforcement. They don’t operate of themselves without an implementation act, and are therefore conceived as rules adressing themselves to the political powers and not to the judges. There is a direct link that binds the state’s authorities to non self-executing rules, whereas the link between those and the people is indirect. This indirect nature manifests itself in the lack of justiciability, to which this thesis tries to find explanations and solutions

The existence of the oath in the courtroom can be traced back thousands of years throughout history, but the use, meaning, and effect of the oath in law has changed dramatically. The oath as we know it was once a powerful truth-telling instrument that our ancestors used to call upon a higher power. It was the belief of many that the oath itself was not sworn to man or state, but rather directly to a deity. The oath has since then evolved as a result of ever changing beliefs, fueled by increasing tolerance, shaping the oath into more of a tradition, and less of an edict. For centuries, theorists have attempted to determine whether an oath in court is actually effective at accomplishing its goal. The intent of this thesis is to examine the origin of the oath all the way up to the present day. It will be through a comprehensive study of federal law, state law, case law, articles, and publications that we will better understand the oath as a truth-telling instrument that in recent times has lost its effect. From there, it will be possible to better form a solution to a problem that plagues our courtrooms: perjury, or the act of lying under oath. This thesis will seek to establish the best way for our community to actively work towards ensuring the integrity and effectiveness of our judicial system.
B.A. and B.S.
Bachelors
Health and Public Affairs
Legal Studies

Harming the dignity of the learner; refusing to hear his side of the story; neglecting to help him retrieve his stolen property : such are the unfortunate occurrences at many South African schools, and such are the experiences that have led to this research. Dedicated educators sometimes default, leaving their wronged learners out m the cold. The questions are therefore: • What causes this conduct of educators and why does it recur? • Is it ignorance of their legal position? • Is it insensitivity to common law principles and statutory provisions? • Is it sheer carelessness? Mindful of the introduction of the South African Constitution Act 108 of 1996, wh1ch contains the long-awaited Bill of Fundamental Rights, this study has been undertaken to give an educational-juridical perspective of the educator-learner relationship 1n South African public schools by means of a literature study and an elementary legal comparative study. Various legal terms which influence the educator-learner relationship significantly are defined. In conjunction with the private law status of the learner, the position of the learner within the school system, and the fundamental rights of the learner in the context of the administration of justice are identified and dealt with in so far as they have any bearing on the educator-learner relationship, Moreover, the legal determinants of the educator-learner relationship and the educator's duty of care are pinpointed to determine their significance in an accountable, responsive and open educator-learner relationship, A comparative school law perspective of the sources of school law, the duties and responsibilities of educators, the fundamental rights and legal obligations of the learner, the educator's duty of care, discipline and legal liability in England and Wales, Canada, Japan, and South Africa is presented in terms of similarities and differences, Attention is paid to the necessity of informing educators and learners concerning their respective rights and duties, in order to develop accountable, responsive and open educator-learner relationships in South African schools,
Thesis (Ph.D.)--Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education, 2000

La présente thèse a pour objet de démontrer que la conception du droit de Jean Domat (1625-1696) constitue une issue au positivisme juridique dominant aujourd'hui. Ce dernier fait obstacle à toute interrogation philosophique, n'a pas pu s'opposer à des débordements totalitaristes et contribue à une prolifération des textes qui mène à l'éclatement du lien social. Une pensée sur le droit aujourd'hui doit être facile à concevoir, toujours présente ; il faut qu'elle puisse se sentir dans l'action. Elle doit aussi animer tout le droit, privé comme public et permettre un contrôle complet des règles venant du pouvoir par les membres et responsables de la société, et être partageable par tous, de quelques croyances, religions et opinions qu'ils soient, pour éviter les critiques communautariennes. Il lui faut enfin être issue de l'examen du droit lui-même plutôt qu'être déduite d'une doctrine imposée, être capable de faire obstacle aux déviances politiques et enfin être logique dans ses développements pour être acceptée. Jean Domat découvre que le droit est animé par deux principes :"Nous ne devons pas faire à autrui ce que nous n'aimerions pas qu'autrui nous fasse ; nous devons faire à autrui ce que nous aimerions qu'autrui nous fasse". Ces principes répondent à ces critères. Il reconstruit et présente le droit privé d'une part, et le droit public d'autre part, en montrant comment ils s'organisent selon ces deux principes. Il démontre par une présentation réussie de tout le droit privé que les relations de droit entre particuliers peuvent dans le détail être toutes régies par ces deux principes. Il fait voir également comment l'action politique du Prince peut et doit être conduite par eux. Le Prince est soumis comme quiconque à ces exigences et ne dispose pas de prérogative particulière. Enfin, Jean Domat pose que le sujet n'a pas à obéir à une loi qui ne serait pas conforme à ces principes. Nous montrons que sa pensée, qui a été oubliée, présente une profonde nouveauté tant à son époque que dans le débat contemporain et permet de redonner sens au droit
This doctoral thesis aims to demonstrate that the conception of the law developed by Jean Domat (1625-1696) constitutes an alternative to legal positivism, which is the dominant approach today. Legal positivism impedes any philosophical interrogation; it was unable to oppose totalitarian excesses, and it contributes to the multiplication of texts, which disrupts social cohesion. A theory of the law today should be pervasive and easy to conceptualize. This theory needs to be action-oriented. It needs to inspire all spheres of the Law, be it private law or public law, and should be designed to place all rules imposed by the government under the complete control of the members and leaders of society. This thought should be shareable by everyone, regardless of creed, religion and opinion, hence avoiding communautarian criticism. Moreover, this theory needs to be the result of an examination of the Law itself rather than being deducted from an imposed doctrine. It needs to be able to stand in the way of political abuses and be logical in its developments to be accepted. Jean Domat discovered that the Law is inspired by two principles: “we shall not do to others what we would not like others do to us; we shall do to others what we would like others do to us”. Both principles are in line with the above-mentioned criteria. Jean Domat reconstructs and presents both private law and public law, and shows that they are organized according to these two principles. He presents the whole of private law and demonstrates that the details of the legal relationships between private individuals are all be governed by these two principles. He also shows that they can and should inspire the political action of the Prince. The Prince does not have any particular status: he is subjected to these requirements, as everybody else. Finally, Jean Domat postulates that a subject does not have to obey a law that is not in conformity with these principles. In this doctoral thesis, I show that his thought, that has been forgotten, is highly original for his time. It is also of high relevance in contemporary debate, as it can help us give some new meaning to the law. sunti as doles dolorisintur a consedi de voluptatur molorporum audae voluptio perferovid quiaerferum aut digendus consedi

L'administration pénitentiaire française connaît, depuis plusieurs années, d'importantes mutations vis-à-vis de ses missions, qui tendent vers une externalisation et de son personnel. l'amélioration de la réinsertion des détenus est devenue un impératif majeur, surtout en ce qui concerne les mineurs incarcérés, en vue de réduire les risques de récidive. il s'agit d'expliquer et de qualifier ces changements correspondants à un besoins d'adaptation de cette administration envers l'évolution de la population carcérale, tout en améliorant ses relations avec les autres organismes publics (le ministère de l'education nationale notamment) afin de confirmer la politique de décloisonnement et de partenariat, suivie par l'administration pénitentiaire. cette étude tentera également de dresser un premier bilan concernant les efforts fournis par cette administration publique dans le cadre particulier des établissements pénitentiaires pour mineurs
The correctional institution is experiencing a profound process of modernization under the influence of European and constitutional law, which tends to assign to it all the characteristics of a public service and significantly adds to the law of enforcement of sentences.This normative development, under the control of an administrative judge, has introduced the basis of a genuine legal status for minors as coerced users of this public service. Efforts carried out by the penitentiary administration in the aim of establishing detention rules that apply and are adjusted to the different categories of prison population, and particularly to minors, are changing the traditional/classic conception of the prison‟s missions.The specificity of detention rules, as confirmed by the creation of detention facilities for minors and the search for a legal status for the minor inmate, is endorsed by the opening up of the penitentiary administration and the building of partnerships with other institutional actors.The mobilization of new resources constitutes a fundamental axe in the preparation of the social rehabilitation of minors, in their own best interest and benefit. The issues around the correctional framing in the objective to define the administrative status of the minor inmate lead to double angled analysis: the fixing of the foundations of prison law applicable to minors, and the application of this law which illustrates the need for an adaptation of the penitentiary action when it comes to minors

L’interaction du droit de l’Union européenne avec le droit international privé se manifeste avec une acuité particulière en matière de lois de police, continuant et renouvelant les discussions suscitées par celles-ci. La promotion des intérêts de l’Union européenne par ce mécanisme de DIP peut être facilement observée. Il reste que des questions peuvent surgir quant à l’aménagement, dans les systèmes juridiques nationaux, de l’articulation des lois de police de source nationale et européenne. Le transfert de certaines compétences des Etats membres vers l’Union, le rapprochement des législations des Etats membres ou le poids plus important accordé aux raisonnements et aux intérêts européens au moment de la qualification mettent en lumière une catégorie « lois de police » avec des contours nouveaux. La mise en oeuvre des lois de police porte, elle aussi, l’empreinte de l’influence du droit de l’Union européenne. L’intégration des données liées à la réalisation du marché intérieur entraîne une perturbation significative du mécanisme traditionnel des lois de police, accompagnée d’une diminution de l’efficacité de ces normes dans les relations entre les Etats membres. L’objectif de création, au sein de l’Union, d’un espace de liberté, de sécurité et de justice s’est matérialisé par la mise en place de corps de règles européennes de DIP dans diverses matières. La méthode des lois de police en ressort transformée, suite tant à la prise de position directe du législateur européen sur les conditions de son intervention, qu’en raison des évolutions enregistrées par d’autres méthodes concurrentes de droit international privé
The interaction between the European Union law and the private international law is particularly acute in the field of internationally mandatory rules, maintaining and renewing the debate which always accompanied this kind of norms. If the internationally mandatory rules occupy a special place in the European legislation, being an extremely effective tool of European policy, some difficulties arise as to the articulation, in the Member States’ legal systems, of the both national and European different sources of lois de police. The transfer of powers from Member States to the European Union, the harmonization of national legislations and the greater weight given to European reasoning and interests at the time of qualification highlight a new dimension of the internationally mandatory rules concept. Also the implementation of internationally mandatory rules is highly influenced by the European Union Law. The Member States’ obligations concerning the completing of the internal market and the removal of restrictions to changes involve a significant disturbance to this traditional PIL mechanism; a decrease in the effectiveness of internationally mandatory rules in relations between Member States may be observed. The purpose of establishing an area of freedom, security and justice within the European Union was materialized in the establishment of European private international law rules in various fields; the internationally mandatory rules method is transformed as a result of the European legislator direct intervention on his definition and regime, but also as a result of the evolution that affects other concurring private international law methods

Les règles matérielles de droit international privé sont classiquement définies comme étant des règles qui apportent une réponse sur le fond à une question de droit international privé. Elles se distinguent ainsi de la traditionnelle règle de conflit de lois neutre, abstraite et bilatérale, qui se limite, dans sa forme initiale, à la désignation de l’ordre juridique dans lequel sera puisée la règle qui apportera une réponse sur le fond au litige. Cette définition montre aujourd’hui ses limites tant les méthodes du droit international privé ont évolué. Des rapprochements se sont opérés de sorte que les frontières qui délimitaient les différentes méthodes du droit international privé sont devenues plus floues, entrainant des incertitudes quant au régime juridique de ces règles. Nous avons tenté, à travers l’étude de la physionomie des règles matérielles de droit international privé, de proposer une définition qui prenne en compte leur spécificité mais également leur variété tout en les distinguant des méthodes voisines et, en particulier, des lois de police. Cette définition nous a conduit à un classement des règles matérielles en sous-catégories et nous amène à nous orienter vers la variabilité de leur régime juridique
The material rules of private international law are classically defined as rules that provide substantive answers to a question of private international law. They are distinguished from the traditional conflict of laws rule which is neutral, abstract, bilateral and limited, in its initial form, to the designation of the applicable legal order. This definition shows its limits as the methods of private international law have evolved. Boundaries between the different methods became more unclear, leading to uncertainty as to the legal regime of the material rules. We have tried, through the study of material rules of private international law, to propose a definition that takes into account their specificity but also their variety while distinguishing them from neighboring methods and, in particular, police laws. This definition has led us to a classification of material rules and to the conclusion that their legal regime should depend of the particular subcategory they belong to

Les règles de conflit de lois n’ont pas toutes la même autorité. Les parties, et même le juge, peuvent être autorisés à passer outre à la désignation opérée par la règle de conflit. Les parties sont parfois libres d’écarter par convention la loi objectivement désignée (règles de conflit supplétives), parfois tenues par la désignation opérée, qui s’impose à elles (règles de conflit impératives). Le juge est tantôt tenu, tantôt libre de relever d’office l’internationalité du litige, et d’en déduire l’application de la règle de conflit. Le choix d’envisager ensemble des questions aussi variées peut étonner, mais c’est celui de la jurisprudence. L’autorité des règles de conflit y est définie de manière conjointe, à l’égard des parties comme du juge, à l’aune de considérations substantielles. Ainsi, parce qu’une demande en recherche de paternité relève, en droit substantiel, d’une matière d’ordre public, et qu’elle intéresse l’état des personnes, réputé indisponible, la règle de conflit qui lui est applicable sera impérative et mise en œuvre, au besoin d’office, par le juge. Inversement, si la prétention relève d’une matière largement supplétive ou vise des droits disponibles, la règle de conflit applicable sera supplétive, et le juge ne sera pas tenu de la relever d’office. Ce sont donc des considérations substantielles qui définissent, en jurisprudence, l’autorité des règles de conflit à l’égard des parties comme du juge.Cependant, ce régime n’est plus celui du droit international privé européen. D’abord, les règlements européens n’ont défini l’autorité des règles de conflit qu’à l’égard des parties, laissant à chaque Etat membre le soin de déterminer leur autorité à l’égard du juge. Ensuite, la définition européenne de l’impérativité des règles de conflit fait abstraction de toute considération substantielle, en retenant une supplétivité de principe pour l’ensemble des règles de conflit unifiées à l’échelle européenne. La jurisprudence a-t-elle raison de définir l’autorité des règles de conflits exclusivement à l’aune de considérations substantielles ? Non, car cela revient à nier que l’effet juridique des règles de conflit est imputé selon des considérations propres à la justice conflictuelle. Pour autant, on ne saurait, à l’instar du législateur européen, exclure toute considération substantielle. Le présupposé des règles de conflit vise des questions de droit substantiel. Les règles de conflit sont donc construites en contemplation de considérations substantielles. Dès lors, si ces dernières ne sauraient dicter à elles seules l’autorité des règles de conflit, on ne saurait, non plus, en faire totalement abstraction
Choice-of-law rules do not all have the same authority. The parties, and even the judge, may be allowed to override the designation made by the conflict rule. The parties are sometimes free to depart, by convention, from the designated law (suppletory choice-of-law rules), sometimes bound by the designation made (imperative choice-of-law rules). The judge is sometimes obliged, sometimes free to raise ex officio the internationality of the dispute, and to deduce from it the application of the choice-of-law rule. Considering together such varied questions may be surprising, but it is the approach adopted by French case law. The authority of choice-of-law rules is defined jointly, according to substantive considerations. As a matter of example, an affiliation proceeding is, in French substantive law, a matter of public policy regarding someone’s family status, and deemed to concern an unwaivable right. Therefore, the applicable choice-of-law rule will be imperative and applied ex officio by the judge. Conversely, if the claim falls within a largely suppletory subject matter or relates to waivable rights, the applicable choice-of-law rule will be suppletory, and the judge will not be required to apply it ex officio. Therefore, the authority of choice-of-law rules is defined, with respect to both the parties and the judge, according to substantive considerations.However, this regime is no longer that of European private international law. Firstly, the European regulations have only defined the authority of their choice-of-law rules with respect to the parties, leaving it up to each Member State to determine their authority over the judge. Secondly, the European definition of their authority over the parties disregards any substantive consideration, and retains a whole set of suppletory choice-of-law rules, regardless of the subject-matter. Is case law justified in defining the authority of choice-of-law rules solely on the basis of substantive considerations ? No, because choice-of-law rules designate the applicable law according to choice-of-law considerations. However, one cannot, like the European legislator, exclude any substantive consideration. The supposition of choice-of-law rules concerns substantive law issues. Choice-of-law rules are, thus, devised according to substantive considerations. Therefore, if these alone cannot define the authority of choice-of-law rules, they cannot be totally ignored either

Die Arbeit setzt sich mit dem neuen europäischen Anknüpfungskonzept für ausländisches Eingriffsrecht in der Rom I-VO auseinander. Im Fokus der Untersuchung steht die politisch motivierte und restriktiv ausgefallene Regelung des Art. 9 Abs. 3 Rom I-VO. Zudem widmet sich ein Teil der Untersuchung allgemein der hinter dem Eingriffsrecht – insbesondere dem Konzept des ausländischen Eingriffsrechts im IPR – stehenden Dogmatik, die aus einer dogmatisch-historischen Perspektive beleuchtet wird. Schwerpunktmäßig gilt es der Frage nachzugehen, welche Überlegungen hinter der neuen Kollisionsnorm stehen und ob die Sonderanknüpfung des Art. 9 Abs. 3 Rom I-VO einen dogmatisch geeigneten, mit der Zielsetzung der Rom I-VO vereinbaren rechtlichen Rahmen für die einheitliche kollisionsrechtliche Berufung der berücksichtigungswürdigen ausländischen Eingriffsnormen in den Mitgliedstaaten schafft.
The thesis examines the European concept of the newly defined connecting factor for foreign overriding mandatory rules in the Rome I Regulation. The central attention of the study is the analysis of the politically motivated and restrictive regulation of Art. 9 (3) of the Rome I Regulation. In addition, the first part of the study is dedicated to the examination of the general approach behind the application of foreign overriding mandatory rules in private international law from a dogmatic-historical perspective. The main focus of the thesis, however, is on the research of the considerations behind the new conflict of laws rule. The author specifically questions whether the new connecting factor defined in the Art. 9 (3) Rome I Regulation provides a worthy and sufficient legal framework for the application of foreign overriding mandatory rules.

Cette thèse vise à l'analyse de la protection des personnes vulnérables dans le droit international privé brésilien. Son objectif est, d'abord, d'identifier si les règles conflictuelles qui existent actuellement dans la Loi Introductive au Règlement du Droit Brésilienne (1942) sont ou ne sont pas suffisantes pour une protection efficace des personnes vulnérables dans les relations privées internationales, et d'autre part, se il constate une précarité dans la protection des vulnérables, d'établir une proposition de la reconstruction axiologique des règles du droit international privé brésilien pour rétablir l'égalité et le dialogue avec la Constitution Fédérale (1988). Par conséquent, la recherche est organisée en trois chapitres. Dans le premier chapitre, la crise du droit international privé brésilien est présenté sur le paradigme de la règle conflictuelle traditionnelle et sur la justice formelle, soulignant l'insuffisance de la Loi Introductive au Règlement du Droit Brésilienne (1942) à la solution des problèmes contemporains de droit international privé. Le deuxième chapitre présente la proposition d'un nouveau départ, à travers les intersections de droit international privé avec le droit privé et le droit public, en particulier en ce qui concerne la pleine efficacité des droits fondamentaux et des droits humains dans les affaires privées, à la recherche d'une justice matérielle. Dans le troisième chapitre, il est proposé une reconstruction téléologique du droit international privé, d'être guidé par des valeurs constitutionnelles. Considérant le droit international privé essentiellement un droit de différent, se trouve le principe de l'égalité et de la protection des vulnérables pour la réalisation des valeurs constitutionnelles. Enfin, deux solutions sont proposées pour surmonter la crise: d'abord, il ya la proposition d'un changement législatif, afin d'établir la règle conflictuelle avec la connexion à la loi la plus favorable aux personnes vulnérables; seconde, tandis que la modification législative ne est pas effectuée, il est proposé une interprétation systématique-téléologique de l'article 17 de la Loi Introductive au Règlement du Droit Brésilienne (1942), de fonctionner comme une clause ouverte à la réalisation des droits fondamentaux et des droits humains dans les relations privées internationales, permettant l'application de la loi la plus favorable aux personnes vulnérables comme une forme de performance positive de l'ordre public constitutionnel.
A presente tese tem por objeto a análise da proteção do vulnerável no direito internacional privado brasileiro. Seu objetivo consiste, por um lado, em identificar se as regras de conflito atualmente existentes na Lei de Introdução às Normas do Direito Brasileiro (1942) são suficientes ou não para uma proteção efetiva do vulnerável nas relações privadas internacionais, e por outro lado, em se constatando uma precariedade na proteção do vulnerável, estabelecer uma proposta de reconstrução axiológica das regras do direito internacional privado brasileiro para restabelecer a igualdade e o diálogo com a Constituição Federal (1988). Para tanto, a pesquisa está disposta em três capítulos. No primeiro capítulo, é apresentada a crise do direito internacional privado brasileiro a partir do paradigma da regra conflitual tradicional e da justiça formal, apontando-se a inadequação da Lei de Introdução às Normas do Direito Brasileiro para a solução dos problemas contemporâneos de direito internacional privado. No segundo capítulo, apresenta-se a proposta de um recomeço, a partir das intersecções do direito internacional privado com o direito privado e com o direito público, especialmente no que diz respeito à eficácia plena dos direitos fundamentais e dos direitos humanos nas relações privadas, em busca de uma justiça material. No terceiro capítulo, é proposta a reconstrução teleológica do direito internacional privado, a ser orientada pelos valores constitucionais. Sendo o direito internacional privado essencialmente um direito dos diferentes, sobressai o princípio da igualdade e a proteção dos vulneráveis como concretização dos valores constitucionais. Ao final, são propostas duas soluções para a superação da crise: primeiro, há a proposição de alteração legislativa, para que se estabeleça a regra de conflito com a conexão da lei mais favorável ao vulnerável; segundo, enquanto não é realizada a alteração legislativa, propõe-se interpretação sistemático-teleológica do artigo 17, da Lei de Introdução às Normas do Direito Brasileiro (1942), para que funcione como cláusula aberta para a concretização dos direitos fundamentais e dos direitos humanos nas relações privadas internacionais, possibilitando a aplicação da lei mais favorável ao vulnerável como forma de efetivação positiva da ordem pública constitucional.
This thesis aims at the analysis of the protection of the vulnerable in the Brazilian private international law. Its aim is, first, to identify if the conflictual rules currently existing in the Introductory Act to Brazilian Law Rules (1942) are or are not sufficient for an effective protection of the vulnerable in international private relations, and on the other hand, if finding the protection of the vulnerable precarious, to establish a proposal of axiological reconstruction of the rules of Brazilian private international law to restore equality and dialogue with the Federal Constitution (1988). Therefore, the research is arranged in three chapters. In the first chapter, the crisis of the Brazilian private international law is presented from the paradigm of traditional conflictual rule and formal justice, pointing out the inadequacy of the Introductory Act to Brazilian Law Rules (1942) to the solution of contemporary problems of private international law. The second chapter presents the proposal of a new beginning, through the intersections of private international law with private law and public law, especially with regard to the full effectiveness of fundamental rights and human rights in private affairs, in search of a material justice. In the third chapter it is proposed a teleological reconstruction of private international law, to be guided by constitutional values. Private international law being essentially a right of the different, it stands the principle of equality and the protection of the vulnerable as achievements of constitutional values. Lastly, two solutions are proposed to overcome the crisis: first, there is the proposal of a legislative change, in order to establish the conflictual rule with the connection to the most favorable law to the vulnerable; second, while the legislative amendment is not performed, it is proposed a systematic-teleological interpretation of Article 17 of the Introductory Act to Brazilian Law Rules (1942), to function as an open clause to the achievement of fundamental rights and human rights in international private relations, enabling the application of the most favorable law to the vulnerable as a form of positive performance of the constitutional public order.

Le « marché intérieur » est générateur de contrats internationaux intra et extra-européens. La multiplication de ces contrats nécessite un marché intérieur « espace de liberté, de sécurité et de justice ». Le règlement « Rome I », instrument de droit international privé communautaire, assure la liberté contractuelle et la sécurité juridique par l’élaboration de règles générales de conflit de lois. La volonté d’assurer la justice contractuelle a donné lieu pour sa part à l’élaboration de règles spéciales de conflit de lois, qui visent à protéger les contractants en situation de faiblesse sociale ou économique face à leur cocontractant partie forte. Le règlement « Rome I » a ainsi consacré des règles spéciales de conflit de lois protectrices des intérêts des travailleurs, des consommateurs, des passagers voyageant au départ ou à destination de leur pays de résidence, des preneurs d’assurance de risques de masse communautaires, ainsi que des distributeurs et des franchisés. Toutefois, le succès du marché intérieur impose de parvenir à établir un équilibre entre la justice contractuelle, la liberté contractuelle et la sécurité juridique, même dans le cadre des règles spéciales protectrices de conflit de lois. Cet équilibre ne peut être atteint que par des correctifs de proximité. Le correctif de proximité inséré dans le cadre des règles spéciales protectrices de conflit de lois participe non seulement à la fonction principale de la règle de conflit de droit, à savoir la désignation de la compétence du système juridique le plus étroitement lié au contrat, mais également à la création et au fonctionnement de ce marché intérieur espace de liberté, de sécurité et de justice
The “internal market" generates international contracts within and outside Europe. The proliferation of these contracts in fact requires an internal market established as an "area of freedom, security and justice". Regulation "Rome I", instrument of private international and European law, displays the purpose of ensuring the contractual freedom and legal security per elaborating general rules of conflict of laws. The will of the European legislator to ensure contractual justice within the internal market give rise thus, to special rules of conflict of laws that protect the contracting parties in a weak position face their co-contractor in dominant position. Regulation "Rome I" consecrates conflict of laws rules protecting the interests of certain contracting parties, that it considers that they are "weak parties"; they are the workers, the consumers, the passengers traveling to or from their country of residence, the policyholders of mass risks located on European territory, as well as distributors and franchisees. However, the success of the internal market requires achieving a balance between contractual justice, contractual freedom and legal security, even under protective special rules of conflict of laws. This balance can be achieved by correctives of proximity. The corrective of proximity inserted as part of the protective special rules of conflict of laws not only participates in the main function of the rule of law conflict, namely the designation of the competence of the legal system most closely related to the contract, but also to the establishment and operation of an internal market, area of freedom, security and justice

Celem pracy jest kompleksowa analiza i ocena przepisów Protokołu haskiego o prawie właściwym dla zobowiązań alimentacyjnych z 23 listopada 2007 r. pod kątem jego celów oraz przesłanek jego ratyfikacji przez Unię Europejską. Poprzez ratyfikację protokołu prawodawca unijny pragnął zapewnić jednolite stosowanie regulacji dotyczących statutu alimentacyjnego na jak największym obszarze. Celami protokołu są natomiast zwiększenie pewności prawnej oraz przewidywalności, a tym samym umożliwienie wierzycielom alimentacyjnym działania z pełną wiedzą o ich sytuacji i unikania problemów wynikających z różnorodności krajowych systemów prawnych, oraz sprawiedliwe wyważenie interesów wierzyciela i dłużnika alimentacyjnego poprzez przyjęcie nowej regulacji kolizyjnej. Praca opiera się na tezie, że konstrukcja postanowień protokołu haskiego nie zapewnia pełnej realizacji jego celów.
The goal of the dissertation is to scrutinise the Hague Protocol of 23 November 2007 on the Law Applicable to Maintenance Obligations with regard to its aims and the reasons for its ratification by the European Union. The EU has adopted this new international instrument to ensure consistent application of regulations on the law applicable to maintenance cases in as many states as possible. The objectives of the Hague Protocol are: (i) to improve legal certainty and predictability by creating common provisions on the law applicable to maintenance obligations and, therefore, to enable creditors to act in full knowledge of their situation, without being subject to diverse national systems, and (ii) to create fair balance between the interests of the maintenance creditors and debtors by introducing new conflict rules. The thesis is that the construction of the provisions of the Hague Protocol does not let it achieve its objectives completely.

The goal of this thesis is to analyze international license contract institute, the function and the position it occupies in the sphere of international business with incorporeal goods and legal regime which it, on the level of the Czech rule of law and European Union law, is subject to. The thesis consists of four parts. The first part focuses on the institute of contractual license in general. It outlines its conception and basic definitional framework. It reflects the function and the position which the institute of license contract occupies in the Czech rule of law as well as its shift within the framework of Czech private law recodification. It presents diverse typology of contractual license and in the process it thoroughly focuses on its modifications, respectively on marginal agreement models such as franchise agreement and know how agreement. The second part of the thesis continues with text dedicated to the institute of license contract with international element. It presents its general classification and it also analyzes sources of its modification. The third part of the thesis treats legal regime which the international license contract is subject to, and the focal point of the text lies in the union modification included in the Rome Convention and in Regulation Rome I. The problem is discussed...

Freedom of contract is one of the fundamental principles of private law. Most pronounced is the principle of contractual freedom in business contractual relationships, in which is admitted the highest degree of contractual freedom. Contractual freedom is often generally associated with the rule that what is not forbidden is allowed, ie. if the legal regulation does not prohibit any contractual arrangement, is such an arrangement allowed. This understanding of freedom of contract is very simplistic and misleading and thus in many cases incorrect. Given that freedom of contract is seen as a rule or principle, approach to it is fairly spontaneously and in search of answers to the question of legality or illegality of certain contractual arrangements, the progress is often intuitively and based on ad hoc reasoning the contractual freedom is in individual cases either accepted or rejected. One reason for this approach is the fact that there have been no more precise rules for a differentiation of non- mandatory and mandatory legal rules. Their differentiation is for the recipients of legal rules crucial because it gives an answer to the question, how far reaches their liberal sphere, in particular, if the contractual freedom is in the particular legal issue enabled or not. A lack of structure and...

The aim of the thesis is to define the cathegory of peremptory rules in private international law and to describe their specific use in the commercial domain compared to business to consumer contractual relations. The reason for my research was my concern for the conflict between the formal possibility to conclude a contract and the actual enforceability of the contractual claims before a court or before alternative dispute resolution bodies in the domain of private international law. A major part of the thesis uses an analytical approach and a grammatical, teleological and logical interpretation of the mentioned legal instruments. The final part is grounded on the legal comparation of several laws across different countries and thus demonstrating how different approaches to peremtory rules may influence the actual interpetation of various legal relations and the contractual liberty in general. The thesis is composed of four chapters and a conclusion. To begin with, the first chapter focuses on the peremptory rules in international commercial relations as a whole. It aims to define the core notion of the peremptory rules. It also reals with a personal and material scope of the thesis - the particularities of commercial relations. Furthermore, the second chapter examines the application of the...

Dissertação de Mestrado em Direito apresentada à Faculdade de Direito
O presente trabalho tem como objetivo a análise do sector empresarial do Estado angolano, com base no regime jurídico aprovado pela Lei de Bases n.º 11/13, de 3 de Setembro (RJSEP).Trata-se de uma análise perspectivada sob a óptica jurídico-empresarial, contudo, sem perder de vista os contornos jurídico-administrativos indissociáveis ao tema, por conta do interesse público ali presente. Portanto, a abordagem estará vinculada a ideia central de que toda empresa do Estado deve primar pela prossecução do interesse público, que (por rezões de eficácia e eficiência) pode e deve ser mitigado com a finalidade lucrativa inerente aos modelos de gestão empresarial do nosso tempo.O presente trabalho tem como objetivo a análise do sector empresarial do Estado angolano, com base no regime jurídico aprovado pela Lei de Bases n.º 11/13, de 3 de Setembro (RJSEP).Trata-se de uma análise perspectivada sob a óptica jurídico-empresarial, contudo, sem perder de vista os contornos jurídico-administrativos indissociáveis ao tema, por conta do interesse público ali presente. Portanto, a abordagem estará vinculada a ideia central de que toda empresa do Estado deve primar pela prossecução do interesse público, que (por rezões de eficácia e eficiência) pode e deve ser mitigado com a finalidade lucrativa inerente aos modelos de gestão empresarial do nosso tempo.O presente trabalho tem como objetivo a análise do sector empresarial do Estado angolano, com base no regime jurídico aprovado pela Lei de Bases n.º 11/13, de 3 de Setembro (RJSEP).Trata-se de uma análise perspectivada sob a óptica jurídico-empresarial, contudo, sem perder de vista os contornos jurídico-administrativos indissociáveis ao tema, por conta do interesse público ali presente. Portanto, a abordagem estará vinculada a ideia central de que toda empresa do Estado deve primar pela prossecução do interesse público, que (por rezões de eficácia e eficiência) pode e deve ser mitigado com a finalidade lucrativa inerente aos modelos de gestão empresarial do nosso tempo.O presente trabalho tem como objetivo a análise do sector empresarial do Estado angolano, com base no regime jurídico aprovado pela Lei de Bases n.º 11/13, de 3 de Setembro (RJSEP).Trata-se de uma análise perspectivada sob a óptica jurídico-empresarial, contudo, sem perder de vista os contornos jurídico-administrativos indissociáveis ao tema, por conta do interesse público ali presente. Portanto, a abordagem estará vinculada a ideia central de que toda empresa do Estado deve primar pela prossecução do interesse público, que (por rezões de eficácia e eficiência) pode e deve ser mitigado com a finalidade lucrativa inerente aos modelos de gestão empresarial do nosso tempo.
The purpose of this study is to analyze the business sector of the Angolan State, based on the legal regime approved by Bases Law no. 11/13, of September 3 (RJSEP).It is an analysis based on the legal-business perspective, however, without losing sight of the juridical and administrative contours inseparable from the subject, due to the public interest present. Therefore, the approach will be linked to the central idea that every state enterprise should excel in the pursuit of the public interest, which (for reasons of effectiveness and efficiency) can and should be mitigated with the inherent business management model of our time lucrative purpose.The purpose of this study is to analyze the business sector of the Angolan State, based on the legal regime approved by Bases Law no. 11/13, of September 3 (RJSEP).It is an analysis based on the legal-business perspective, however, without losing sight of the juridical and administrative contours inseparable from the subject, due to the public interest present. Therefore, the approach will be linked to the central idea that every state enterprise should excel in the pursuit of the public interest, which (for reasons of effectiveness and efficiency) can and should be mitigated with the inherent business management model of our time lucrative purpose.The purpose of this study is to analyze the business sector of the Angolan State, based on the legal regime approved by Bases Law no. 11/13, of September 3 (RJSEP).It is an analysis based on the legal-business perspective, however, without losing sight of the juridical and administrative contours inseparable from the subject, due to the public interest present. Therefore, the approach will be linked to the central idea that every state enterprise should excel in the pursuit of the public interest, which (for reasons of effectiveness and efficiency) can and should be mitigated with the inherent business management model of our time lucrative purpose.The purpose of this study is to analyze the business sector of the Angolan State, based on the legal regime approved by Bases Law no. 11/13, of September 3 (RJSEP).It is an analysis based on the legal-business perspective, however, without losing sight of the juridical and administrative contours inseparable from the subject, due to the public interest present. Therefore, the approach will be linked to the central idea that every state enterprise should excel in the pursuit of the public interest, which (for reasons of effectiveness and efficiency) can and should be mitigated with the inherent business management model of our time lucrative purpose.

A presente dissertação versa sobre a Lei n.º 26/2020 de 21 de julho que corresponde à transposição para o panorama nacional da Diretiva (UE) 2018/822 do Conselho que motivou a sexta alteração à Diretiva de Troca de Informações. A mesma dá lugar a um novo paradigma no que respeita à relação entre os contribuintes e a administrações tributária garantindo, paralelamente, um controlo eficaz e fomento da transparência fiscal. A dissertação centra-se no exame das respetivas características-chave e respetivas insuficiências. Em nossa opinião, tais insuficiências devem-se a motivos de ordem diversa tais como a redação errónea / insuficiente, a incompatibilidade com o DUE, na violação da certeza e segurança jurídica, a violação dos espaços de autonomia dos EMs. Por fim, a dissertação concluirá com a proposta de algumas modificações que consideramos fulcrais para um aperfeiçoamento do enquadramento jurídico atual.
This dissertation is focused on Law n.º 26/2020 21st of july, which implements in the Portuguese domestic system EU Directive 2018/822 from the Council. The latter, the sixth amendment to the Directive on mandatory automatic exchange of information in the field of taxation, introduces a new paradigm, regarding the relation between the taxpayers and tax administrations and aims to safeguard tax transparency. This dissertation studies the regime’s hallmarks and identifies several weaknesses namely the erroneous and inadequate wording; infringement of EU law requirements, and issues related to legal certainty and Member States autonomy. To conclude, there will also be a proposal on how to tackle hindrances previously identified, which in our view will improve the applicable legal framework.

L’hypothèque légale de la construction est le principal mécanisme de protection des créances des intervenants de l’industrie de la construction. Par l’adoption de ce régime, le législateur a voulu protéger l’intégrité économique de cette industrie. Par contre, l’utilisation de notions mécaniques plus ou moins efficaces dans la mise en œuvre de l’hypothèque légale, la prolifération d’outils de contournement contractuels et les mécanismes de protection des propriétaires nuisent à l’efficacité du régime légal à protéger les créances des sous-traitants. Des correctifs pourraient néanmoins être apportés pour restaurer l’équité du régime légal. Par ailleurs, lorsqu’un immeuble appartient à l’État ou l’un de ses mandataires, il devient pratiquement impossible pour un sous-traitant d’exercer ses recours hypothécaires compte tenu des privilèges et immunités dont jouissent l’État et de ses mandataires. Les biens affectés à l’utilité publique des personnes morales de droit public non-mandataires de l’État jouissent également d’une grande protection, surtout dans le domaine municipal. Ceci rend bien illusoire tout recours hypothécaire intenté par un sous-traitant malgré le fait le législateur cherchait justement, par le maintien d’un régime légal, à protéger leurs créances.
The construction hypothec is the main mechanism for the protection of the claims of every participant in the construction industry. With the adoption of this legal regime, the Quebec legislator tried to protect the economic integrity of this industry. However, the use of notions more or less efficient for the execution of this legal regime, the increase of contractual mechanisms which avoid the application of the legal regime and legal dispositions which protect the owners harm the efficiency of the legal regime to correctly protect subcontractor's claims. Nevertheless, some correctives can be found to restore the legal regime's equity. Moreover, when a immoveable is owned by the State or any of its agents, it is practically impossible for a subcontractor to exercise his hypothecary rights because of the State's privileges and immunities. The property appropriated to public utility of the legal persons established in the public interest which are not agents of the State enjoy also a strong protection, particularly in the municipal sector. In any case, it is rendering illusory the exercise by a subcontractors of any of his hypothecary rights despite the fact that the legislator's goal, by maintaining this legal regime, was precisely to protect their claims.

Disposal with an Investment Claim JUDr. Filip Černý International investment protection is very special legal discipline which stands at the borderline between public and private, international and national (domestic) law. The intersections between these legal areas produce a vast range of questions on the applicable law and the nature of the legal institutes inherent to investment protection. The legal system of investment protection is founded on a matrix consisting of bilateral and multilateral treaties and simultaneously shares some of the customary origins inherent to diplomatic protection of foreigners. The particularity of the investment protection system is given by the existence of the diagonal relations between the host state and the investor of the other state. The combination of the public international law sources and the diagonal relations developing inside the public international law matrix induce questions on the nature of such rights and obligations arising inside of the investment protection system among its actors. Author analyses these relations with an aim to determine the nature of the investment claim as a prerequisite for a volitional disposal of the investment claim by the investor.

Esta dissertação procura refletir sobre o processo orçamental nas suas fases mais determi-nantes. Inicialmente procede-se a uma apresentação de conceitos que é posteriormente com-pletada com a exposição das experiências reais num número relevante de países. Esta análi-se teórica, completada com práticas orçamentais, permitirá formar uma ideia mais sólida sobre a realidade. A comparação de diferentes realidades normativas, socioculturais, económicas, financeiras e políticas solidifica esta análise. A investigação tem como objetivo aprender com diferentes práticas procurando arrolar o que está em maior dissonância com a realidade portuguesa. Estas diferenças encontradas podem vir a ser objeto de projetos de melhoria na procura de um sistema orçamental mais resiliente. O presente trabalho estrutura-se em três capítulos. No primeiro capítulo apresenta-se o caráter específico e o enquadramento legal da Administração Pública, assim como os mais importantes modelos teóricos de organização das administrações públicas e as origens do Orçamento do Estado usando, para tal, uma explanação bibliográfica. O segundo capítulo descreve e apresenta os principais conceitos sobre os temas e as diversas fases do orçamen-to do Estado. Por fim, o terceiro capítulo apresenta os dados sobre os processos orçamentais dos países da OCDE, com referência a 2012, com base na “International Budget Practices and Procedures Database” que permite a comparação entre as práticas dos países, salientan-do especificamente o caso português.
This dissertation seeks to reflect on the budgetary process and its most crucial stages. Firstly, there is a presentation of concepts that is further completed with the presentation of the current experiences in a relevant number of countries. This theoretical analysis, supplemented with budgetary practices will form a solid idea about the reality. The comparison of different regula-tory, socio-cultural, economic, financial and political realities solidifies the analysis. The investigation aims to learn from different practices looking for what is in greater disso-nance with the Portuguese reality. These differences may be a subject of improvement in search of a more resilient budgetary system. The present paper is structured in three chapters. The first chapter presents the specific characteristics and the legal framework of the public administration, as well as the most im-portant theoretical models of public management and the origins of the budget for the public sector. For this purpose it was used an explanation essay. The second chapter presents and describes the main concepts about the different stages of the budget of the public sector. Fi-nally, the third chapter presents data about the budgetary techniques in OECD countries, with reference to 2012, based on "International Budget Practices and Procedures Database" which allows the comparison between the practices of the countries, with a special emphasis on the Portuguese case.

Przedmiotem rozprawy doktorskiej jest zagadnienie swobody kształtowania treści umowy spółki z o.o. Doktryna nie wypracowała dotąd jasnych wskazówek interpretacyjnych, które pozwoliłyby rozstrzygnąć w spójny sposób o dopuszczalności umieszczania określonych postanowień w umowie spółki z o.o. Konsekwencją tego są spory dotyczące licznych zagadnień szczegółowych. Prowadzi to do niejednolitej praktyki sądów rejestrowych, co jest zjawiskiem niepożądanym, powoduje bowiem brak pewności co do rozstrzygnięć sądowych.W tych uwarunkowaniach konieczne było, po pierwsze, ustalenie treści dyrektyw interpretacyjnych, przy pomocy których należy oceniać dopuszczalność zamieszczenia w umowie spółki z o.o. konkretnych postanowień oraz, po drugie, ustalenie właściwego sposobu pojmowania kryteriów ograniczających swobodę kształtowania treści umowy spółki z o.o. Analiza obu tych kwestii umożliwiła z kolei odpowiedź na pytanie, czy stosowana wdoktrynie i orzecznictwie wykładnia przepisów nie zawęża nadmiernie autonomii woli wspólników.Pracę podzielono na trzy części. Analiza przeprowadzona w pierwszej części pracy doprowadziła do wniosku, że spółka z o.o. stanowi szczególnego rodzaju stosunek zobowiązaniowy. W związku z tym spółkę z o.o. należy postrzegać przez pryzmat zasady swobody umów – wspólnicy powinni mieć możliwość swobodnego dostosowywania kształtu instytucji spółki z o.o. do własnych potrzeb, tak długo, jak realizacja ich autonomii woli nie narusza szeroko pojętego bezpieczeństwa obrotu. Podstawę ustalania zakresu swobody kształtowania treści umowy spółki z o.o. w zakresie pozostawionych przez ustawodawcę luzów decyzyjnych, tj. w odniesieniu do postanowień zmieniających treść ustawy oraz postanowień dodatkowych stanowi więc art. 3531 k.c. Jednak ze sposobu sformułowania przepisów oraz aksjologii prawa spółek odkodowanej z całokształtu regulacji spółki z o.o. wynika konieczność przyjęcia – inaczej niż w prawie zobowiązań – wstępnego domniemania imperatywnego charakteru norm prawnych. Ponadto analiza dotycząca charakteru prawnego spółki z o.o. doprowadziła do sformułowania uwag de lege ferenda – w niektórych przypadkach regulacja spółki z o.o. nadmiernie ogranicza swobodę umów.W drugiej części pracy zostały omówione kryteria delimitujące swobodę kształtowania treści umowy spółki z o.o.: zasady współżycia społecznego, natura stosunku spółki z o.o. i ustawa. Z analizy wynika, że w procesie definiowania tych kryteriów należy poszukiwać rozwiązań w jak największym stopniu uwzgledniających zasadę swobody umów – dotyczy to m.in. sposobu pojmowania kryterium natury spółki.W trzeciej części dysertacji zilustrowano, jak tezy zaprezentowane w poprzednich częściach pracy wpływają na ocenę dopuszczalności umieszczenia w umowie spółki z o.o. konkretnych postanowień. W tej części rozprawy odwołano się również do poglądów doktryny niemieckiej, która uznaje dość szeroki zakres swobody umów w spółce z o.o. Powyższe spostrzeżenie powinno stanowić asumpt do podjęcia dyskusji nad zasadnością zawężania swobody umów w polskiej spółce z o.o. Pomimo ogólnych deklaracji o obowiązywaniu w spółce z o.o. zasady swobody umów, polska doktryna często opowiada się przeciwko dopuszczalności konkretnych postanowień umowy spółki z o.o. w sytuacjach, gdy wydaje się, że w świetle zasady swobody umów zasadne byłoby przyznanie wspólnikom swobody kształtowania treści umowy spółki.
This doctoral dissertation focuses on the freedom of determination of the contents of articles of association of a Polish spółka z o.o. So far, the doctrine has not developed unambiguous interpretative guidelines that would make it possible to consistently decide the issue of admissibility of introducing certain provisions in articles of association of spółka z o.o. This gives rise to disputes on a number of specific issues. This leads to the inconsistent approach taken by registry courts, which is an undesirable phenomenon, as it gives rise to uncertainty as to court decisions.In such circumstances, it was necessary, first, to determine the content of the interpretative directives which should be used for evaluating the admissibility of introducing certain provisions in the articles of association of spółka z o.o. and, secondly, to determine the proper understanding of the criteria restricting the freedom of determination of the content of articles of association of spółka z o.o. The analysis of these two issues has, in turn, made it possible to answer the question of whether the interpretation of the provisions applied by the doctrine and courts does not excessively restrict the autonomy of shareholders’ will.The dissertation has been divided into three parts. The analysis carried out in the first part has led to the conclusion that spółka z o.o. creates an obligation of a specific type. Accordingly, spółka z o.o. should be seen through the prism of the principle of freedom of contract, i.e. shareholders should be able to freely adjust the structure of spółka z o.o. to their purposes, so long as the exercise of their autonomy of will does not prejudice broadly understood security of transactions. Therefore, the determination of the scope of freedom of determination of the contents of articles of association of spółka z o.o. within the leewaygranted by the legislator, i.e. with respect to the provisions amending the legal norms and additional provisions, is based on Article 3531 of the Polish Civil Code. However, it results from the way of drafting the legal provisions and the axiology of company law decoded from all provisions governing spółka z o.o. that, unlike in the contract law, legal norms must be presumed to be mandatory. In addition, the analysis of the legal nature of spółka z o.o has led to the formulation of comments de lege ferenda – in some cases the provisions governing spółka z o.o excessively restrict the freedom of contract.The second part of the dissertation discusses the criteria delimiting the freedom of determination of the contents of articles of association of spółka z o.o, such as principles of community life, nature of the spółka z o.o. relationship and relevant acts. The analysis reveals that, when determining such criteria, solutions taking into account, as much as possible, the principle of freedom of contract should be sought. This applies, among others, to the understanding of the criterion of the nature of a company.The third part of the dissertation illustrates how the theses put forward in the previous parts affect the evaluation of admissibility of introducing certain provisions in the articles of association of spółka z o.o. That part of the dissertation also refers to the views presented in the German doctrine which allows for a fairly broad freedom of contract in spółka z o.o. The above observation should serve as a cornerstone for discussion whether or not it is reasonable to restrict the freedom of contract in a Polish spółka z o.o. Despite general declarations that the principle of freedom of contract is applicable in spółka z o.o., the Polish doctrine often puts forward arguments against the admissibility of introducing certain provisions in the articles of association of spółka z o.o. where, in the light of the principle of freedom of contract, it would be reasonable to allow shareholders to freely determine the contents of articles of association.

Przedmiotem dysertacji jest analiza zagadnień związanych ze swobodą umów stron stosunku pracy przy kształtowaniu jego treści. Obecny kształt swobody umów stron stosunku pracy przy kształtowaniu jego treści powstał w zasadniczych zrębach w momencie wprowadzania Kodeksu pracy, w innych uwarunkowaniach ustrojowych, społecznych i gospodarczych. Zmiany, jakie dokonały się w tym czasie, mają charakter fundamentalny, co stwarza nową przestrzeń dla dyskusji o swobodzie umów w prawie pracy. W tej perspektywie sformułowano cztery główne pytania badawcze. Pierwsze pytanie dotyczyło ustalenia charakteru prawnego stosunku pracy i jego związku z prawem publicznym oraz prywatnym. Kolejne pytanie dotyczyło ustalenia normatywnych podstaw obowiązywania zasady swobody umów w indywidualnym prawie pracy oraz mechanizmu jej funkcjonowania. W następnej kolejności postawiono pytanie o zakres swobody umów w odniesieniu do poszczególnych elementów treści stosunku pracy. Wreszcie, czwarte pytanie dotyczyło ustalenia, czy zasada swobody umów powinna zostać uznana za kierunkową zasadę prawa pracy. Niezależnie od problemów badawczych, kompleksowa analiza swobody umów stron stosunku pracy przy kształtowaniu jego treści miała także na celu uporządkowanie materiału normatywnego dotyczącego tej problematyki. Przeprowadzona analiza doprowadziła do sformułowania następujących wniosków. Po pierwsze, jakkolwiek nie jest możliwe całościowe zakwalifikowanie prawa pracy wyłącznie do prawa publicznego bądź prywatnego, powyższy wniosek nie dotyczy stosunku pracy, który jest stosunkiem zobowiązaniowym (pomimo, iż zawiera elementy ingerencji publicznej). Po drugie, granice swobody umów przy kształtowaniu treści stosunku pracy częściowo określone zostały w sposób odmienny, niż w prawie cywilnym, chociaż z wykorzystaniem mechanizmów cywilistycznych. Swoboda, przysługuje stronom także w obszarze tzw. ochrony pracy, chociaż jest ona znacznie bardziej ograniczona. Po trzecie, pomimo iż podstawę obowiązywania swobody umów przy kształtowaniu treści stosunku pracy stanowi art. 3531 k.c. w związku z art. 300 k.p., zasada swobody umów w jej cywilistycznym wydaniu nie stanowi zasady kierunkowej w obszarze kształtowania treści stosunku pracy, w którym swoboda została przyznana w zakresie, jaki jest konieczny do efektywnej realizacji stosunku pracy lub nie zagraża równości stron stosunku pracy i godności pracownika i w którym obecna jest ingerencja państwa w zakresie, jaki jest uzasadniony ochroną równości stron stosunku pracy i godności pracownika. Dysertacja została podzielona na cztery części obejmujących osiem rozdziałów. W części pierwszej (Rozdziały I i II) przedstawiono proces historyczny, w trakcie którego doszło do wyodrębnienia prawa pracy jako samodzielnej gałęzi prawnej, zakres przedmiotowy pojęcia stosunek pracy oraz źródła kształtowania jego treści. Druga część pracy (Rozdział III) została poświęcona przedstawieniu zakresu swobody umów w zobowiązaniowym stosunku prawa cywilnego oraz ukazaniu tła aksjologicznego i normatywnego, uzasadniającego obowiązywanie zasady swobody umów. Zasadniczą treść dysertacji zawarto w trzeciej części (Rozdziały IV – VII), w której dokonano kompleksowej analizy norm prawnych dotyczących swobody umów. Rozważania teoretyczne zawarte w pierwszych trzech częściach pracy zostały w części czwartej (Rozdział VIII) wykorzystane do praktycznej analizy poszczególnych elementów treści stosunku pracy. Dopełnieniem pracy jest zakończenie, w którym zawarto syntetyczne podsumowanie i wnioski szczegółowe. W pracy posłużono się historyczną oraz formalno – dogmatyczną metodą badawczą, a ich wybór został podyktowany celami dysertacji.
The subject of the dissertation is the analysis of issues related to the freedom of contract of parties to an employment contract. The basic framework of the current scope of the freedom of contract of parties to an employment contract to shape its content was created when the Labor Code was introduced, in different political, social and economic conditions. There have been fundamental changes since then creating a new background for discussions on the freedom of contract in employment law. Therefore, four main research questions were formulated. The first question pertains to determination of the legal nature of an employment contract and its connections with public and private law. The second question concerns determination of the normative basis for the principle of freedom of contract in individual employment law and its functioning mechanism. Next, a question was raised about the scope of the freedom of contract in respect of particular elements of the employment relationship. Finally, a fourth question was posed to determine whether the principle of freedom of contract should be recognized as a guiding principle of employment law. Despite research problems, a comprehensive analysis was also aimed at organizing the normative material related to this problem. The analysis led to the following conclusions. Firstly, although it is not possible to generally classify employment law as exclusively private or public law, the same does not apply to the employment relationship, which is a contractual relationship (although it includes elements of public intervention). Secondly, the limitations of the freedom of contract in shaping the content of an employment relationship were partly determined differently than in civil law, although with the use of civil law mechanisms. The freedom of contract applies also in the area of so called employment protection. However, it is more limited in this area. Thirdly, although art. 3531 of the Civil Code in connection with art. 300 of the Labour Code constitutes the legal basis for the freedom of contract of parties to an employment relationship to shape its content, the principle of freedom of contract in its civil meaning does not constitute a guiding principle in the area of shaping the content of an employment relationship where freedom has been granted in the scope which is necessary to effectively realize an employment relationship or does not jeopardize the equality of the parties and employee’s dignity and where the public interference is present in the scope which is justified to protect the equality of the parties to an employment contract and employee’s dignity. The dissertation has been divided into four parts covering eight chapters. The first part (Chapters I and II) presents the historical process during which employment law was separated as an independent branch of law, the material scope of the concept of an employment relationship and the sources of shaping its content. The second part (Chapters III) presents the scope of the freedom of contract in contractual civil law relationships as well as the axiological and normative background justifying application of the principle of freedom of contract. The main content of dissertation is contained in third part (Chapters IV – VII), which provides a comprehensive analysis of the legal norms concerning the freedom of contract. The theoretical considerations contained in the first three parts of the work are used in the fourth part (Chapter VIII) to perform a practical analysis of particular elements of the content of an employment relationship. The dissertation ends with a synthetic summary. In the dissertation, a historical and formal-dogmatic method of research was used. Their choice was justified by the purposes of the dissertation.